HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Importance of Road Transportation

 Road transport is quicker, more convenient and reliable
 It is particularly more suitable for short distance travel for movement of goods
 It gives easy access to hilly areas and remote areas
 Road transfer provides more flexibility to the traffic
 Operational costs are less compared to rail transport
 Road transport provides flexibility for the road users to change from one vehicle to
other or to deviate to other routes.
Recommendations of Jayakar Committee Report
A committee was appointed by the chambers of Indian Legislature in 1927 to examine and
report on the road development in India, known as Jayakar Committee. The important
recommendations of Jayakar Committee are
 The road development in the country should be considered as national interest.
 To levy extra tax on petrol to develop a fund called Central Road Fund
 A semi-official technical body should be formed to gather technical knowhow
 A research organisation should be instituted to carry out research and development on
road projects.
Based on the recommendations of Jayakar Committee, I R C ( Indian Road Congress), a
Central Govt. semi official technical body was formed in 1934. IRC prepares standard
specifications and publish codes and journals for roads and bridges.
Road Development Plans in India
Nagpur Road Conference and First Road Development Plan (1943-1963)
 A conference of Chief Engineers was convened at Nagpur in 1943
 Planned the road development in India for 20 years
 The target length of road was aimed at 16 km per 100 sq km
 Roads were also classified on administrative basis.
Second Road Development Plan (1961-81)
 The target length of road aimed for the next 20 year road plan was 32km per 100 sq.
km
 Central Research Institute was started at New Delhi in 1950. This institute advises the
State and Central Governments and industries on various problems concerning roads.
Third Road Development Plan (1981-2001)
 Also known as the Lucknow Road Plan was finalized and the plan document was
published by the year 1984
 The future development of the road plan was to be based on the revised classification
of roads as primary, secondary and tertiary road systems.
  The road network should be developed to preserve the rural economy and to develop
small towns.
 The road density should be increased to 82km per 100 sq.m.
 The National Highway network should be expanded so that no parts of the country is
more than 50km away from a N H
 Expressways should be constructed to provide fast travel.
 All towns and villages with population over 1500 should be connected with major
district roads.
 Long term master plans for road development should be provided.
 Existing roads should be improved by correcting the defects in road geometrics and
widening the road .
 There should be improvement in environmental quality and road safety.
IRC Classification of Roads
As per Nagpur Plan, Roads are classified as
1. National Highways- These are the important roads of the country and they connect state
capitals, ports, foreign highways, military important areas, large industrial and tourist
centres. They are financed by the central government.
2. State Highways-They are the important roads of a state. They connect important cities
and district headquarters in the state, national highways and state highways of
neighbouring states. They are financed by the state government.
3. District Roads- These are roads within a district. They are classified as
a. Major District Roads- These roads connect district head quarters, taluk
headquartersand other important towns in the district, production and market
centres with each other and with state and National Highways
b. Other District Roads- are district roads of less importance
4. Village Roads- They connect villages with each other and with nearest district roads.
Major NH in Kerala
Sl NH Length (km)
No
1 NH17 Kerala-Karnataka Border, Manjeswar, Kumbla-Kasargod 368
Paniyal-Mordrug, Talipparamba, Pappinisseri-
Valappatttanm, Kannur, Vadakara-Quilandi-Elattur-
Kozhikode, Feroke, Valancheri, Kodungallur, Paravoor,
Edappally
2 NH47 Kerala Tamil Nadu Border –Palakkad-Alattur- 418
Vadakkancheri-Palakkad-Tricur-Angamali-Chavara-Aluva-
Edappalii-Ernakulam
3 47A Willington Island-Terminating at Cochin on NH-17 by pass 6
4 49 Kerala-Tamilnadu Border-Devikulam, Pallavangal, 150
Kothamangalam, Cochin
5 208 Kollam-Kottarakkara-Tenmalai up to Tamilnadu border 70
6 212 Kozhikode-Kalpatta, Sultanbattery up to Karnataka border 90
7 213 Palghat-Olavakod-Mundur-Mannarkkad-Alanallur- 130
Melattur-Pandikkad, Manjeri-Kondotty-Ferokh
 8 220 Kollam-Kottarakara-Adoor-Kottayam-Kanjirappalli- 210
Vandiperiyar
9 47C NH 17 & NH 47 near Kalamassery crossing 17

Highway Planning
Highway Planning includes
 Assessment of road length required for an area. This includes district, state or whole
country
 Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of plan in year plan or five year plan
Planning Surveys- The field surveys that are required for collecting the factual data for
assessing the road length requirement are called planning surveys. Planning surveys consists
of
1. Economic Studies-The details to be collected in economic studies
 Population of each village, town or other locality in which the road is planned
 Trend of population growth
 Industrial products and agricultural products in classified groups area wise and
developments in these sectors
 Existing communication and education facilities
2. Financial Studies-which include
 Sources of income and revenue from taxation on road transport
 Standards of living
 Toll taxes, vehicle registrations and resources at local level
 Future developments in financial aspects
3. Traffic Studies- which includes
 Volume of traffic in vehicles per hour annual average daily traffic , peak and
design hourly traffic volume
 Origin and Destination studies
 Traffic flow patterns
 Mass transportation facilities
 Accidents- their cost analysis and causes.
 Future trend and growth in traffic volume and goods traffic
 Growth of passenger trips and the trend in the choice of mode
4. Engineering studies-which includes
 Topographic surveys
 Soil surveys
 Location and classification of existing roads
 Possible developments in all aspects due to the proposed highway
 Road life studies
 Special problems in drainage construction and maintenance of roads
Preparation of plans- The information collected during the field surveys should be presented
in the form of plans which include
Plan-1-General area plan showing existing details-Topography, Road network, Drainage
structure, rivers, canals, towns and villages, with the population. Agricultural, commercial and
industrial activities should be drawn in map
Plan-II- The distribution of population groups in accordance with the categories
Plan III-Locations of places with their respective quantities of productivity
Plan IV- In this plan the existing road network with traffic flow and lines obtained from origin
and destination studies of traffic, should be shown and proposals received may also be shown.
Highway Alignment-The position or layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is
called the alignment. A new road should be aligned carefully so as to reduce the overall cost
of the road project and to reduce the accident rate.
Factors controlling the road alignment
 The alignment should be as short and straight as possible
 It should connect as many places as possible
 It should give easy gradients and smooth curves
 Number of bridges and culverts should be less
 The alignment should preferably be on high ground ensuring natural drainage of water
 It should avoid marshy place, religious place and monuments of historical importance
 Earthwork should be minimum
 It should avoid forests as possible
 Materials of construction should be available nearby
 Traffic, economy, geometric design should also be considered.
Obligatory points
These are the controlling points governing the alignment of highways.
Obligatory points through which alignment should pass
The obligatory points through which the alignment has to pass may cause the alignment to
often deviate from the shortest route or easiest route.
These points include
1. Two terminal points- When two terminal points are to be connected, it may be necessary
, it to deviate from the shortest route.
2. Towns-When the alignment has to pass through intermediate towns, the alignment has
to be deviated from the shortest route
3. Bridges- When a road bridge is to be constructed across a river, it is to be constructed
at a place where the river has a straight and permanent path
4. Railway crossings- When the road has to cross a level crossing, the alignment should
suit the right position of level crossing.
5. Mountain pass-When it is necessary to cross a hill, it may be necessary to cut a tunnel
or to go round the hills.
Obligatory points through which alignment should not pass
 Religious places like temples, mosques and churches
 Very costly structures
 Graveyards
 Lakes, pond or valley
Engineering surveys for Highway alignment
The four stages of engineering surveys required for finalising the highway alignment
1. Map Study- Study of topographic maps helps to find the possible routes of the road. In
India topographic maps are available from the survey of India. The main features like
rivers, valleys, hills etc. are also shown on these maps.
2. Reconnaissance –During the survey, the physical characteristics of the area are
inspected with simple instruments like abney level, pocket compass and the proposed
route is thoroughly examined. The objects of reconnaissance are
 To study the feasibility of the proposed route
 To study the type of obstructions along the route like valleys, ponds etc.
 To study the number of cross drainage works, maximum flood level, ground
water level etc.
 To study the type of soil and geological features
 To draft a report regarding the nature of the area, availability of materials,
transportation facilities, anticipated traffic.
3. Preliminary survey-It consist of a detailed survey of the alternative routes selected after
reconnaissance. It is done by using chain, compass, tape, level or theodolite. The main
objectives of preliminary survey are
 To select the best route by surveying various proposed alignments
 To collect necessary information regarding soil, topography and drainage
 To finalise the best alignment and to determine the centre line to be followed
 To estimate the approximate quantity of earthwork and other construction
materials to work out the cost of alternative routes.
The information to be collected in preliminary survey include
1. Ground levels
2. Existing Buildings along the proposed alignment.
3. Fences, Walls and Boundary lines
4. All roads , rail crossings
5. Existing drainages and natural water sources.
6. Extent of cultivated area
7. Soil particulars
4. Final Location and Detailed Survey- The alignment which is finalised after the
preliminary survey is to be located on the field by establishing the centre line. The
centre line should be marked accurately with instruments. The objects of final survey
are
 To locate the centre line on the ground and establish temporary bench marks
  To collect information required for preparing working drawings, estimates,
design of road and bridges, specifications, land acquisition, total cost of the
project and detailed report of the project.
Survey operations to be performed for the road project
 The centre line to be established in the field in correspondence to the line finalised in
preliminary survey and should be done using theodolite or using any other instrument
 Temporary bench marks are to be fixed at an interval of 300m.
 Cross sections are taken at intervals of 30m or at closer intervals where required.
 River crossings should be surveyed up to maximum distance on either side of centre
line
 Detailed survey of soil is required to draw the soil profile.
 Horizontal and vertical curves are to be provided at appropriate places in alignment.
Plan And Documents to be prepared for the road project
1. Key map-It includes the location of proposed road, important towns, existing roads,
railway, streams and other topographical features.
2. Index map-It shows the alignment, existing communications, natural drainage lines etc.
3. Preliminary survey plan-It shows the details of various alignments and it should be
drawn to a scale of 1mm=10m to 1mm=4m.
4. Detailed Plans-It shows the ground plan with alignment and boundaries. It also includes
property lines, village boundaries, reduced levels of benchmark, right of way and
reduced centre line of road, nature of soil, location of culverts and bridges.
5. Longitudinal sections-These should be drawn to the same horizontal scale of the ground
as in detailed plan. Vertical scale may be enlarged 10 times the longitudinal scale. The
longitudinal section should show the vertical profile of the proposed road and position
of drainage crossings
6. Detailed cross sections-Cross sections should be drawn at every 30m and are drawn to
a scale of 1mm=0.20 to 0.25m. In hilly areas, cross sections should be drawn at closer
intervals.
7. Detailed drawings for bridges and culverts- The plan and sections should give full
details of the structure.
8. Drawings for buildings
9. Land plans for quarries- should show where quarries for construction materials are to
be acquired.
10. Land acquisition plans
11. Draft specifications-regarding the construction of roads, bridges and road materials
12. Detailed estimates-for the road projects
13. General report-giving the details for road project, feasibility of the project, cost of the
project and time required to complete the project.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Traffic Engineering deals with the regulation, direction and control of vehicular and pedestrian
traffic on road so as to ensure free and safe use of road.
Objects of Traffic Engineering
 To have smooth and easy flow of traffic at intersections
 To solve traffic problems
 To arrange rapid, safe and economic transport of persons and goods
 To improve the speed of traffic
 To improve traffic carrying capacity of roads
 To reduce traffic congestion
Traffic Studies/ Traffic Survey
Traffic Surveys are carried out to analyse the traffic characteristics. These studies help in
deciding the geometric features of road and traffic control for safe traffic movements.. The
traffic studies are also called traffic census.
Objectives of traffic surveys
 To find the reasons for road accidents and take corrective measures
 To suggest improvements for road carrying capacity
 To collect data for geometric design of roads.
 To find nature of traffic at present and to forecast future traffic trends.
 To determine parking facilities
 To suggest speed control measures
Types of traffic surveys
1. Traffic volume study- Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of a
road per unit time at a particular period. Traffic volume can be counted by manual or
automatic counters. The type and number of vehicles and direction of travel are also to
be counted. The counting should be done on hourly basis and peak hour traffic should
also be noted.
Purpose of traffic volume study
 Road planning, Road designing, Studies of accidents, Regulation and Control
of traffic
2. Spot speed studies-Spot speed is the speed of vehicle at an instant at a specified
direction. Average speed is the average of spots of all vehicles passing a given point on
a highway. Speed of the vehicle depends on driver’s behaviour, traffic conditions,
enforcement of traffic laws, weather conditions, road geometrics etc.
Objectives of speed study
 To decide the speed trends
 To collect data for planning traffic control
 To analyse road accidents
 To collect data for changes to be made geometric design of existing roads
3. Delay Studies- are surveys carried out to study the delay or time lost by traffic during
the travel period.
 4. Origin and Destination Studies- O & D studies of vehicular traffic determines the
number, origin and destination of traffic in each area under study. The purpose of each
trip, number of passengers travelling in each trip are also to be noted.
Purpose of O D surveys
 To decide the location of new roads
 To regulate the movement of heavy vehicles
 To establish preferential routes for different categories of vehicles like two
wheelers, four wheelers etc.
 To decide about one way traffic
 To decide the location for parking places.
 To regulate the movement of slow moving vehicles
5. Traffic Intensity Studies- Traffic Intensity studies include traffic density studies. Traffic
Volume is the number of vehicles/hour or vehicles/day moving in a specific direction.
Traffic density is the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of a lane of roadway
at a given instant. Traffic capacity is the ability of roadway to accommodate traffic
volume. Traffic capacity studies needs to evaluate basic capacity, possible capacity and
design capacity.
6. Parking studies-In parking studies, we investigate parking demand, parking
characteristics, parking space inventory.
Parking demand= accumulation of vehicles during peak hours minus outgoing traffic
Parking characteristic- Study of parking patterns
Parking space inventory-The area for parking is to be surveyed and a map is prepared
showing parking spaces
7. Accident studies-Investigations carried out in accident survey are
 Type of vehicles involved in the accidents and cost of accident
 Reason, date, location and time of accident
 Road and traffic conditions at accident site.
Road Junctions or Road Intersections
Road junctions are places where two or more roads meet or cross each other at different angles
Points to be kept in mind while planning & designing road junctions
 The junction should be as far as possible at right angles
 Proper visibility should be provided
 Proper pedestrian crossing should be provided
 Rotary islands should be provided when more than three roads meet or cross.
Classification of Intersections
1. Square Intersections- When two roads meet or cross each other at right angles which are
having equal width.
2. Acute Junctions-These are the junctions where two main roads meet or cross each other and
angle other than right angle.
3. T-junctions-There are a main road meets a branch road at right angles
4. Y-junctions- When two roads meet at an angle other than a right angle or when a main road
meets a branch road at an angle other than right angle
5. Staggered Junction- When two roads meet another road on either sides at right angles
6. Multiple Junction – When more than two roads meet, the junction is known as multiple
junction

Grade Separated Intersections

A grade separated intersection is the arrangement of taking one road over the other by means
of a bridge. It is also known as fly over junction. There is no physical connection between two
separated roadways
Interchange is a grade separation having the facility to traffic to pass from one intersecting road
to another. The connection is done by means of ramps.
Types of Interchanges
1. Rotary Interchange- This type of road interchanges has grade separations with a traffic
circle. The traffic circle functions as a collector and distributor of traffic.
 2. Delta or three way interchange- Three way interchanges are in the shape of trumpet or
Y or Delta interchanges.
3. Diamond Interchange- This can be used in minor roads when a heavily travelled road
is crossed by a lightly travelled road. The diamond design is the simplest form of all
movements interchange. It has four one way ramps
4. Clover leaf interchange- In this type of grade separators right hand movements are
eliminated. This will avoid major source of accidents. To meet the increasing demands
of traffic, the radii of loop ramps are to be increased which increases the clover leaf
area.

