PHYSICS DEPARTMENT MVJCE 2014 -15

LASER AND HOLOGRAPHY

LASER - LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION

Characteristics of a laser beam:
1.Highly monochromatic 2. Highly polarized 3. Very low divergence 4. Highly intense 5. Highly
coherent
Energy states of matter:
1. Ground State: This is the lowest possible energy state of a given system and hence is most
stable.
2. Excited State: These are the possible energy states of an atom which are higher than the
ground state. Atoms stay in such energy states for a very short time (lifetime ~ 10-8sec).
3. Metastable State: These are excited states of an atom with relatively longer life time ~ 10 -3
sec.

Qn. Discuss various possible ways through which radiation and matter interact.
Ans. 1) Induced or Stimulated absorption: If a photon is incident on an atom in its ground state
E1, the
atom absorbs the photon and is raised to its excited energy state E2 provided the photon energy
is E2-E1.
This process is known as induced or stimulated absorption.
2) Spontaneous Emission: An atom in its excited state E2 undergoes a transition to its ground
state E1 on
its own, by emitting a photon of energy E2-E1. This process is called spontaneous emission.
3) Stimulated emission: If a photon having energy E2-E1 interacts with an atom which already
is in its
excited state E2, the photon forces the atom to undergo transition to the ground state E1 giving
rise to
another photon of same energy (and hence same frequency). The two photons are coherent. This
process
is known as stimulated emission. This emission is possible from atoms in metastable states.

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Qn. Derive expression for energy density of radiation in terms of Einstein’s coefficients.
Sol. Consider a system of atoms where
E1=Ground state energy, N1= Number density of atoms in E1 level
E2=Excited state energy, N2=Number density of atoms in E2 level
1. Induced or Stimulated Absorption: Let photons of frequency ν=(E2-E1)/h be incident on
the system. This will lead to induced absorption and the rate of absorption would be
proportional to number density of atoms in ground state and also to energy density Eν, in the
frequency range ν and ν+dν, of the incident radiation.
n = B12N1Eν
B12 is called Einstein’s coefficient of induced absorption.
2. Atoms in the excited state E2 can come down to ground state E1 either through
spontaneous
emission or through stimulated emission of radiation.
2(a) Spontaneous emission: This emission is independent of external energy and depends only
on
the number density of atoms in the excited state, i.e., Rate of spontaneous emission α N2 only.
Or Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2A
where A21 is a constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.
2(b) Stimulated emission: In this case the external energy plays a part and hence the rate of
emission
is proportional to the energy density Eν and the number density N2 of atoms in the excited
energy state E2,
i.e., Rate of stimulated emission α N2Eν Or Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2Eν
where B21 is a constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

In the state of thermal equilibrium, the rate of transition of atoms from E1 to E2 must equal
the
total rate of transition from E2 to E1.

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the visible or infrared (IR) regions. The process of stimulated emission becomes significant
at lower frequencies.

Qn. Mention the conditions and requisites of laser system.

Ans. Conditions for lasing action to take place:
1. Population Inversion:
According to Maxwell Boltzmann distribution, the number of atoms per unit volume, N, in an
excited energy level E for a gas in thermal equilibrium is given by –

where N0 is a constant, k is Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature of the