Traffic Islands
Traffic Islands are provided to channelize the traffic when two roads cross at right angles or
at acute angles. It can be provided with raised kerbs. The vehicles are compelled to move
around the island in one direction. The traffic islands may be rotary islands or round abouts,
channelizing islands, pedestrian islands and divisional islands.
Types of rotary islands
1. Circular 2. Elliptical 3. Rhombus 4. Turbine 5. Tangent shape
1. Circular Island – is the best type of island. It is suitable where two roads of equal
importance and width intersect.
2. Elliptical Island- This is used where the traffic of one road is more than the other.
3. Rhombus Island – It is similar to elliptical island.
4. Turbine Island- In this type of island, the traffic is forced to slow down while entering
the rotary as it has to take a left hand turn. During leaving, it has a tangential exit.
5. Tangent Island- In this type of island, more than two roads enter a rotary and leave it
tangentially.
 Channelizing Islands- are provided for guiding channel into proper. They are designed to
control and direct traffic movement. Channelization is particularly helpful at streets
intersecting at oblique angles, at 3-leg junctions, and at multi leg intersections. It serve as
location for other traffic control devices, refuge islands for pedestrians. Size and shape of
the island depends upon the layout and dimensions of intersection

Pedestrian Islands-Pedestrian islands are provided to serve and protect the pedestrians or
persons on foot. Since pedestrians can take a refuge in these islands while crossing a wide or a
busy road, it is also called refuge islands
PAVEMENT MARKINGS
Pavement markings can be in the form of painted lines, kerbs, reflectors or sides of islands or
symbols
1. Painted Pavement Markings- They are generally marked with white paint. But to
indicate parking restrictions, yellow colour markings can also be made. Longitudinal
solid lines are regulating lines and not meant to be crossed by the driver. Transverse
solid lines indicate stop lines for vehicular traffic.
Centre lines – are drawn to separate opposite streams of traffic. On four lane or six lane
roads, two solid parallel lines of 0.1m width and a space of 0.05-0.1m in between are
painted.
Lane lines- are drawn to divide the traffic lanes.
Turn markings- used near intersections to mark the turning to different directions.
Cross walk lines- where pedestrians are to cross the road
No passing zone markings- to indicate overtaking is prohibited.
Parking space markings- Required to indicate proper utilisation of parking facility.
2. Kerb Markings- A kerb is a raised edge of a pavement which separates it from the road.
The markings on the kerb and edges of islands with alternate black and white lines
increases the visibility.
3. Medians-Median is the portion of road way separating opposite directions of the road
way. Medians can be depressed, raised or flush with the road. Raised medians and
 islands provide safety for pedestrian traffic, traffic controlling, landscaping and storm
water management. It also reduces the danger of head on collisions
4. Reflection Markings- Reflector markings are used as hazard markers and guide markers
for safe driving during night.
TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Explain the different types of traffic signs with sketches
SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight distance – It is the length of the road ahead that is clearly visible to the drivers on
curves. It is measured along a line which touches the curve at a point between the driver
and the obstacle. In case of vertical curves, the line of sight of driver is taken to be at a
height of 1.2m above the road whereas the height of stationary obstacle is taken to be at a
height of 100mm above the road.
Stopping Sight Distance
It is the distance required to stop the vehicle after the driver sees a danger on the road. It
depends on 1. Speed 2. Reaction distance time of the driver 3. Braking distance 4.
Coefficient of friction
Stopping sight distance= distance travelled during the reaction time of the driver + the
braking distance.
The average reaction time is 2.5 seconds and the braking distance is given by V2/ 254f,
where V is the speed of vehicle, f ‘The coefficient of friction.
Stopping sight distance= vt + V2/ 2gf
Stopping sight distance depends on
1. The distance travelled during perception and brake reaction time
2. The distance travelled during the time brakes are applied
Overtaking sight distance
The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the opposite
direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the center
line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the
top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface
NEXT
MODULE II
HIGHWAY GEOMETRICS & HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
Highway Geometrics
Road geometrics is influenced by topography, locality and traffic characteristics and requirements.
The factors which control design requirements are speed, road user and vehicular characteristics
Component parts of a road structure
The component parts of a road structure include
1. Subgrade-It is the ground or soil on which the road rests. It should have sufficient strength
and good drainage facilities. Functions of subgrade are
 To support the road structure
 To form a bed for road to lay the overlying courses
2. Sub base course- It is a layer of cheap material like gravel, rubble or stabilised soil and it is
placed between subgrade and base course. Functions of sub base course are
 To protect the subgrade
 To reduce the load intensity on subgrade
 To provide good drainage
 To protect the base course and wearing course from swelling, shrinkage, settlement
etc.
3. Base course- It is the layer below the wearing course. It is made of good materials like broken
stone and are well compacted. The basic functions are
 To support the wearing course
 To bear the loads of traffic
 To increase the structural strength of roads
 To reduce the load intensity on subgrade and sub base
4. Wearing course- It is the topmost layer of road which is in direct contact with the traffic. It
should withstand the wear and tear of traffic and it should be impermeable. Functions of
wearing course are
 To provide a smooth surface for traffic
 To drain away rain water and prevent percolation of water
 To give strength to road
KERBS
Kerb is the boundary between pavement and shoulder or foot path. Kerbs are classified as
Class I or Low Kerbs: The height of this type of kerb is 7 to 8 cm , which allows driver to enter the
shoulder area with little difficulty
Class II or Low Speed Barrier Kerbs-This kerb prevents entry of slow speed or parking vehicles to
foot path. The height of kerb is 15 to 20cm.
Class III or High speed barrier kerbs-These kerbs are 23 to 45cm in height. It act as a barrier and
prevents vehicles leaving the roadway.
WIDTH OF PAVEMENT
Width of pavement or carriage way depends on width of traffic lane and number of lanes. The
carriageway intended for one lane of traffic movement is called a traffic lane. For vehicles of 2.44m
width, lane width of 3.75m is considered.
 Class of road Single Lane Double lane Double lane Multi lane
with raised kerb without raised
kerb
National 3.75nm 7.5m 7m 3.5m per lane
Highway &
State Highway
Major District “
road
Other district “
road
Village road ‘

Road Shoulders
A road shoulder is a strip of land immediately adjacent to the traffic lane of a road not bordered
by kerb & channel. Road shoulders are designed to:
1. provide a factor of safety for road users who accidently leave or are forced to leave the sealed
pavement area, and
2. protect the sealed pavement from excess deterioration
Formation width
It is the width of paved road or carriage way width plus width of shoulders on either side
As per IRC, formation width of road is
Sl No Road Classification Roadway width in metres
1 NH & SH, single lane or two lane 12.0
2 Major district roads 9.0
3 Other district roads 7.5
4 Village Roads 7.5

For hilly roads the formation width is

NH & SH –single lane-6.25m and two lanes -8.8m
For major district and other district roads-single lane-4.75m
Right of Way or Land width
The area of land acquired and reserved for the construction and development of a highway is known
as right of way. Right of way for different categories of roads are given in table below
Sl Road classification Plain terrain Mountainous terrain
No Open areas Open areas
1 NH & SH 30-60m 24m
2 Major District roads 25-30m 18m
3 Other district roads 15-25m 15m
4 Village roads 12-18m 9m

ROAD ARBORICULTURE
Growing of trees along the sides of roads is called road arboriculture. Trees should be planted at least
12m away from the centre line of the carriage way. Trees are grown on roadside –to provide attractive
landscape of road side, to provide shade and comfort to road users and make journey more
comfortable.
CROSS SECTION OF A ROAD IN EMBANKMENT

CROSS SECTION OF A ROAD IN CUTTING

CROSS SECTION OF A ROAD IN PARTIALLY CUTTING AND PARTIALLY FILLING

Borrow pits and spoil banks
In the case of embankment the pits formed on temporary road land due to excavation of earth for
roadwork are known as borrow pits. In the case road is in cutting, surplus earth from cutting is
deposited in the sides of road in the form of banks known as spoil banks.
ROAD CAMBER
Camber or cross slope is the convexity provided to the section of straight road. It is expressed in
terms of the slope of the line joining the crown to the edge of road. The main purpose of road camber
is to provide surface drainage. The camber to be provided depends on the surface of pavement. The
smoother the surface, the flatter is the pavement.
Reasons for providing camber
 To drain surface water
 To separate the traffic in two directions
 To improve the appearance of roads
Shape of Cambers
Cambers shape can be parabolic, elliptic or straight line or combination of parabolic and straight line.
For parabolic and elliptical shapes, the camber is flat at the middle and steeper towards the edges.

Recommended values of camber for different types of road surfaces

Sl Type of surface Cambers
No
1 High type bituminous road or concrete road 1 in 60 to 1 in 50
2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 50 to 1 in 40
3 Water bound macadam or gravel road 1 in 40 to 1 in 33
4 Earthen road 1 in 33 to 1 in 25

Disadvantages of heavy camber

 Centre portion of road may get easily damaged as the drivers have a tendency to occupy the
central portion of road
 Vehicles moving at high speed will have a tendency to slip towards the edges
 The berms may get easily washed off due to increased velocity of rain water.
GRADIENT
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall of a road level along its length. It is expressed as a ratio of level
difference between two points to its corresponding horizontal length measured along the road length.
Types of highway gradients are
1. Ruling Gradient-It is the desirable upper limit of a gradient provided for roads. The roads
should be provided with a gradient within the ruling gradient. Ruling gradient is also called
as design gradient. The design gradient is fixed based on several factors like type of terrain,
length of the grade, speed, pulling power of vehicles etc. In designing the vertical alignment
of roads, gradients up to ruling gradients are considered. As per IRC recommendations ruling
gradients for plain terrain- 1 in 30 (3.3%) and hilly terrain – 1 in 20 (5%)
2. Limiting Gradient- For hilly areas or in difficult terrain gradients steeper than ruling
gradients may be adopted in order to reduce the quantity of earthwork. Gradients which are
steeper than ruling gradient, which is adopted for hilly areas or difficult terrain are called
limiting gradient. Limiting gradients when used should be separated by flat and easier
gradients. As per IRC recommendations, limiting gradients for
plains- 1in 20 (5%) and hills is 1 in 15 (6.66%)
3. Exceptional Gradients-These are gradients steeper than limiting gradients which are
provided in exceptional cases such as approaches to causeways, near hair pin bends, very
difficult terrains to avoid deep cutting. Exceptional gradients should not be adopted for
distances greater than 100m in a stretch of 1.6km. They should be separated by easy and flat
gradients. IRC recommends the exceptional gradients for
Plain terrain- 1 in 15(6.7%) and hilly terrain -1 in 12 (8.3%)
4. Minimum Gradient- The road should have a minimum gradient to drain away the water
longitudinally. This depends on the type of side drains. If side drains are lined, the minimum
gradient is taken as 0.5% and if side drains are not lined, it is taken as 1 %.
SUPER ELEVATION
The rising of outer edge over the inner edge of a road on curves is called super elevation. When
a vehicle passes over a curved road, it is subjected to centrifugal force.
𝑤𝑣 2
Centrifugal force= 𝑅𝑔

The centrifugal force gives an overturning moment and tends to push the vehicle off the road. It
is resisted by the friction between tyres and road. If the lateral frictional force is not sufficient,
the vehicle tends to skid sideways. Therefore super elevation is necessary to counteract the effects
of centrifugal force.
Computation of Super elevation

𝑊𝑣 2
P= 𝑅𝑔
 𝑃 𝑣2
∴𝑊= 𝑅𝑔

If e is the rate of superelevation

tanϴ = e
tanϴ +f = e+f
𝑃 𝑣2
= tanϴ +f = e+f =
𝑊 𝑅𝑔

f is the co efficient of lateral friction=0.15

v –speed of vehicle in m/s
g- acceleration due to gravity -9.8m/sec2
If speed of vehicle is expressed in km/hr, the equation can be written as
(0.278𝑣)2 𝑣2
e+f = = 127𝑅
9.8𝑅

If the coefficient of friction is neglected, then rate of super elevation

𝑉2 𝑣2
e= =
𝑅𝑔 127𝑅

Maximum and Minimum permissible super elevation

As per IRC recommendations, maximum permissible super elevation is1in15.Superelevation if
calculated is less than the normal road camber, the normal camber profile should be provided and
no super elevation is required
Methods of providing super elevation
1. Firstly the camber is removed gradually till the road section has one straight line slope from
the inner edge to the outer edge. This can be done by two methods
a. By rotating the outer slope round about the crown.

b. By shifting the crown position gradually to the outer edge.

 2. Secondly the straight line slope is gradually increased till the required super elevation is
attained. This can be done by two methods
a. By revolving the straight line slope about the centre, thereby lowering the inner edge and
raising outer edge simultaneously. The level of centre remains unchanged

b. By gradually revolving the slope about the inner edge, raising the level of centre and outer
edge, the level of inner edge remains unchanged
HIGHWAY CURVES
Highway curves are of two types
1. Horizontal curves
2. Vertical curves
Horizontal Curve
It is a curve in plan or provided horizontally to change the direction of centre line of road. It is
circular curve provided with or without transition ends.
Types of horizontal curves
1. Simple curve- It is a curve of single arc of uniform radius connecting two tangents. This curve
is designated as the degree of the curve which is the angle subtended at the centre by a chord
of 30m length. This curve is suitable for slow moving traffic. Simple curves lie within two
tangents or two transition curves
2. Compound curves- This is formed by joining two or more simple curves of same or different
radii which turn in the same direction. The adjacent simple curves have a common tangent.
This type of curves are used to avoid cutting in hard rock or heavy filling
3. Reverse Curves- It is also called serpentine curve , which consists of two simple curves of
same or different radii and turn in the opposite direction. The adjacent simple curves have a
common tangent and their centres lie on opposite sides of curve.

VERTICAL CURVES
It is a curve in longitudinal section of roadway for easy change of gradient. Vertical curves are
provided where change of gradient is more than 0.5%.
Objects of vertical curves
 To provide gradual change in gradient
 To provide sufficient visibility
 To provide comfort to passengers
Types of vertical curves
 Summit curves- Summit curves are vertical curves with upward gradients, with convexity
upwards. They are formed when a positive gradient meets another positive gradient or a flat
gradient
 Valley curves- Valley curves are sag curves with downward gradients, with convexity
downwards. They are formed when a downward gradient meets another downward gradient,
or a flat gradient, or an ascending gradient.

TRANSITION CURVES
Transition curves are curves of varying radius introduced between a straight and a curved path. A
curve whose radius varies gradually from infinity to finite value equal to the radius of circular curve
to be connected is called a transition curve or easement curve.
Requirements of a good transition curve
 It should meet straight path tangentially
 It should meet curved path tangentially
 It should have the same radius of circular curve at its junction with circular curve
Objects of providing transition curve
 To provide gradual change in radius of curvature
 To avoid discomfort to road users
 To enable gradual introduction of super elevation
Type of transition curves
1. Spiral Curves 2. Cubic Parabola 3. Leminiscate curve
Spiral curve is an ideal transition curve. IRC recommends spiral curve. Indian railways adopt
cubic parabola as the transition curve
 Minimum permissible radius of horizontal curves as per IRC is given in the table below
Class of Road Minimum permissible
radius of curves (ruling
minimum)
Plains Hills
NH & SH 360 80
Major District Roads 230 50
Other District Roads 155 30
Village Roads 90 20

Advantages of Highway Curves

 They provide gradual change in direction or gradient
 They provide comfort to road users
 They give relief from the monotony of a continuous straight route
 They make the drivers to be alert
 They help to keep the speed within the limits
WIDENING OF ROAD ON CURVES
The width of road on horizontal curves is increased when the radius of curves is small. Widening of
roads is required on curves because
 On curves, vehicles occupy more space as the rear wheels do not follow the same path of front
wheels
 Clearance between vehicles required is more on curves than on straight path
 Extra width is required to increase visibility
 The widening is done starting from the beginning of the transition. As per IRC , widening is
recommended when the radius of the curve is less than 300m. Extra width of pavement for
horizontal curves is given in table below
Radius of curves Upto 20m 21-40m 41-60m 61-100m 101-300m Above 300m
Extra width
Two lane 1.5m 1.5m 1.2m 0.9m 0.6m Nil

CYCLE TRACKS
Cycle track is a way or part of a roadway designed and constructed for the use of pedal bicycles.
Separate cycle tracks may be provided when the peak hour cycle traffic is 400 or more or when the
number of motor vehicles using the route is more than 200 per hour. Cycle tracks may be provided
as adjoining to the carriage way or as raised tracks or as free cycle tracks separated from the carriage
way
FOOT PATHS
Foot paths are provided on each side of roads for the safety of pedestrians. They are raised about
15cms above the road edge. They are paved with cement concrete or stone slabs with a slope towards
the road drainage. Their width should be 1.5m in residential areas and 3m in shopping areas.
ROAD DRAINAGE
Proper road drainage is essential to maintain the strength and stability of a road.
Necessity of Road Drainage
 To prevent the softening of road surface
 To prevent the formation of ruts and potholes
 To prevent the subgrade from loosing its bearing capacity
 To prevent the erosion of side slopes
 To prevent slipping of side slopes of road
Requirements of a good drainage system
 Adequate camber and minimum gradient is required to drain away the water
 Side drains should have required capacity to carry all the drained water
 Suitable bridges and culverts to be provided to drain away the maximum rain water
 All sub soil water coming to the road surface should be tapped and drained off by sub surface
drainage
 The subgrade level should be above the highest level of ground water table by at least 1.2m
 Flow of surface water across the roads should not cause formation of ruts
Drainage can be provided in the form of surface drainage and sub surface drainage
Surface Drainage
Surface drainage consist of taking the rain water falling direct on the road surface by drains provided
at or near the road surface. Different structures required for surface drainage are
1. Kerbs and Gutters- They are provided in street pavements for quick disposal of rain water.
The kerbs and channels are usually cast in RCC
2. Intercepting drains- are drains provided for hill roads
3. Pipe drains- When the soil is unstable and the road is in densely populated area, the drains are
usually covered. The drains may be of concrete, stoneware, C I or G I pipes
4. Inlets, Catch Basins and Manholes- Inlets are connecting channels which are to be connected
to underground covered drains. When surface water is to be discharged into another drain at
a lower level, a drop wall is provided at the junction, which is called drop inlet.
Catch basins are basins or channels provided to catch the falling water, when the water is
discharged from a height. Man holes are used to check or inspect and repair any block in the
drain. They are usually circular in shape.

Sub surface Drainage

Sub surface drainage is the drainage provided below the road surface to keep the sub grade dry.It is
done by
 Providing intercepting drains to control the seepage.
  By providing longitudinal and lateral sub soil drains to lower the water table by at least 1.2m
from road structure
 By using porous sub base, the water percolating through the road surface is drained off
 By providing surface dressing to the formation

HILL ROAD DRAINAGE

For hill roads, catch water drains are provided parallel to road way. Water from catch water drains
are then diverted by sloping drains and culverts. The type of side drains provided for hill roads are
angle drains, saucer drain, kerb and Channel Drain

ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Roads can be constructed as Earthen roads, Gravel Roads, Water Bound Macadam Roads,
Bituminous Roads and Cement Concrete Roads
EARTH ROADS
When a road surface has the surface of a soil, it is called an earthen road. These roads can be
natural earth roads and stabilised earth roads. In case of natural earth roads, locally available soil
is used for road construction. But for stabilised earth roads, soil is stabilised with lime, cement or
bitumen.
Construction of Earth Roads
1. After survey, the centre line of road is fixed and reference pegs are driven. The borrow pits
are selected outside the right of way width.
2. Al tree stumps and grass are removed from the road side
3. Subgrade is prepared and is provided with necessary camber and longitudinal gradient. If the
road is on embankment, borrow pits are dug outside the right of way. If the road is to be in
cutting the excavated earth is deposited in the form of spoil banks.
4. The subgrade is properly compacted before the laying of pavement layer is commenced. The
subgrade is given a camber of 1 in 24. The surface is rolled and watered.
5. Wearing Course- A layer of 100mm graded soil is spread evenly. It is watered to get optimum
moisture content. It is rolled with sheep foot rollers and then finished with light roller. It is
laid in two layers.
6. The camber of finished pavement surface is checked and it is corrected if found necessary.
7. The surface is watered for 4 to 5 days for curing
8. Opening to traffic- The compacted earth road is allowed to dry out for a few days before
opening to traffic.
9. For maintenance of earth roads, periodic repairs of pot holes and ruts is to be done and side
drains should be maintained in good shape and conditions.
Advantages of Earth Roads
 Earth roads can be constructed quickly
  Locally available earth can be used. The earth obtained from cutting can be made equal to
earth required filling.
 Construction cost of earth road is cheap.
 Earthen roads provide good foundation for other type of good road over them
Disadvantages of Earth Roads
 Earth roads will become useless in monsoon seasons, and will be dusty in other seasons
 They are useful for light traffic only
 Repair and maintenance cost is high for repairing pot holes and ruts
GRAVEL ROADS
Gravel roads are superior to earthen roads. These roads consist of layers of compacted gravel. Small
percentage of clay of 10% is used as binder. For base courses 40-60mm size gravel is used and for
surface courses 10-40m size is used.
Method of Construction
1. The gravel to be used for road construction is stacked along the sides of road. The pebbles are
to be grade in size for good compaction
2. Gravel is spread in layers of maximum thickness 100 mm after cleaning the ground.
3. The layer is rolled by smooth wheel rollers starting from the edges and proceeding towards
centre. An overlap of half the width of roller is obtained in longitudinal direction
4. Water is sprinkled and surface is rolled again, so that there is sufficient bonding and
compaction of gravel and binder
5. The camber should be checked at intervals and final rolling is done. Gravels can be spread by
trench method or by feather edge method.
6. Maintenance if gravel roads can be done by repairing the potholes and periodical shaping of
the surface.
Advantages of gravel roads
1. Smooth and pleasing appearance if properly laid
2. Gravel road is not slippery when wet
3. Gravel road has high capacity
Disadvantages
1. They will become useless in monsoon and dusty in dry weather
2. Maintenance cost is high
3. They become soft in wet weather.
WATER BOUND MACADAM ROAD
Water Bound Macadam abbreviated as WBM is after the Scottish Highway Engineer, John Macadam.
Water Bound Macadam is formed of clean coarse aggregates mechanically interlocked by rolling and
bound together by filling the voids with screenings, binding material and water.
Materials used for WBM
1. Coarse Aggregate
2. Screenings
3. Binding Material
1. Coarse aggregate may be broken stone, crushed slag, burnt brick bats, kankar and laterite.
The aggregates should be hard, free from flaky and elongated particles. Crushed slag if used
 should be air cooled blast furnace slag. The grade sizes for coarse aggregates are 90-40mm,
63-40mm and 50-40mm.
2. The screenings used consist of aggregates of small size 10mm or 12.5mm. The liquid limit
should be less than 20% and plasticity index less than 6%.
3. Binding material used is lime stone dust or kankar nodules. Locally available dust can also
be used.
Construction Procedure
1. Preparation of Foundation- The subgrade to receive the water bound macadam roads should
be prepared to required subgrade and camber. Any ruts should be repaired
2. Lateral confinement of aggregates- To confine the aggregates shoulders should be formed in
advance to a thickness equal to the thickness of a WBM. Good earth should be used and they
should be compacted well to retain the road structure between them.
3. Spreading coarse aggregate- The coarse aggregates which are stored along the road are spread
uniformly and evenly upon the prepared base. The aggregates should be spread to proper
profile by using templates placed across the road about 6 metres apart. The total thickness of
road depends on the details of design pavement. For ordinary roads, a layer of compacted
thickness 75mm may be sufficient. For important roads two layers of 150mm compacted
thickness may be used.
4. Rolling- After spreading the aggregates, rolling is done by 6 to 10 tonne roller. Rolling should
begin at the edges and move towards crown, making longitudinal passes. There should be
overlap of half width of roller between two passes. Where super elevation is given, rolling
should start from lower edges and progress towards other edge. The rolled surface should be
checked by template for camber.
5. Application of screenings- After the coarse aggregate is partially compacted, screenings are
applied in thin layers broomed so as to fill the voids and dry rolling is continued.
6. Sprinkling of water and rolling- The road surface is sprinkled with water and is then swept
and rolled. Hand brooms may be used to sweep the wet screenings in to the voids.
7. Application of binding materials- A thin layer of binding material is applied, plenty of water
is sprinkled, broomed and rolled. Two or more layers of binding material can be applied.
During rolling, water is applied to the wheel of rollers to wash down the binding material
which has stuck to the surface of roller
8. Setting and drying- The surface is allowed to set overnight. If depressions are found on next
day, they are filled up with screenings and rolling is done again
9. Opening to traffic
Advantages of WBM Road
1. A good WBM can take a composite traffic of 900 tonnes per lane per day
2. If properly maintained, WBM roads will give good service for a long time.
3. The initial cost is low
4. Locally available material and labour can be used
Disadvantages of WBM road
1. Due to formation of depressions and ruts, small water pools are formed
2. In case of poor maintenance, it can cause inconvenience and danger to traffic
3. Maintenance cost is high
4. WBM roads are permeable to rain water and causes softening of road
Maintenance of WBM road
1. Patching of pot holes and removal of ruts- Loose material should be removed from pot holes
and filled up with coarse aggregate, watered and compacted.
2. Binding of surface- The binding material is applied in thin layers, watered, broomed and
rolled. The existing surface is scarified to a depth of 50-75mm and the removed coarse
aggregates is mixed with sufficient quantity of water and a new layer of WBM is laid.
BITUMINOUS ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Bituminous roads are roads constructed using bitumen or asphalt and aggregates. Bitumen is used as
a binder in pavement construction
BITUMEN, TAR AND ASPHALT
Bitumen is petroleum product obtained by the fractional distillation of crude petroleum. Tar is a
viscous material obtained by the destructive distillation of coal or wood. When bitumen contains
some inert materials or minerals, it is called asphalt. Bitumen has better weather resistance than tar.
Tar is more susceptible to temperature. But tar has good binding properties than bitumen
TYPES OF BITUMINOUS ROADS
The following construction techniques are used for bituminous roads
1. Interface treatment like prime coat and tack coat
2. Surface dressing and seal coat
3. Grouted or penetration type construction- fully grouted, semi grouted
4. Premixed bitumen road- Bituminous macadam, bituminous carpet, bituminous concrete, sheet
asphalt
1. INTERFACE TREATMENT
Bituminous treatment is the layer of bituminous material provided to bond between old layer
and new layer. The existing surface is cleaned and the bituminous layer is laid which act as a
bond to the succeeding layers. The interface treatment may be a prime coat or tack coat.
a. Prime coat- When a bituminous surface is to be laid on a porous and absorbent surface,
bitumen of low viscosity is to be first applied. It is known as prime coat. It is provided to
seal the pores in the surface. It binds the loose particles and hardens the surface. A prime
coat is applied by 1. Preparing road surface to the proper grade and camber and correcting
the irregularities 2. Applying prime coat by spraying 3. Curing for 24 hours
b. Tack coat- When a bituminous surface is to be laid on an impervious surface, tack coat is
first provided. Its purpose is to provide a bond between existing surface and new surface.
The road surface is prepared to the desired camber and cleaned and then tcak coat is
applied
2. SURFACE DRESSING
Surface dressing is provided over an existing surface to serve as a thin wearing coat. It consist
of a single application of bituminous binder material followed by spreading of aggregates and
rolling. Surface dressing can be done as single coat or two coat. Surface dressing involves the
following construction procedures
1. Preparation of surface-The existing surface is cleaned, irregularities are required and
grade and camber checked. The surface should be cleaned with brushes and dry.
2. Application of bituminous material-The bituminous material of proper grade is sprayed
uniformly over the dry surface by sprayers.
3. Application of cover- Stones of size 10-20mm for surface dressing of WBM and 6-
12.5mm for renewal coat are evenly spread on the surface.
 4. Rolling- Rolling is done by 6-10 tonne roller in longitudinal passes starting from edges
towards the centre. In case of super elevation, rolling should start from inner edge and
proceed to outer edge.
5. Second Coat- If second coat is provided, it should be immediately applied after laying
first coat. Hot bitumen is spread uniformly and 9mm stone grits are spread on the surface
by hand or mechanical grit spreader and the surface is rolled with 6-8 tonne roller
3. SEAL COAT
Seal coat is a very thin surface treatment applied as a final protective finish to certain type of
bituminous wearing course. Though it is not a wearing course itself, it is a necessary part of
many type of bituminous road surface.
Purpose of Seal Coat
 It increases the resistance to wear and weathering action.
 It prevents seepage of water.
 It provides a non-skid surface. It provides a better riding surface.
The construction procedure of seal coat is
1. The preparation of the surface
2. Application of bituminous material
3. Application of cover coat by spreading a thin layer of sand or stone or gravel
4. Rolling by 6-10 tonne roller
5. Finalising by testing with a template.
BITUMINOUS PENETRATION MACADAM
Bituminous penetration macadam consist of laying one or more courses of compacted aggregates
bonded by spraying bitumen and the voids are filled with small size aggregate. The compacted
thickness of the layer will be between 50mm-75mm. It can be laid as full grout penetration macadam
and semi grout penetration macadam.
Construction Procedure of Full Grout Penetration Macadam
1. Preparation of road surface-Existing surface is cleaned, pot holes are repaired and gradient
and camber is checked and prime coat is applied
2. Spreading coarse aggregate- Coarse aggregates which are clean and dry should be used.
40mm size metal is used for 50mm grout at the rate of 0.06m 3/m2 and 50mm size metal is
used at the rate of 0.09m3 for 75mm grout. Rolling is done to get an even surface
3. Rolling – rolling is done by 10 tonne roller and the rolling should be stopped before the voids
are completely closed. There should be some voids to allow the penetration of bitumen and
aggregate.
4. Application of bitumen- Bitumen is heated to the required temperature and hot bitumen is
sprayed at the rate of 5kg/m2 for 50mm grout and 8kg/m2 for 75mm grout.
5. Application of key aggregates or blindage-The key aggregates or bilndage consist of stone
chips of size 12mm for 50mm grout and 20mm size for 75mm grout. The aggregates are
applied while the bitumen is still hot. It is applied at the rate of 0.02m3/m2
6. Rolling- After blindage is added, it is rolled with 10 tonne roller and the rolling is continued
till completely compacted.
7. Seal coat- The surface is checked for camber and the seal coat is applied in the form of
premixed sand bitumen or surface dressing.
Construction Procedure of Semi Grout Bituminous Penetration Macadam
1. Preparation of road surface-Existing surface is cleaned, pot holes are repaired and gradient
and camber is checked and prime coat is applied
2. Spreading coarse aggregate- Coarse aggregates of 40mm size are placed on the road surface
to a depth of about 70mm which on rolling becomes 50mm. During rolling, the voids up to
half the depth are filled with slurry of gravel or sand and water.
3. Applying the binder and blindage-Hot bitumen is spread uniformly on the surface. Stone chips
of 12mm -20mm is applied on the hot bitumen
4. Rolling- The surface is rolled till the blindage is thoroughly embedded in bitumen.
5. Applying seal coat- The surface is checked for camber and a seal coat is applied of premixed
sand bitumen type or surface dressing
PREMIX BITUMEN CARPET
Construction Procedure
1. Preparation of road surface-Existing surface is cleaned, pot holes are repaired and gradient
and camber is checked and prime coat is applied
2. Application of tack coat- The heated bitumen is sprayed on the surface at specified rate before
spreading the premix. In case of hard aggregate surface, tack coat is applied.
3. Preparation of premix- Premix should preferably be prepared in a central mixing plant or in
mechanical mixers at the site. Bitumen is heated in a tank. Chippings of size 10-20mm are
heated separately to the same temperature. Hot bitumen is poured on to the chippings and the
two are thoroughly mixed to form a homogeneous mixture
4. Spreading of premix- The premix is spread on the surface as soon as the tack coat is applied.
The thickness and grade is achieved by suitable mechanical devices. The camber of surface
is checked with suitable template
5. Rolling-After spreading of premix, the surface is rolled with 6-9 tonne roller. The surface of
roller is kept moist to prevent the stone chippings from sticking to the sides.
6. Application of seal coat- Seal coat can be done with premix of medium coarse sand and
bitumen in low rainfall areas. In high rainfall areas, seal coat is laid with premix of 6mm
chippings or coarse sand with bitumen.
7. Finishing- The surface finishing is checked for camber
BITUMINOUS CONCRETE
The bituminous concrete is a premix of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and bitumen. The
construction procedure of bituminous concrete involves
1. Preparation of base course- The base is made to true camber and the pot holes are repaired.
The pot holes are filled with premix chippings at least one week before the laying of surface
course.
2. Application of tack coat- The heated bitumen is sprayed on the surface at specified rate. In
case of hard aggregate surface, tack coat is applied.
3. Preparation of premix- The aggregates should be clean and free from impurities. The fine
aggregates passing through 2.36 mm and retained on 0.75mm should be used. The aggregates
and binder should be separately heated and then mixed in a mechanical mixer.
4. Spreading of premix- The hot mix is spread evenly on the surface with mechanical paver. The
camber and thickness are accurately measured and verified.
5. Rolling- The spread mix is thoroughly rolled y 8-10 tonne roller. Rolling is done with tandem
rollers or pneumatic rollers
6. Application of seal coat- Seal coat with a premix of medium coarse sand and bitumen is
applied
7. Finishing – The surface is checked for camber and rectified.
SHEET ASPHALT
Sheet asphalt is laid with premix of sand, bitumen and filler lime stone dust or Portland cement.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT AND RIGID PAVEMENT
There are two types of pavements based on design considerations i.e. flexible pavement and rigid
pavement. Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or
bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular material of appropriate
quality in layers over the subgrade. Water bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with or
without asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible pavements. The design of flexible pavement is
based on the principle that the intensity of a load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards
from the surface by virtue of spreading over an increasingly larger area through successive layers of
granular material.
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs. The design of
rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement concrete slab of sufficient strength to resists
the loads from traffic. The rigid pavement has rigidity and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the
load over a relatively wide area of soil
COMPARISON BETWEEN RIGID PAVEMENT AND FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
1. It undergoes elastic deformation and 1. It acts as a beam and resist
adjust itself to normal loading deformation under normal loading
2. Under heavy loads, it yields forming 2. Under very heavy loading, it ruptures
local depression forming cracks
3. It is not subjected to temperature 3. It is subjected to heavy temperature
stresses stresses
4. After undergoing deformation it gets 4. Any damage caused due to heavy
back to its normal shape loading remains permanently

Construction Steps of Cement Concrete Roads

1. Preparation of Subgrade-Cement concrete roads are usually laid on existing WBM surface.
The subgrade or sub base should be of compacted surface. The subgrade should be saturated
with water for 6-20 hours in advance of placing concrete
2. Placing of forms-Timber or steel forms are used, thickness of forms should be equal to
thickness of pavement. The forms are joined neatly and set true to the required grade and
alignment.
3. Batching of materials and mixing- The coarse aggregates for the concrete should be
proportioned by weight in a weigh batching plant. The mixing of concrete is done in batch
mixer and thoroughly mixed with sufficient water to ensure that the mass is uniform in colour
and is homogeneous
4. Transporting and placing of concrete- The cement concrete should be placed within the
formwork correct to the depth. All the concrete mixed should be deposited in position and
consolidated within 30 minutes.
5. Compaction and Finishing- The surface is compacted by means of power driven finishing
machine. Where the thickness of pavement is small, hand consolidation may be adopted.
6. Floating, edging, belting and brooming- For further compaction, longitudinal float is used.
The float is held parallel to the carriage way centre line and passed gradually from one
pavement to other. Just before the concrete becomes hard, the surface shall be belted with a
two ply canvas belt. After belting, the surplus water has risen to the surface, the pavement is
given broom finish with steel or fibre broom brush.
 7. Curing- The surface shall be entirely covered with jute or cotton mats for 24 hours. The
surface can be flooded with water or covered with an impervious membrane to prevent the
evaporation of water.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS
Advantages
1. It is dust free and easy to clear
2. It provides good riding surface and wear and tear of tyres is minimum
3. Maintenance cost is less.
4. It is not slippery when clean
5. It is durable
6. It can withstand heavy stresses
7. When cement concrete road fails, it can be used as base course for other type of roads.
Disadvantages
1. It is high in cost
2. It requires skill in construction
3. It requires time for casting and curing
4. It requires longitudinal and transverse joint, which can cause trouble.
5. Laying of cable after casting of cement concrete roads is difficult
NEXT
UNIT III
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
IMPORTANCE OF RAILWAYS/ ADVANTAGES OF RAILWAYS
 Railways helps to unite people of different religions, customs to achieve national
integrity.
 Railways provide prominent, cheap and safe mode of transport for the country
 Railways help people to move or migrate from one part of the country to the other.
 The finished goods can be transported from one part of the country to the other
 Railways help in mass transport of people to places of employment, industrial areas
etc.
 Railways help in transporting food grains and clothes to the areas in times of
emergency
COMPARISON OF RAILWAYS OVER HIGHWAYS
 Initial expenditure and maintenance if railways is more than highways
 Railways can handle heavier loads and at higher speed than highways
 For long distance travel, railway is the cheapest mode of transport, whereas for
short distances, highways are more cheaper
 It is difficult to lay the track in hilly areas
 Points and crossings are required to change from one track to other
 Railway track can be used for movement of scheduled trains only, whereas all
type of traffic can be handled in highways
CLASSIFICATION OF RAILWAYS BASED ON GAUGE
The perpendicular distance between the inner face of heads of the two rails forming the track
is known as the gauge. Based on the gauges, railways in India are classified as broad gauges,
meter gauge and narrow gauge
Broad gauge-have a gauge length of 1.676m
Meter gauge-have a gauge length of 1m
Narrow gauge –have a gauge length of 0.762m
Broad gauge is known as the Indian Standard gauge
PERMANENT WAY
The two rails on which the trains move together with sleepers, ballast and fittings is known as
‘Permanent Way’
Requirements of Ideal Permanent Way
 The gauge should be correct and uniform
 The rails should always be in proper level.
 On curves, super elevation should be provided and transition curves should be
provided between straight and curve.

1
  The alignment should be proper and there should be no kinks or irregularities
 The gradient should be uniform
 The track should have sufficient lateral strength to counter act side thrust and lateral
forces
 Proper drainage system should be provided
 Railway joints, points and crossings should be properly designed and maintained
 Proper precautions should be taken to avoid the trouble from creep.
COMPONENT PARTS OF PERMANENT WAY
Component parts of railway include rails, sleepers, ballast and fastenings

1. Rails-rails are continuous girders which carry the axle load

Functions of rails
1. Rails provide a hard and smooth surface for the wheels of a train to roll on
2. Rails bear vertical loads and bear lateral stresses
3. Rails transmit the load to the formation through sleepers and ballast
Types of Rails
1. Double headed rail
2. Bull headed rail
3. Flat footed rail

Double headed rail- In this type of rails, both the top and bottom rails were made of same
section, so as to use the bottom table when the top table gets worn out. But the bottom table
could not be reused as the bottom table gets damaged.
Bull headed rail- In this type top table is made thicker than bottom table to provide for
greater wear. They cannot be directly fixed to the sleepers
Flat footed rail- In this type, foot is made thinner and wider than the head. They can be
directly fixed to the sleepers. 90% of railway track in the world is formed of flat footed rails.

2
Materials used for rails
Steel is the common material used for rails. Alloy steels like medium manganese steel, high
manganese steel, chromium steel can also be used.
RAIL-CHARACTERISTICS
Size of rail-
Size of rails are specified by its weight in kg per meter length. Size of rail depends on 1.axle
load 2. Speed 3. Spacing of sleepers 4. Gauge 5. Traffic
Standard lengths of rails-.
Standard length of rails in India
For broad gauge -12.8m
For metre gauge-11.89m
Wear of rails-
Rails get worn out in three positions- on the top of rail, on the ends of rail length, inner side
of head of rail. The permissible limit of wear of rail is 5% of weight of rail.
RAIL JOINTS- TYPES OF RAIL JOINTS
According to the position, rail joints are classified as
a. Square joints-When a joint in one rail is exactly opposite to the joint of the parallel
rail, the joints are known as square joints.
b. Staggered joints- When a joint in one rail is exactly opposite to the centre of parallel
rail, the joints are known as staggered joints.
According to the position of sleepers
a. Suspended joints- It is most commonly used. A rail joint placed at the centre of two
consecutive sleepers is known as suspended joint.
b. Supported joint- A rail joint placed exactly above a sleeper is known as supported
joint. But the rail end gets battered in this type of joint.
c. Bridge joint- The rail joint supported by a bridge of metal which rests on sleepers is
known as bridge joint. The idea is to prevent stress in the rail. But when the sleepers
yield, the rail is subjected to stresses.

3
Requirements of a good rail joint
1. It should be strong as the rails
2. It should hold two rails at same level and in same line
3. It should permit expansion and contraction of rail due to change in temperature
4. It should be such that a rail can be easily taken out without disturbing the whole track
5. It should adjust to the wear
6. It should be cheap
7. It should require less maintenance
CONING OF WHEELS
The wheels of a train are made flat. They are made in the shape of a frustrum of a cone
having a slope of 1 in 20. This is known as coning of wheels. On curves, the outer wheels
have to travel greater distance than inner wheels. Coning of wheels helps to prevent the
tendency of wheels to move sideways even on straight tracks. Due to coning of wheels, the
load of train is concentrated on inner edges of rail. To prevent this rails are laid tilted inwards
at a slope of 1 in 20.

ADZING OF SLEEPERS
The rails are tilted inwards at a slope of 1 in 20 to account for the coning of wheels. In tilting
of rails, the base plate or sleeper is not laid horizontal, but a slope of 1 in 20 inwards. This is
known as adzing of sleepers.
DEFECTS IN RAILS
1. Corrugated rails- Rails may be corrugated in some places. When vehicle passes over
such rails, roaring noise is caused and hence they are also called roaring rails.
Corrugated rails are found at
 Points of starting and stopping of trains
 ‘On electrified section of a railway track
 Where broken bricks are used as ballast
2. Corrosion of Rails- Rails are corroded due to dampness. Due to corrosion, rail section
is reduced and there is increased wear and tear. Corrosion can be prevented by surface
treatment with paints, red lead or bitumen
3. Kinks in Rails- When the ends of adjoining rails move slightly out of position,
shoulders or kinks are formed. Kinks may be formed by
 Loose packing at joints
 Defect in guage and alignment
 Uneven wear of rail head

4
 Due to kinks, there will be unpleasant jerks in vehicles passing over them. It will
obstruct the smooth running of trains. Kinks can be prevented by proper alignment
and proper maintenance of track.
4. Creep- The longitudinal movement of rails in a track is known as creep. Creep occurs
due to the forces that occurs during starting or stopping of trains. Creep also occurs
due to unequal expansion and contraction of rails.
Due to creep, sleepers move out of their position. There will be widening of gaps at
some places and closing of gaps at the other places. Creeps can be corrected by
pulling back of rails, use of creep anchors and use of steel sleepers
SLEEPERS
Sleepers are the transvers ties connecting the rails in a railway track.
Functions of sleepers
1. To support the rails firmly and evenly
2. To maintain the gauge correctly
3. To transfer the load from the rails to ballast and distribute it to a larger area
4. To maintain the alignment of the track
Requirements of a good sleeper
1. They should maintain proper gauge
2. They should be strong enough to bear stresses
3. They should provide sufficient bearing area for rail and over the ballast
4. They should be stable and not get damaged while packing and tamping
5. They should be economical in initial and maintenance cost
6. The fastenings of sleeper and rails should be simple and it should help in easy
adjustment during maintenance operation
TYPES OF SLEEPERS
1. Timber or wooden sleepers 2. Steel sleepers 3. Cast iron sleepers 4. RCC sleepers
 Timber Sleepers- Timber sleepers satisfy all the requirements and only suitable for
track circuiting. Teak, Deodar and Chir is used for sleepers
Merits and Demerits of Timber Sleeper
 They are not subjected to corrosion
 They are liable to be attacked by termites.
 Life span is less
 Scrap value is nil
 Steel Sleepers-Steel sleepers are made out of a trough made of steel plate 6mm thick.
Two ends are bent down to prevent running of ballast. Rails are fixed by driving
wedges or keys between the lugs and foot of rail.
Merits and Demerits of Steel Sleeper
 They are not liable to be attacked by termites
 They have a life span of 25 to 30 years.
 Scrap value is less
 They are easily corroded

5
  They cannot be used in electric tracks
 Cast Iron Sleepers- It consist of two pots or plates, one under each rail. The pots are
kept inverted on either side of rail. They are connected by wrought iron or mild steel
tie bar. Suitable chair is provided to hold the rails at required cant.
Merits and Demerits of Sleepers
 They do not corrode
 The life span is 50 to 60 years
 They have good scrap value
 They are brittle and liable to crack
 They cannot be used in electric tracks
 They require large number of fittings than other type of sleepers.
Concrete Sleepers- They are of RCC or pre stressed concrete. They can be moulded to any
shape. Reinforced concrete sleepers are capable of withstanding stresses induced by fast
moving trains
Merits and Demerits of concrete sleepers
 They are durable. Life span is 40 to 50 years
 They are suitable for welded and electric railway tracks
 Maintenance cost is less
 They have heavy weight and hence difficult to transport and handle
 Pads and plugs are required for fixing spikes
 Scrap value is less
BALLAST
Broken stones or aggregates placed below and around sleepers is known as ballast
Functions of ballast
 Provides a hard and level bed for sleepers
 Holds the sleepers in position
 Distributes the load over a larger area
 Drains away the rain water and protects the formation
 Provides an easy adjustment of track levels
 Provides elasticity to the tracks
Characteristics of good ballast
 It should have sufficient strength to resist crushing under heavy loads
 It should be durable to resist weathering action
 It should be hard to resist abrasion
 It should provide lateral and longitudinal stability to sleepers
 It should have sufficient voids to drain away rain water
 The materials should be locally available

6
Types of Ballast/ Materials Used for Ballast
1. Broken Stone- Granite, Quartzite, sandstone and lime stone is used. It is used on all
important tracks with heavy traffic
2. Gravel- It is cheaper than broken stone. It drains well and rolls down easily
3. Sand- It is cheap. But it is easily blown off by wind and washed off by rain. It cannot
be used where steel sleepers are used as it corrodes the steel
4. Ashes or Cinders- It drains well. It is cheap but cannot be used where steel sleepers
are used as it corrodes the steel
5. Kankar- It is soft and powders easily and hence can be used on tracks with light traffic
only
6. Brick ballast- It drains well but causes corrugation in rails
7. Blast furnace slag- It is strong and drains well
RAIL FASTENINGS
These are fittings used to connect rails, or rails to sleepers. Fastenings used in railway tracks
are
1. Fish Plates and Fish Bolts-They are used to connect rail joints at their ends. For each
joint, two fish plates and 4 or 6 fish bolts are used. They are made of steel. The fish
plates touches the bottom of head and top of the foot rail. Any ply due to wear can be
adjusted by tightening the fish plates. To allow the expansion and contraction of rails,
gap is provided between rails, fish plates are not tightly bolted and lubrication of
joints is done
2. Spikes-Spikes are used to fix rail to sleepers. Spikes are of different types
Dog spikes- These types of spikes have blunt ends and is provided with lugs for easy
extraction. Two spikes are used to fix one rail to a sleeper. The spikes are placed as
staggered. On curves,3 or 4 spikes are used
Round spike- It is used for fixing chairs of bull headed rails to wooden sleepers
Screw spikes- It holds better than dog spike. But it is costly and more time is required
for fixing of rails
Hook bolts- They are used to fix sleepers to girders of bridges

3. Chairs-They are used to hold the bull headed rails in position. They are made of cast
iron. They consist of two jaws and a rail seat. The web of the rail is held tightly
against the inner jaw by key and wedge. Chairs distribute load over a large area.
Chairs are fixed to sleepers using round spikes
4. Bearing Plates- They are used to distribute the load from flat footed rails over a large
area of wooden sleepers. They are made of steel and are used when wooden sleepers
are not hard. Bearing plates may be flat or canted at 1 in 20. They also prevent the

7
 destruction of sleeper due to rubbing action of rail. They help in firm holding of
spikes to sleepers
5. Pandrol clips- They are used for fixing rail to the base plate so that rail cannot move
horizontally or vertically. The clips are made of spring steel and pressed into position
by machinery. Pandrol clips make it easy to install new rail or adjust rail for thermal
variations
C/S OF A BROAD GAUGE- DOUBLE LINE IN CUTTING

LAYING AND MAINTENANCE OF RAILWAYS

8
PLATE LAYING
The operation of laying out the sleepers and rails on the prepared formation of railway track
is known as plate laying
1. Rail head- The point up to which the track has already been laid at any time is known
as rail head.
2. Base – The point from where the track is to start is known as base
Methods of plate laying
1. Side Methods or tram line-This method is used in doubling the track when single
track is available. New tracks can be laid by- 1. A road parallel to the track can be laid
and the materials are transported to site. 2.A temporary line known as tram line can
be laid parallel to the track
2. Telescopic Method- From the junction of existing railway track, the materials are
transported to the central depot, which will be located at the junction. After a
considerable length of track is completed, the original depot is shifted to the new
location. In this process, the central depot, rail head and work site are being shifted
during execution and hence this method is called telescopic method.
3. American Method- In this method, rails are fixed to sleepers and the complete unit is
shifted to the rail head by means of cranes and placed in position. At the site, fish
plates and spikes are fixed. Train moves ahead by one rail length. The procedure is
repeated.
Ballasting
The work of spreading the ballast is known as ballasting. Ballast is taken in ordinary
wagons and unloaded near the tracks by means of shovels. Ballast trains are also used to
spread the ballast. These wagons will have special hoppers which can be used for
unloading the ballast automatically. The plough attached to the breakvan will spread the
ballast.
MAINTENANCE OF TRACKS
After the track is commissioned and when regular trains are running over the track, regular
maintenance is required. Maintenance is required for the effective functioning of
fastenings. The railway track is divided into suitable sections and the maintenance is carried
out. Each section will have a length of 5 to 6km. One gang of 12 men will be attached to
each section. The gang will have one gang mate, one key man and 10 gang men.
Maintenance activities include
 Maintenance of top levels of rails
 Maintenance of track alignment
 Maintenance of drainage of track
 Maintenance of track components like rails, sleepers, track fittings
 Maintenance of level crossings
 Maintenance of points and crossings
 Maintenance of bridges and approaches
Maintenance of Railway Track is classified as

9
 1. Daily Maintenance
2. Periodic Maintenance
3. Special Maintenance
Daily Maintenance include
Inspection of track by gang everyday
1. Inspection of track by gang everyday
2. Tightening of loose fish bolts
3. Tightening of cotters key etc
4. Oiling of slide chairs at points and crossings
5. Any other minor fittings in track
Periodic Maintenance- It is carried out at regular intervals. Alignment of track, level of
rails and points and crossings are thoroughly checked.
Special Maintenance-includes replacement of defective rails, sleepers and fastenings and
components of point and crossings
POINTS AND CROSSINGS
Points and Crossings are special arrangements required to divert a train from one track to
the other. The tracks may be either parallel to or diverging from the first track
Turn Out- A turn out consists of a set of points and acute crossing required to divert a
train from one track to another track branching off from the first track. If the train is
diverted to the left, the turn-out is known as left hand turn-out. If the train is diverted to
the right side, it is known as right hand turn out.
Description of Points and Crossings
A switch consist of a fixed stock rail and a movable tongue rail. The tongue rails are
made of thinner sections at their toes. They are connected to the stock rail at the heel
using a heel block. Sliding chairs are provided under the tongue rails to allow their free
movement. The two tongue rails are connected by stretcher bars, so that they move
together. One of the stretcher bar is connected to the lever operating the points.
In their normal position, points are set for the main lines. When the point lever is pulled,
the tongue rail moves and the points will be set for the branch line and the train will be
diverted to the branch line.
Crossing
A crossing is provided where a rail of one track crosses the rail of the another track.
An acute crossing consist of
1. a V portion formed of a point rail and a splice rail
2. Wing rails
3. Check rails

10
Check rail- Check rails are introduce to reduce the wear of rails on sharp curves. The check
rail holds the back of the flange of the inner wheel. The gap between the check rail and inner
rail should be equal to the flange thickness of the rail.
Lead Rails- In turn outs, lead rails are the length of the rails from the heel of the tongue to the
toe of the crossing.
Stock rails- The straight track rails along which the tongue rail fits is known as stock rail.
Tongue Rail- It is the tapered rail having toe at one end and wheel at the other end along
which it can rotate.
Stretcher bar-This is the bar connecting the toe of both the tongue rails and allows both the
tongue rails to transverse the same distance at a time
Toe- The moveable end of tapered tongue rail is called toe.
Heel- Tapered rails, where they are fixed to the main rails are known as heel.
Flare-It is the tapered widening of the flange way which is formed by bending and splaying
the end of check rail or wing rail away from the gauge line
Throat of crossing- The narrowest space between the two wing rails of crossing is called the
throat of the crossing.
Crossing angle- It is the angle between the gauge faces of the point rail and the splice rail.
The size of crossing is designated by its crossing angle
Number of crossing- It is the distance at which the spread of the V portion of crossing in one
unit N= Cotα, where α is the crossing angle
Size of crossing- It is specified as 1 in N where N is the number of crossing
Facing Points and Trailing Points- When a train passes over the points first and then the
crossing, the points are said to be facing points. When the train passes over the crossing first
and then the points, the points are said to be trailing points

Point set for mainline

11
Left Hand Turn Out
It is the simple lay out which enables the train to branch out from one direction to another.
The object of turn out is to provide facilities for the safe movement of trains. Proper
combination of points and crossings form a turn out
Point Rod-The rod which moves the points by operating a point lever
Throw of switch- The distance through which the toe of the tongue rail move laterally at the
toe of the switch for the movement of trains
Crossing lead rails- The heels of tongue are connected to the crossing with two rails one
straight rail and the other curved rail. These two rails are called crossing lead rails
Point Rail- The rail of the V shaped portion of the crossing which ends at the nose of the
crossing is called point rail.
Wing rails-The two bent up rails of crossing which are connected to the end of the crossing
lead rails are called wing rails
Theoretical Nose of Crossing- The point of intersection of the gauge faces of the point rail
and splice rail of a crossing is called theoretical nose of crossing
Actual nose of crossing- The end of the point rails in the gap of the crossing is called actual
nose of the crossing

12
Diamond Crossing
When two straight tracks cross each other at an acute angle, the arrangement of track
component is called a diamond crossing. It consist of two acute angle crossings and two
obtuse angle crossings and two wing rails and four check rails. The gap between the noses of
the two obtuse crossing increases as the acute angle of crossing decreases. On diamond
crossings on main tracks, V check rails are provided to ensure safety
Cross Over
It is provided to divert train from one track to parallel track. It consist of two turn outs ie.two
sets of points and two acute crossings.

Scissors Cross Over

It consist of two cross overs so that train moving in up and down directions can easily be
diverted to the parallel track. When two acute cross overs cross, a diamond crossing is
provided
Ladder Track or Gathering Lines
In marshalling or station yards, when a number of parallel lines are to be connected. The
arrangement is called ladder track or gathering lines
Gauntlet Track
When two tracks of same or different gauges are running parallel to each other, they are
connected in one single track at railway bridges for making it economical. Such a type of
track is called gauntlet track. If gauge of both tacks are same, it will require two sets of turn
outs. If gauges of both tracks are different, it will require four crossings

13
STATIONS AND YARDS
Station- A station is any place on a railway line where traffic is booked and dealt with and the
trains can halt and proceed to other places
Yard- A yard is a system of tracks laid usually on a level, for receiving, storing, sorting and
making up trains
Selection of Site for a Railway Station
1. The site should be fairly level and well drained. The desirable gradient is 1 in 1000.
The maximum permissible gradient 1 in 400
2. Enough area should be available for future expansion. The land should include not
only the width of track but also for platforms, cabins, staff quarters and for future
expansion
3. Regular supply of potable water should be available
4. The site should be nearer to the town or village it serves
5. The station should not be located near a curve
TYPES OF STATIONS
According to function, stations are classified as 1. Way side station 2. Junctions 3. Terminals
1. Way Side Station- In this type of stations arrangements are made for crossing or for
overtaking the trains. For single lane, a way side station consist of a through line, a
loop line to enable the trains to cross each other, a passenger platform and station
building, a goods loop and a goods platform. In case of double lines, one or two
passenger platforms may be provided, goods platform, goods shed etc are to be
provided. A refuge line may be provided to allow fast moving traffic

2. Junctions- A junction is one where a branch line meets a branch line. Such stations
will have
 arrangements for the interchange of the traffic between main and branch lines

14
  servicing facilities for engines
 An arrangement for changing the direction of engines
Junctions may be single main line and single branch line, double main line and single
branch lines, double main line and single branch lines, double main lines and double
branch lines. The branch line may either terminate at junction or proceed further

Single Main Line and Single Branch Line Junction

3. Terminals- The station at which a railway line or one of its branches terminates is
known as terminal station or terminal junction. In a terminal station, facilities are
provided to
 Reverse the engines sidings
 Change the direction of engine with the help of a turn table
 Repair the wagons using locomotive workshops
 To stop the trains by hydraulic buffers at the dead ends
 Building with booking office and communication facilities
 Space for movement of passengers

Layout of Terminal

15
YARDS
A system of tracks laid within the station complex for the purpose of receiving, sorting and
despatching of goods, wagons and passenger coaches is known as a station yard. According
to purpose, yards are classified as
1. Passenger yard
2. Marshalling yard
3. Locomotive yard
4. Goods yard
Passenger Yard
It is provided for safe movement of passengers to board or alight from the trains. It consist of
a passenger platform station building, booking office, waiting rooms and facilities ike
drinking water. In case of terminal stations, a number of trains may be arriving or departing
and some trains may be stopping overnight or during the whole day. In such cases, the yards
should have a number of tracks where idle trains can be accommodated.
Marshalling Yard
In marshalling yard, wagons are received from different centres sorted out and formed into
trains for each route and despatched. While forming the trains, wagons are arranged or
marshalled in the order of stations on that route.
A marshalling yard consist of
1. Reception sliding
2. Sorting sliding
3. Despatch sliding
There are three types of marshalling yard
1. Flat yard- Engine is used to push wagons
2. Gravitational yard-Wagons move due to gravity
3. Hump yard- Engine pushes the wagons over a hump and they move down due to
gravity.

Loco Yard
They are yards where locomotives are housed for servicing and repairing. A loco yard consist
of
1. Ash pits- To drop ashes from fire box

16
 2. Examination pits- To examine and carry out repairs or servicing
3. Turn table-To change the direction of the locomotive
4. Fuel platform- To load fuel into locomotive
5. Water column- To fill water
Goods Yard
It is provided to receive the goods train for loading and unloading the goods. It consist of
goods platform, goods shed, booking offices, weighing machines, weigh bridges, loading
gauge, dead end sidings with buffer stops, sick siding to station for sick wagons
STATION EQUIPMENT
Water Columns
They are provided to supply water to locomotives at every 30-50km on main lines. They are
provided near platforms. It consist of a horizontal pipe with a horizontal or swan neck shaped
pipe at its top. A light funnel is provided to direct the water to fall in the locomotive tank.

Turn table
It is used for changing the direction of engines. It is supported on three points- central pivot
and two wheels one at each end. When the engine is to be changed, engine is brought on the
turn table and it is rotated to the required position so that engine can go into the re quired
track
Triangles
It is provided in small stations to change the engine direction/. It is less costly compared to
turn table. It consist of three short lengths of tracks laid to form a triangle. These are
connected by three pairs of points and crossings. Two tracks are laid on curves and one is
straight.

17
Traverser
It is used to transfer two wagons, passenger coaches, locomotives from parallel tracks
without any shunting. It consist of a platform mounted on small rollers which moves at right
angles to the parallel track. A vehicle can be transferred to the desired track by placing the
vehicle on the traverser and by moving it to sideways
SIGNALLING AND INTERLOCKING
Signalling-The device by means of which movement of train is controlled is known as
signalling. It consists of systems, devices and means by which trains are operated efficiently.
Signalling includes the use and working of signals, points, block instruments and other
equipments.
Objects of Signalling
1. To provide safety to passengers, the staff, the goods and the rolling stock by
preventing a running train from coming in contact with another moving or stationary
train
2. To provide safe distance between trains running on the same track in same direction
3. To make shunting operations safe and efficient
4. To provide indications for changing the direction at diverging junctions
5. To restrict the speed of trains during repairs of tracks
6. To provide safety to train during shunting operations
Classification of Signals
According to their function, classified as
1. Stop signals or Semaphore signals
2. Warner signal
3. Disc or ground signals
4. Coloured light signals
1. Semaphore Signal- It consist of a horizontal arm with a spectacle fixed to a vertical
post at a height of 7.5m. The face is painted red with a vertical band near the square
end. The back side is painted with a black end. It is operated from the cabin by means
of wire, chain crank rod. The balancing weight keeps the arm horizontal when the
chain or wire breaks.
In India, signal is placed on left side of the track with the arm projecting away from
the track. When the arm is horizontal, it indicates on position or danger or stop

18
 position. When the arm is inclined, it indicates off position. When the stop signal is in
“on” position, the driver should not go beyond the signal. Some semaphore signals
have three positions- in horizontal position it indicated ‘stop’, when it is inclined
450upwards, it indicates caution and when the signal arm is parallel to the vertical
part, it indicates proceed.

2. Warner Signal – These signals are similar to semaphore signals, but a V notch is
provided at the end of the arm. The signal is placed ahead of the ordinary semaphore
signal. When the warner signal is horizontal, it is said to be at ‘on’ position and it
signifies that signal is beyond danger. When the arm is at an angle of 450it indicates
‘off’ position and driver may proceed
3. Disc Signals- It is also known as shunting signals and are used during shunting
operations. It consists of a white circular disc with a red band. When it is horizontal, it
indicates ‘stop’ and when the lever is pulled and when it is inclined, it indicates
‘proceed’. Two holes are provided, one for a red lamp and the other for green lamp.
Red and green lights are used for stop and proceed indications at night.

4. Coloured Light Signals- These signals are provided with three coloured lights- red
indicates stop, yellow indicates proceed with caution and green light indicates
proceed. Automatic light signals normally remain in proceed position. When a train is
already in the section, it automatically turns to stop position.
According to location, signals are classified as
1. Reception Signals –Outer Signal or Home Signal
2. Departure Signals – Starter Signals or Advance Starter Signal
1. Reception Signals
Outer signals- indicates the entry of train from the block to the station yard. It is
placed beyond the outer limit of the station. The driver has to bring the train to stop at
a distance of 9 metres before the outer signal and then proceed to home signal with

19
 caution. If outer signal is in proceed position, driver can take the train at speed
assuming the home signal is also in proceed position.
Home Signals- It is located at the door of the station. The signal is located at about
180 metres from the start of the switches.
2. Departure Signals – which includes
Starter Signal- It is provided for controlling the movement of trains leaving a
platform. It is placed at the forward end of the platform. The train can start only when
the signal is in proceed position
Advance Start Signal-It is placed beyond the outer most railing points. This signal is
the last stop signal at the station where it is provided

According to operations, signals are classified as

1. Detonating Signal
2. Hand Signal
3. Fixed Signal
1. Detonating Signal- They are kept on rails which explodes, when the train passes over
them. The loud sound produces draws the attention of the driver. The detonators are
kept at 400 to 500 metres ahead of the signal
2. Hand Signal – In case of emergency, gang man uses hand signals to stop the
approaching train. Flags fixed to a wooden handle are used for signalling by hand.
During night, lamps with moveable shades of red, green and yellow are used for
signalling
3. Fixed Signals- They are red cloth signals fixed across the track to stop the
approaching trains
Special Signals
1. Repeater or Co acting signal –When express trains pass through small stations, trains
have to pass through five signals-warner, outer, home, starter and advance starter.
When the vision of these signals is obstructed by an over bridge, it is necessary to
have a repeater or co-acting signal
2. Routing Signals- When various signals for a main and branch lines are fixed on the
same vertical post they are known as routing signals. Signal for the main line is kept
at higher level than that for branch line
3. Calling on Signal- It is a signal of small arm located below the main signal. When the
main signal brings stop to a train, the calling on signal is used to proceed
4. Indicators- Indicators provide information to drivers. They are painted in black letters
on a yellow back ground. A whistle indicator indicates the point where the driver

20
 should whistle the engine. Shunting limit boards are provided to show the shunting
limits
5. Point Indicators- It is used to indicate whether the points are set for the main line or
branch line. A point indicator consist of a rotating lamp which can rotate about its
central vertical axis. The white disc of the indicator shows the points are set for main
line. When the points are set for the branch line, the indicator rotates through 9
degree and the green disc indicates, the points are set for the branch line

6. Caution Indicators- It is provided to caution the drivers

7. Speed Indicator- It is provided for drivers to reduce the speed
8. Stop Indicator- It is provided for the drivers to indicate to stop the train
INTERLOCKING OF SIGNALS
The levers operating the various signals and points are mechanically connected in order to
avoid the possibility of pulling wrong levers and to ensure safe movement of trains. This is
known as interlocking of trains. The main objective of interlocking is to eliminate human
error in operation of signals and points.
Principles of Interlocking
1. It should not be possible to lower the same time two signals that can lead to collision
of trains
2. It should not be possible to lower a signal for a line unless the points relating to line
are set
3. When the signal for a line is lowered, it should not be possible to unlock the points
4. It should not be possible to lower the warner and outer signals unless the
corresponding home signal is lowered
Operation

Lever 1 Operates up main home signal

21
2. Operates up branch home signal
3 Operates point setting for branch line
4. Operates point lock
5. Operates down main home signal
6. Operates down branch home signal
7. Operates points
8. Operates locks
Methods of Interlocking
Two methods of interlocking are 1. Tappets and lock system 2. Key system 3. Route
Relay system
1. Tappets and lock system- To the levers, operating signals and point tappets are used.
The locks move at right angles to the tappets.
a. The normal setting of points is for main line. The signal for the main line is to be
interlocked with the facing points. When signal is lowered, points cannot be
changed. The levers 1 and 3 are so interlocked that pulling one of them prevents
the other being pulled. This will be termed as 1 locks 3
b. In case of loop signals, it should be so interlocked with the facing points such that
it cannot be lowered when the points are set for the main line and also it cannot be
lowered unless the points are set for the sliding. When levers 2 and 3 are so
interlocked that lever 2 cannot be pulled unless lever 3 has already pulled. Again
lever 3 cannot be resorted to its normal position unless the lever has already been
resorted to its original position.
c. The outer signal is to be interlocked with the routing signal. The levers 1,2,4 are
so interlocked that lever 4 cannot be operated unless 1 and 2 has already been
worked. Again levers 1 or2 cannot be brought back to its original position. This is
termed as 1 or 2 releases 4 and 4 backlocks 1or 2
2. Key system- It is used in small stations in India. It can be of single key or double key
system.
Single lock and key system- In this system, two locks are worked by a single key. By
withdrawing the key, it locks the signal in the horizontal position and the points in the
normal setting for the main line.

Let P and Q are two locks that are operated by a single key. If the signal is to be
lowered, the key is inserted and turned in lock Q. This releases signal. Under this
condition the points are set for the main line. If the siding is to be used, the key is to
be withdrawn from lock Q and after verifying the signal to its normal position, the key
is inserted and turned in lock P.

22
3. Route Relay System- The points and signals for the movement of trains are electrically
operated in this system. In this system, the entire track circuit and the aspect of signals
are repeated on a panel by operating the switches. The panel operator can observe the
position of the track. When the track is occupied by a train. The lights on the panel
turn red. The lights automatically go off when the train leaves the section

23
NEXT
MODULE IV
BRIDGE AND CULVERT
A bridge is a structure constructed as passage for roads, railways, canals or for pedestrians to cross over
streams, rivers, valley or low ground
Features of Bridge
A bridge can be divided into two parts
1. Super structure
2. Sub structure
Super structure consist of slabs which forms the floor of bridges and slabs supported by beams, girders,
arches or suspension cables
Sub structure consist of approaches, abutments and wing walls, piers and foundation
Approaches are the transition between road pavements and bridge deck
Abutments- The end supports of bridge. They also retain the earth of embankment behind them and protect
it from sliding.
Wing walls- These are walls constructed on either side of abutment to retain the earth banks and protect
them from the action of water
Piers- The intermediate supports of the bridge are called piers. They transfer the load from the
superstructure to the sub soil through the foundations. They divide the bridge into suitable spans.
Foundations- They support the bridge and carry the load from the structure and distribute it to soil safely.

Culvert- It is bridge of small span up to 6m.

High level bridge- A high level bridge carries the roadway above the high flood level of the river or
channel
Submersible bridge- It is a type of bridge designed to be overtopped in floods

CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES
 1. According to materials used
i. Timber bridges
ii. Masonry bridges
iii. R C C bridges
iv. Prestressed concrete bridges
v. Steel bridges
2. According to structural action
i. Beam and slab bridges
ii. Truss or girder bridges
iii. Simply supported or continuous or cantilever bridges
iv. Balanced cantilever bridges
v. Suspension bridges
vi. Arch bridges
vii. Rigid frame bridges
3. According to alignment
i. Square bridges or straight bridges- The alignment is done at right angles to the axis of the
river. It is the best alignment
ii. Skew bridges-The alignment of bridge is at other than right angle to the axis of the river.
Skewed alignment should be avoided as far as possible because of construction and
maintenance difficulty.
iii. Curved alignment-This should be avoided as far as possible because construction and
maintenance difficulty and it has to resist an additional force namely centrifugal force
4. According to location of flooring
i. Deck bridges
ii. Through bridges
iii. Semi through bridges
5. According to position of H F L
i. Submersible bridges
ii. Non submersible bridges
6. According to purpose
i. Highway bridge
ii. Railway bridge
iii. Grade separation foot bridge
iv. Viaduct
7. According to life
i. Temporary bridges
ii. Permanent bridges
8. According to live load standards
i. Class AA loading bridges
ii. Class A loading bridges
iii. Class B loading bridges
Factors to be considered for the selection of site for a bridge
1. Minimum width- The site should be selected at a place where the width of river is minimum, so that
the span of bridge can be kept minimum
2. Good foundation-Site should be selected where good foundation can be provided at reasonable depth
3. Straight reach and firm banks-The bridge should be located on straight reach. The banks should be
firm on both upstream and downstream, which reduces the cost of river training works
4. Square alignment-The bridge crossing across the river should be at right angles to the river flow.
Therefore erosion chances will be less
5. Straight approaches- straight approaches are necessary for a length of 15m on either side
 6. Availability of sufficient free board- Sufficient free board should be available for the passage of boats,
ships if the river is used for navigation purpose
7. Waterway- There should be minimum obstruction to natural water way, when a bridge is constructed
across it
8. Velocity of flow- The velocity of flow under the bridge should be non-silting and non-scouring
9. Availability of materials and labour- The materials and labour should be locally available to reduce
the cost of construction
DEFINE
Water Way- The area through which water flows under a bridge is known as water way of the bridge. It should
be sufficient to pass the water without causing excessive velocity and scour
Water way required= Max flood discharge/ Safe permissible velocity
Linear Water Way and Effective Linear Water Way- The linear measurement of waterway along the length of
bridge is known as linear water way. It is the length available in the bridge between the extreme edges of water
surface at HFL
Afflux- The sudden rise or heading up of water on the upstream side of a bridge due to obstruction caused by
bridge to the flow is known as afflux. While designing the water way, afflux should be kept as low as possible
because
1. Afflux increases velocity of flow and hence increases scour
2. It increases the height of pier
3. It increases the height of embankment
4. It increases the cost of protective works or river training works
5. It causes submergence of land

Economic Span-The cost of a bridge in with decreasing length of span. But after a certain value of the span,
the cost increases. The span of the bridge at which the total cost is minimum is known as economic span. Dr
Waddel given the theory that the span will be economical when the cost of one pier=cost of supporting system
of one span
Situation where modification of economic span is required

 Suitability of site for pier location –lack of availability of good foundation

 Number of spans should preferably be odd number. An even number of spans will locate the pier at
the centre where the velocity of flow is maximum
 End contractions as the water flows through the vent. Span is to be increased to compensate for end
constructions
 Navigational requirements
Scour-Scour occurs when the bed velocity of stream exceeds certain value which depends on the bed of the
soil. Scours depend on the river bed and exposes the foundation. Soundings are taken during or immediately
after a flood, before the scour holes get filled up.
Scour depth d = 0.473 (Q/f)1/3
Where d is the scour depth below the H F L, Q is the design discharge and f is the Lacey’s silt factor
Maximum depth of scour in a straight reach is taken as 1.27d
Depth of Foundations- Rules for determining the depth of foundation according to I R C
1. The foundation should be taken to a depth where adequate bearing capacity is available
2. Depth of foundation should be decided based on scour, settlement and stability
3. Where solid rock is available at a reasonable depth, the foundation should be taken to that stratum and
securely anchored
4. Where erodible stratum is available, the foundation should be designed as a shallow or deep
foundation
Deep foundation should be taken below the maximum scour line to a depth not less than 1/3 the depth of
scour below H F L
Vertical Clearance-It is the vertical distance between the design HFL with afflux and lowest point of the bridge
superstructure. It should be according to the navigation requirements.
For flat soffit bridges

Discharge in m3/s Minimum vertical clearance

Upto 0.3 150mm
>3000 1500mm
For arched openings
The clearance below the crowns of arch intrados should not be less than 1/10 max. depth of water + 1/3 rise
of intrados
Free board- It is the difference between the affluxed H F L and the formation level of road embankment on
the approaches or top level of guide bunds. Free board of high level bridges should not be less than 600mm
Loads on Bridges
Loads considered for the design of bridges are
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Impact effect of live load
4. Wind load
5. Lateral loads
6. Longitudinal forces due to breaking of vehicles
7. Earthquake forces
8. Centrifugal forces in case of curved bridges
9. Static and kinetic forces of water
10. Earth pressure
11. Temperature stresses
12. Buoyancy
13. Erection stresses
Classification of bridges due to loading
IRC evolved different standards of live loads in terms of live loads in terms of train of tracked or wheeled
vehicles with standard axle loads. They are classified as
1. IRC class AA loading-This is to be adopted for bridges within certain municipal limits, in certain
industrial areas and on certain specified highways. Bridges designed for class AA loading have to be
checked for class A loading also
 2. IRC class A loading-This is to be adopted for permanent bridges other than those specified under class
AA loading
3. IRC class B loading- This is to be used for temporary bridges
4. IRC class 70R loading-This is conforming to revised standard loading of defence authorities. This is
as revision of class AA loading and is used for bridges on national highways
SUB STRUCTURE
A sub structure consist of piers, abutments, wing walls, approaches, foundations
Foundations for bridge piers and abutments
Considering the water in the channel and sub soil conditions, foundations may be classified as
1. Shallow foundations-constructed with or without the help of cofferdams. Types of shallow
foundations for bridge pier include Ordinary footing, Raft foundations, Grillage foundations.
2. Deep foundations-include wooden piles, RCC or precast or cast in situ piles, C I piles, steel piles
Deep foundations laid under water are box caissons, well foundations of masonry, steel or RCC,
caissons with dredging wells, pneumatic caissons

PIERS
Types of Piers
1. Solid pier
a. Masonry pier
b. RCC pier
c. Dumb bell pier
2. Open pier
a. Cylindrical pier
b. Column bents
c. Pile bents
d. Trestle bents
Masonry Piers and RCC
Pier may be of brick or stone or plain cement concrete or RCC or precast concrete blocks. The bed block at
the top of the pier distributes the load from the beam of the superstructure on to a wider area. The pier should
have sufficient height to provide required clearance above HFL. The top width should be sufficient to receive
two bearings of beams with a gap of 150mm. The length should be sufficient to accommodate bearings.
Excluding the cut waters and ease waters, the length beyond the centre line of girders should be atleast 1 ½
times the top width
Cut waters and Ease waters
A pier is provided with projections on upstream and downstream side. The projection of pier on the upstream
side is known as cut waters and the projection of pier on the downstream side is known as ease waters. They
are shaped for the easy passage of water. They also prevent the formation of eddies and reduce the scouring
effect. The sides may be vertical or stepped or battered.
Shape of Bridge Piers
The shapes of pier at cut water and ease water may be triangular, semicircular or of two parabolic curves
TYPES OF PIER
1. Dumb-Bell Pier-It consist of two columns of any shape connected by a web for the full height. It is
used in bridges where twin girders are used. In such cases, the central portion of upper part of wall
type pier is completely useless and hence dumb-bell shape is preferable. Sometimes wall type pier is
constructed up to HFL and above this dumb-bell pier is constructed
2. Cylindrical Pier-It consist of mild steel cylinders filled with concrete to support main girders. They
are connected by steel framework. It is adopted when foundation is cylinder caisson type.
3. Column bent pier-It consist of two or more columns of RCC to support main beam or girder of the
superstructure. The two columns are connected by beam brace and short diaphragm
4. Pile bent pier-They are extensions above bed level of pile foundation. They are connected by
framework.
5. Trestle bent pier-They are used when the height of pier is large as in the case of viaducts. They are
used for foot over bridges in stations. They may be of RCC or steel. They consist of vertical, horizontal
and diagonal members
6. Abutment pier-In case of multiple arch bridges, every fourth or fifth pier is made as strong as an
abutment so that it can withstand the horizontal thrust of arch from one side. They have the following
advantages
 Reduce the cost of centering as arches may be constructed in sets between the abutment piers
 Damages will be localised between two abutment piers.
 Dumb bell Pier

ABUTMENTS
The end supports of the superstructure of a bridge are called abutments. They also retain the earth of the
formation of the approach roads. They are built of masonry or RCC. The top of abutment is made flat in case
of girder or beam or semicircular arch bridges. It is made skew in segmental arch bridges. A dwarf wall is
constructed on top of abutment to retain the earth of the formation of approach roads. Weep holes are provided
to drain the retained water.
Salient features of Abutment
1. Height-Height of abutment is equal to that of piers
2. Abutment batter-The water face of abutment is kept vertical or given a batter of 1 in 12 to 1in 24. The
face retaining the earth is given a batter of 1 in 6 or stepped down.
3. Abutment width-The top width of abutment should have sufficient width to receive the ends of girders
and also for the dwarf wall
4. Length of abutment-Length of abutment is kept atleast equal to the width of the bridge.

TYPES OF ABUTMENTS
1. Abutments without wingwalls- It can be straight or T shaped. This type of abutment is used when
banks are firm and the height of approach is small. But in floods, there is possibility of the earth fill
being washed away by water.
 2. Abutment with wing walls- The wing walls protect the earthen embankments of approaches from
being washed away by water. They can be of
 Abutment with straight wing walls
 Abutment with splayed wing walls
 Abutment with return wing walls

WING WALLS
Wing walls are provided at both ends of the abutments to retain the earth filling of the approaches. They are
constructed of the same material as that of the abutment. Their design depends on the nature of the
embankment. They are of the following types
1. Straight wing walls- They are used for small bridges on drains with low banks and for railway bridges
in cities. Weep holes are provided.
2. Splayed wing walls-They are used for bridges across the river. They provide smooth entry and exit to
the water. The splay is usually 450. The top width is 0.5m and batter is 1 in 12 and back batter is 1 in
6. Weep holes are provided.
3. Return wing walls-They are used where the banks are high and hard or firm. Their top width is 1.5m
and vertical face and back battered in 1 in 4.
APPROACHES
Approaches are lengths of road at both ends of bridge. IRC recommend a minimum straight length of 15m for
approaches. In case of submersible bridges and causeways, the approaches are in cutting. The top of approach
banks should be above the affluxed HFL with a free board of 60cm..
Different types of Approaches
1. Approaches on embankment with abutments and wing walls at ends.
2. Approaches between retaining walls-used for urban areas
3. Approaches on extended portion of main bridge- used in rivers without well defined banks
SUPER STRUCTURE
Types of Super Structure
1. Deck, Through and Semi through Bridges
 Deck bridge-When the flooring of bridge is supported on the top of supporting system of
bridge, it is called a deck bridge.
Advantages and disadvantages of a deck bridge
 It is laterally more rigid
 It is structurally more stable
 For small spans and light loading it is more economical
 Preferred when the approaches are in cutting as it will reduce the depth of cutting
Types of deck bridges-Masonry arch bridges, RCC girder bridges, Culverts, High level Causeways and
low level cause ways

 Through bridge-When the flooring of bridge is supported at the bottom of the supporting
system of bridge, it is called a through bridge.
Advantages and Disadvantages of through bridge
 Easy access is possible to main girders for inspection
 For heavy loads they are economical
 They are better in aesthetic appearance
 Erection is easier
 Width of a through bridge will be more and hence dead load will be more
 Wind load effects will be more
Type of through bridge-Suspension bridge, Transporter bridge, Bowstring girder bridge

 Semi through bridge- When the flooring of bridge is supported at an intermediate level
between top and bottom of the supporting system, it is called a semi through bridge.

Masonry Arch Bridge

It is used for road bridges of moderate span. Masonry may be of brick stone or plain cement concrete. The
shapes of arches may be semicircle, elliptical or segmental shape. Semi circular arches are stronger than any
other type of arches.
2. Reinforced Concrete Bridges- RCC bridges are of following types
1. Slab bridge- Used for small span up to 4m. It rest on masonry supports. Bearing of 5-
7.5cm may be provided at ends
2. T beam bridge-The beams act as main girders. The slab is supported by the beams. The
beams may be resting on abutment or piers
3. Rigid frame bridge-Single or multiple portal frames are used. The width of the portal is
same as that of the bridge. In a multiple portal bridge, frames are spaced along the length
of the bridge and support RCC slab over them.
4. Pre stressed concrete bridges- Pre stressing indicates including compressive stresses in
the beam. It neutralises the tensile stresses induced y external loads. Prestressed concrete
bridges –advantages
 The member is free from cracks since undesirable tensile stress is eliminated
 Economical for long spans
 Lighter sections can be used

3. Bowstring girder bridge- It is a special type of arch bridge. Two arch ribs are provided on either side
of bridge deck. The ends of arch rib are connected by a horizontal tie. Beam of the bridge is supported
by suspender. These type of bridges are more economical where more head room is required under
the bridges
 4. Girder bridges- Rolled steel I sections with or without cover plates are used as girders. They can be
used for spans up to 9m. For long spans and heavy loading, plate girder is used. It consist of web and
top and bottom flanges built by steel plates. The flange and web are connected by angles. Angle
stiffeners are used to give lateral support to girder
5. Truss bridges-Trussed bridges are made of steel sections connected to form as trusses
6. Suspension bridges-The bridge is suspended from two cables or chains by means of suspenders. The
cables and chains are carried over the piers and anchored on the ground. They are generally single
span bridges, but for large spans, two side spans may be added besides the central span.

7. Moveable Steel bridges- They can be swing bridge, traverse bridge, bascule bridge
 Swing bridges-have balanced girders swinging round a quadrant of a circle, horizontally over
a pivot. When navigation is to be permitted, the bridge is rotated about 90 0
 Traverse bridge-This type of bridge rolls backward and forward. It can be rolled of its position
along the approach
 Bascule bridge- This type of bridge can be lifted up to allow the boat under it. The girders of
these bridges move up vertically on a horizontal hinge when the bridge is open. As the bridge
open, the counter weight lowers into a pit called bascule chamber
 Transporter bridge- In this type, there is a travelling car which is suspended by cables from a
steel girder resting on high towers.

CULVERTS
A culvert is a small bridge constructed to carry roadway or railway track over small streams or canals. Culverts
can be used for spans up to 6m. Culverts are of the following types
1. Slab culvert-In this type, RCC slab directly rest over abutments and form the superstructure. It can
be used upto a maximum span of 2.5-3m. Parapet and wing walls may be provided.
2. Arch culverts-The superstructure is made of masonry arches which rest on end abutments. The
thickness of arch may be 200-300mm. Earth filling is provided above the crown of arch to provide a
level surface for road.
3. Pipe culverts-It consist of one or more pipes placed side by side. The faces of pipes are surrounded
by masonry walls which protect the embankment from the action of running water. The maximum
 diameter of pipe culverts is 1.8m. Pipes are laid on a firm and strong bedding, preferably of concrete.
The top of the pipe should be provided with earth filling to provide a level surface.
4. Box culvert-It consist of one or two rectangular or square boxes, preferably of RCC slabs and are
usually precast. It should be provided with good foundations. Box culverts can be used for a single
span of 3m or for a double span of 6m.

CAUSE WAYS

SURVEY PLANS AND DOCUMENTS TO BE PREPARED FOR A BRIDGE PROJECT

1. Index map-After surveying an index map is prepared for the proposed bridge which shows final
location, alternative sites, general topography of the area, existing means of communication,
important towns in the city.
2. Contour survey plan- A contour plan should be prepared showing topographical features of upstream
and downstream of the proposed bridge.
3. Site plan-A site plan showing details of the site extending 100m upstream and downstream of the
proposed bridge and covering approaches to a distance of 500m on both ends. It should show the
location of bridge, flood discharge, nearest town, location of bench marks, trial pits or borings
4. Cross section of Channel-There should be minimum three cross sections-one upstream, one
downstream, one at the location. Cross sections should show the bed levels, ground levels, nature of
soil, location and depth of trial pits or borings, high flood level and low water level.
5. Longitudinal section of channel showing bed level, HFL and LWL
6. Reports showing reasons for the selection of site and alternative sites considered and rejected, reasons
for rejection.
7. Hydraulic data-which includes rainfall data, data regarding HFL, size, shape and slope of river, effect
of afflux, design discharge, velocity of flow, depth of scour.
8. Geological data- which includes nature and property of soil, bearing capacity, suitable depth of
foundations, liability for earthquake
9. Climate data-which includes temperature variations, wind velocity etc.
10. Design Standards-which includes loads, utilities or services like water supply pipes, clearance
required below bridges, information about existing bridges nearby.
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
The artificial underground ways that are constructed for transportation are called tunnels. Tunnels are required
for highways, railways, sewerage, water supply and canals
Advantages of tunnels

 Due to reduction of distance, overall cost is reduced

 Easier gradients can be provided
 Maintenance cost is less
 No disturbance to surface traffic
 Traffic can move at high speeds.

Necessity of tunnels

 When two stations are separated by a hill in between, the shortest way to connect them is through
tunnels.
 When open cuts become too expensive or unstable , a tunnel is provided
 Tunnels prove to be cheaper than bridges or open cuts to carry public utilities like water supply and
sewerage lines
Factors affecting the design of a tunnel
1. Purpose of tunnel namely roadways, railways, rapid transit or water channels
2. Clearance prescribed
3. Method of tunnelling
4. Soil particulars
5. Methods of lighting and ventilation
Classification of Tunnels
Based on purpose
1. Highway tunnels
2. Railway tunnels
3. Rapid transit tunnels
4. Water supply tunnels
5. Sewage tunnels
6. Pedestrian tunnels

Shape of tunnels
Based on the cross sectional shapes, tunnels can be of the following shapes
1. Circular tunnel-It is mostly used for carrying water and sewage. Circular tunnels offer great resistance
to external pressure
2. Egg shaped tunnel-Mostly used for water supply and sewage
3. Elliptical tunnel- Mostly used for water and sewage conveyance
4. Horse shoe tunnels-They are commonly used for tunnelling in rock. They can be used as traffic tunnels
for road and railway
5. Tunnels having vertical walls with arched roof-is also used for traffic tunnels
Adit Tunnel
A tunnel driven from ground surface to provide access to a horizontal tunnel or drainage from underground
workings; a length of tunnel driven for an exploration – exploration adit
Vertical Shafts
A shaft is a vertical or steeply inclined excavation used as a passage from the surface to the workings, used for
ventilation, travelling, hoisting, or all three. Shafts are usually of limited cross section in relation to their depth
Section Of A Tunnel

Tunnel Lining

The tunnel lining is the wall of the tunnel. It usually consists of precast concrete segments which form rings.
Tunnels in loose rock and soft soils are liable to disintegrate and, therefore, a lining is provided to strengthen
their sides and roofs so as to prevent them from collapsing. The objectives of a lining are as follows.
(a) Strengthening the sides and roofs to withstand pressure and prevent the tunnel from collapsing
(b) Providing the correct shape and size of the tunnel
(c) Checking the leakage of water from sides and top
 (d) Binding loose rock and provide safety to tunnel
Vertical Shafts- A shaft is a vertical or nearly vertical hole or tunnel sunk or excavated fro top to bottom or
to the roof of horizontal tunnel. It is constructed for providing access to the tunnel. Shallow shafts are
excavated for civil engineering works like giving access to tunnels at shallow depth. Whereas deep shafts are
used for mining operations

AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Airways are mostly used for long distance travel mainly for intercontinental movements
Advantages of air transport
1. Air transport maintains the highest speed.
2. Air transport mode is continuous over land and water, without any loss of time unlike other modes of
transport
3. Air transport has the ability to access any region that is inaccessible by other means of transport.
Disadvantages of Air transport
1. Operating costs and expenses are high for air transport than any other modes of transport. The freight
charges are also high and hence air transport accommodates very few passengers
2. Weight carrying capacity of air crafts is less than other type of transport.
3. Weather condition affect the operation of air transport. When weather is foggy, landing and take off
will be difficult
4. Laws regarding international aviation have to be observed
Airport Terms And Components

 Aerodrome- A defined area of land which is intended to be used for the arrival, departure and
movement of aircrafts. It may be provided with facilities for shelter and repair of aircraft and for
processing of passengers, baggage and mail and cargo.
 Airport-It is an area of land which is to be regularly used for landing and take off of aircrafts. It is
provided with facilities for shelter, repair of aircraft and normal facilities for passengers and cargo.
 Aircraft- Any machine which can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of air and is
intended for aerial navigation
 Airfield- An area of land which is used for landing and take off of aircrafts. It may or may not be
provided with the facilities for convenience of passengers and for shelter, repair and servicing of
aircrafts.
 Airport capacity- It indicates the number of movements of aircrafts which an airport can handle safely
within an hour. A landing or take off operation is taken as one movement.
 Approach area-These are wide clearance areas of ground located beyond both the ends of a runway.
They fall under the approach flight path of an aircraft. These areas should be kept clean of
obstructions.
 Holding apron-The portion placed adjacent to the ends of runways to allow check of aircraft
instruments engine operation prior to take off. It also enables the aircraft to wait for take off clearance
 Terminal area-Portion of the airport other than the landing area. It includes
1. Terminal building for processing of passengers.
2. Facilities for loading and unloading of passengers baggage and cargo
 3. Apron for parking of aircrafts
4. Vehicular parking areas
5. Cargo storage buildings
6. Hangars for maintenance of aircrafts
 Instrument runway-The runway of an airport which is equipped with devices permitting the landing
of an aircraft under conditions of poor visibility
 Air harbour-A landing facility for sea planes on a water body
 Zoning-The area surrounding the airport is marked by zoning. Which restricts the developments of
the area surrounding the airport, so that no structure protrudes above the obstruction clearance line.
Components Of An Airport
1. Runway
2. Terminal Building
3. Apron
4. Taxiway
5. Aircraft stand
6. Hanger
7. Control tower
8. Parking
1. Runway- A long and comparatively narrow strip which is paved for the landing and take off of
aeroplanes. They have special markings on them which helps pilot in the air to identify it.
2. Terminal Building- It provides space for air line operations facilities for convenience of passengers,
office for airport management and other functions. Terminal buildings have facilities for passengers
to check in their luggage, clear customs, waiting lounges, cafeteria, ticket counters etc.
3. Apron- A defined area which is used to accommodate air crafts for loading and unloading of
passengers and cargo parking, refuelling etc. It is usually paved and planned adjacent to terminal
building.
4. Taxiway- A defined path on an airport over which an aeroplane may taxi or move to or from the
runway and loading apron. It connects runway with hangers, ramps, terminals and other facilities
5. Aircraft stand-A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access to aircraft
stands only
6. Hanger- are buildings in which airplanes are repaired or serviced. Most hangars are far away from
terminals and runways so that they do not interfere with airport traffic
7. Control Tower-A tower at an airfield from which air traffic is controlled by radio and observed
physically and by radar
8. Parking-Specific area at which vehicles park
9. Fuelling facility- Aircraft refuelling facility is one of the essential services in an airport. Major airports
adopt a pipeline transportation system to supply a large volume of aviation fuel to the planes
Selection of Site for an Airport
Factors required for the selection of site for an airport are
1. Regional Plan-The site selected should fit well into the regional plan
2. Use of airport-The airport is used as a civilian airport will be taken over by the defence in emergency.
Hence the site should provide natural protection to the area from air raids
3. Proximity to other airports-The site selected for airport should be at a considerable distance from other
airport, so that landing and take off of aircrafts in one will not interfere with others
4. Accessibility to ground- The site selected should be adjacent to main highway
5. Topography-A hill top or raised ground will be an ideal site for airport. The site should have less
obstructions in approach zone and turning zones
 6. Visibility-Poor visibility due to smoke, fog and haze lowers the traffic capacity. Smoke and haze will
be more in industrial areas
7. Wind- Runway is oriented in such a way that landing and take off is done by heading in the wind
8. Noise nuisance-Site should be selected free from residential and industrial development so that noise
nuisance can be avoided
9. Grading, drainage and soil characteristics-Sites with high water tables must be avoided. Site which
consist of reasonable amount of previous material like gravel, sand or decomposed granite and with
good drainage facilities is preferred
10. Future development-Site selected should be such that future expansion facilities for more runway,
handling of cargo, baggage etc. is required
11. Economic considerations-Cost estimate have to be prepared taking land cost, site clearance, grading,
drainage, building construction, turfing, access roads and parking.
Runway Orientation
Runway orientation is done in the direction of prevailing winds. If the direction of wind is opposite to the
direction of landing, aircraft rises above the ground much earlier and shorter length of runway is required.
If done along the direction of wind require more length of runway.
Airport Layout
In layouts, there should be a good correlation between runway and other airport elements like taxiway,
terminal building, apron, hanger etc. The taxi distances should be kept minimum and provide shortest
route for passenger.
Characteristics for a good airport layout
1. Landing, take off and taxing should be independent operations without interference
2. Shortest taxiway distance from loading apron to runway
3. Safe runway length
4. Safe approaches
5. Control of lower visibility
6. Adequate loading apron space
7. Terminal building facilities
8. Land area for future expansion
9. Lowest possible cost

Runway Layouts
Runway layouts are designed as
1. Single run way layout 2. Open parallel runway 3. Offset parallel runway
4. Two intersecting runways 5. Three intersecting runways 6. Tangential runways
Standard Runway Length
Runway of length 1800m is adequate for aircrafts of normal sizes. For larger aircrafts, length up to 2400m
may be required

DOCKS AND HARBOURS

Harbour is a place of water and partly enclosed and protected from storms so as to provide safe and suitable
accommodation for ships or vessels seeking refuge, for loading and unloading of cargo and for repairs.
Facilities provided in a harbour
1. Protection by breakwater
2. Ship channels-natural or artificial must have sufficient depth for the draft of vessels
3. Sufficient anchorage to hold the ships against high winds
4. Entrance of harbours should be wide enough to accommodate the vessels
Classification of harbours
Harbours are classified as
1. Natural harbour 2. Semi-natural harbour 3. Artificial harbour
1.Natural harbours-Natural harbours are located in places where topography of cost is such that a part of
sea is protected naturally by land surrounding it. No artificial protection is required. Facilities for repairs,
loading and unloading and storage of cargo have to be provided. Eg. Bombay, Kandla
2. Semi-natural harbour-In this case man made protection is provided at the entrance and the sides are
protected by lands. Eg. Vishakhapatnam
3. Artificial Harbours-In this case the part of sea should be protected by man made protective works and
shelters, as there is no natural protection by land. Eg. Madras
Based on utility and location, harbours are classified as
1. Harbours of refuge 2. Commercial Harbours 3. Fishing harbours 4. Military harbours
1. Harbours of refuge-They are used to provide shelter for ships in storm. They can be part of
commercial harbours also. They should be readily accessible form sea and provide shelter and
protection against sea.
2. Commercial harbours-The harbour should have facilities for loading and unloading of cargo. Dry
docks are provided for repairs. Adequate quay space for berthing, receiving and delivering cargo
should be available
3. Fishing harbours-They provide berthing facilities for fishing ships. They should have adequate
loading and unloading facilities. They should have refrigerated stores also.
4. Military harbours- They are situated for accommodating naval vessels. Eg. Bombay and Cochin
ROADSTEAD- A natural vessel has to take shelter within a tract or area of water close to the shore. This
area should have good hold for anchoring of vessels, protected by natural or artificial harbour walls
(breakwaters). Such berthing conditions constitute a roadstead. A roadstead may be natural or artificial
Natural Roadstead-The area of water or deep channel is enclosed with protective natural bank
Artificial Roadstead- The area of water or deep channel is created artificially enclosed by constructing a
breakwater or wall parallel to the coast.
SEA PORT
A sea port is the centre in which terminal facilities are provided.
Facilities in a sea port
1. Terminal buildings consist of administrative block, customs clearance and warehouses
2. Transit sheds where ships can discharge cargo
3. Docks, Harbours with necessary breakwaters, wharfs and quays for loading and unloading of cargo
and passengers, highway, railway and inland water way and many supplemental services
Classification of Ports
Depending on location, ports can be classified as

 Canal ports
 River ports
 Sea ports
Based on size, ports can be classified as

 Major ports
 International Ports
 Minor ports
LAYOUT OF A HARBOUR

Components of a Harbour
1. Docks
2. Breakwaters
3. Wharfs and Quays
4. Jetties and piers
5. Harbour entrance
6. Tuning basin
7. Sheltered basin
8. Approach Channel
1. Dock-A dock is a marine structure for berthing vessels for loading and unloading cargo and
passengers. It denotes an artificial basin for vessels where the variation of water level in the sea shore
does not affect the level of water. When the water in the basin is pumped out, it is termed as dry dock,
which is used for repairing vessels. In case of wet docks, the water level is maintained at a uniform
level by means of entrance lock. It helps in handling of cargo and prevents the rubbing of ship sides
against quay walls
Repair docks- are of two types- dry docks and floating docks. Dry docks are used for repair and
inspection works. It allows the ship when the water in the dock is of the same level outside, close the
door and pump out the water
Floating docks- They are made of timber, steel or RCC and are capable of being submerged by
admitting water to its interior components. The ship can be floated on floating dock in the exact
position and structure is then raised by the removal of water from its interior compartment by
pumping. These docks are temporary.
2. Breakwater- A breakwater is a structure which acts as a protective carrier to enclose harbours and to
keep the harbour waters undisturbed. The breakwater should be designed such that the waves do not
break on wall.
Types of breakwaters
1. Rubble Mound Type-Constructed by materials like natural rock or concrete block or combination
of rock and blocks. For steeper slopes, concrete tetrapods and tie bars are used. Tetrapods are four
legged truncated cone shaped precast concrete units. Tri-bars have three cylindrical legs
connected in their middle by diaphring which meet at the centre. They are of lighter weight than
concrete blocks
 2. Vertical Wall Breakwaters-are of type concrete block gravity walls, concrete caissons, rock filled
sheet pile cells, rock filled timber cribs and concrete or steel sheet pile walls.
3. Composite Breakwaters- They are a combination of rubble mound and vertical wall type. It
provides a platform for handling cargo.

3. Wharves & Quays- A wharf is a wall built along a bank or shore for loading and unloading cargo. Wharves
have backfill of earth or other material. They have platform only on one side. Wharves built parallel to the
shore and backed up by ground are called quays.
4. Jetties-Jetties are the platforms supported on piles from shore to berth vessels alongside. Wharf is a platform
parallel to the shore whereas jetty is perpendicular to the shore. Jetty is projecting from shore into water and
can berth vessels on both sides.
5. Harbour Entrance- The harbour entrance should have sufficient width to allow the ships. The width of
entrance depends on the size of harbour, density of traffic, number of entrances etc.
6. Turning Basin- The basin should have sufficient space for manoeuvring of ships for berthing purposes.
The minimum dimensions should not be less than twice the length of the largest ship. Ideally it should be four
times the length of the largest ship.
7. Sheltered Basin- The area protected by breakwater is called sheltered basin.
8. Approach Channel- The channel in which ships proceed from the sea to the harbour is called approach
channel. The portion of channel outside the entrance of harbour is called outer channel and portion lying
between entrance and basin is called inner channel.
APPURTENANCES TO HARBOUR
1. Apron-The unloading platform is called apron. It has cranes-both fixed and mobile. Width of apron
varies from 10-25m depending on the nature of cargo to be handled.
2. Transit Shed- They are provided for temporary storage of goods which may be arriving from the
vessels or ready for despatch. It is kept adjacent to berthing place. It should have sufficient space for
storage of cargo, Cranes for handling the cargo and transport facilities.
3. Ware House-When cargo is to be stored for long periods, ware houses are to be constructed. They
are comparatively away from berth and provided with suitable cargo handling and transportation
facilities
4. Cold Storage- for storage of perishable materials such as green vegetable, fruits, fish, egg etc. These
storages are equipped with refrigeration facilities
5. Moorings-These are devices for providing anchoring arrangements where anchorage water area is
limited. A mooring is a piled storage or a tubular pile anchored buoy to which ships and oil tankers
are tied. Mooring with piled stage or tubular pile is called fixed mooring. Moorings can be floating
moorings also which has buoys, cables and anchors.