system.
Consider two energy states E1 and E2 where E2 > E1, then-

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Since E2 > E1, N2 < N1 which means that the number of atoms is more in lower energy state.
If a photon of energy E2 – E1 is incident on such a system, the probability of stimulated
emission. To increase the probability of stimulated emission, the number of atoms in the lower
energy state should be lower. This state in which there is a larger number of atoms in the
higher energy state than the lower, is called population inversion. Population inversion ensures
amplification of light. A system which has achieved population invasion is called an active
system. In a state of population invasion – for E2 > E1, N2 > N1, so Eqn (4) gives T < 0 and
hence this state is also known as negative temperature state. It is not an equilibrium state of the
matter.
Metastable states: These are those energy states of an atom for which life time ~ 10-3 sec.
Requisites of a laser system:
1. Pumping: To achieve a state of population inversion, atoms in lower energy states have to
be
pumped to higher energy state by providing energy. This process of raising the atoms from a
lower energy state to a higher one to create population inversion is termed as pumping.
Types of pumping:
(i) Optical pumping – Light energy from gas discharge is used.
(ii) Electrical pumping – Gas is ionized using a potential difference across it. Atoms in
ionized gas collide with free electrons causing transfer of energy.
(iii) Chemical pumping – Exothermic chemical reactions are used to pump atoms to higher
energy levels.
2. Active medium: A medium or system which has metastable states and can undergo
population
inversion.
3. Resonators or cavities: Cavities constructed using different types of mirrors so that the light
rays return to their original location and orientation after travelling through the cavity for a
certain number of times are known as resonant cavities.
Resonator with two plane mirrors: Stationery waves are formed and cavity resonates when the
distance ‘L’ between the mirrors is equal to an integral multiple of λ/2 where, λ is
wavelength of the radiation in active system i.e., L = nλ/2 or L=nv/2ν or ν=nv/2L.
Frequency difference between two adjacent modes of vibration
νn+1 – νn = (n+1)v/2L – nv/2L = v/2L ⇒Δν is extremely high. Hence, the cavity resonates
and amplifies only in very narrow frequency region due to which the laser is highly
monochromatic.
Carbon dioxide Lasers (Construction and Working):
Basic description: It is a molecular gas laser which operates in the middle IR region involving
a
set of rotational vibrational transitions. It is a four-level laser producing both continuous wave
and pulsed output and is very efficient. Carbon dioxide laser was one of the earliest gas lasers
to be developed. It was developed by an Indian engineer Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1963. It
still remains one of the very useful lasers. CO2 lasers are the highest power continuous wave
lasers available. They emit a beam of infra-red light with the main wavelength bands centering
around 9.4-10.6 micrometers. Fundamental mode of vibration in CO2 molecule:
In case of CO2 molecule, there are three modes of vibration, which are explained below:
1. Symmetric stretching mode: The carbon atom is stationery and oxygen atoms oscillate
simultaneously to and fro along the molecular axis.
2. Asymmetric stretching mode: Both oxygen atoms move in one direction while the carbon
atom moves in opposite direction along the molecular axis.
3. Bending mode: Oxygen atoms and the carbon atom move perpendicular to the molecular
axis.

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The internal vibrations of CO2 molecule are actually the linear combination of the above
three modes. In CO2 laser, the energy transition takes place between the rotational sublevel of
an upper and lower vibrational levels.

Construction: A CO2 laser consists of a gas discharge tube of 5cm length and 2.5 cm diameter.
The ends of the tube are closed with alkali halide (NaCl) Brewster windows of which one end
has completely reflective and the output side has a partially reflecting confocal silicon mirrors
coated with Aluminium. This forms the resonant cavity. The active medium consists of a
mixture of CO2, N2 and He gases with pressures of 0.33 Torr, 1.2 Torr and 7 Torr respectively
for the three gases. A high dc voltage applied tothe mixture is the pumping mechanism based
on electrical discharge and causes the population inversion.This voltage breaks down the CO2
molecule into O2 and CO. The following figure shows the cavity forCO2 laser beam.

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The above figure shows the energy diagram for the generation of CO2 laser beam.

Working of the CO2 laser: When electric discharge takes place in the gas mixture both N2
and CO2 atoms absorb energy and are excited to higher energy level. This energy level
matches with one of the vibrational-rotational level (C5 in the above figure) of CO2. Hence,
more CO2 atoms are raised to this level by colliding with N2 molecules. There is an efficient
energy transfer between an excited N2 molecule and a CO2 molecule. This kind of energy
transfer is known as resonant energy transfer. Population inversion is thus achieved between
C5 and C4 levels and between C5 and C3 levels. The transition from C5 to C4 produces a
radiation of wavelength 10.6μm while a transition from C5 to C3 produces a radiation of
wavelength 9.6μm both of which lie in the infra-red region. The other transitions from level C3
to C2 and from level C2 to C1 are accomplished through inelastic collisions with helium
atoms. The helium atoms
help to deplete the lower energy levels. Also, due to the high thermal conductivity of He, the
heat is conducted away from the laser cavity.

Performance of CO2 laser: Laser output is 100kW in continuous wave mode and 10kJ in
pulsed mode. These lasers are more efficient than other lasers. Since the lower transition levels
are closely spaced, most of the input energy is converted into output energy.
Applications of CO2 laser:
1. Extensively used in industries for welding, cutting, drilling etc.
2. They are also very useful in surgical procedures because water (which makes up most
biological tissue) absorbs this frequency of light very well. Someples of medical uses are laser
surgery and skin resurfacing.
3. Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to infrared light, CO2 lasers are also used for
military range finding using LIDAR techniques.
4. Since they show minimal atmospheric attenuation, they are used in communication systems.

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Semiconductor Laser (Construction and working)

Principle: When a p-n junction is forward biased, the conduction band electrons from n-
type combine with the valence band holes from p-type in the depletion region and radiation is
emitted. The p-n junction is heavily doped and a large current is made to flow through the
junction to create population inversion. Laser beam can be obtained by using this junction as
resonant cavity. Construction: Metallic contacts are provided to the p and n types in a heavily
doped pn junction diode. Two opposite faces which are perpendicular to the plane of the
junction are
polished and made parallel to each other. These parallel faces constitute the resonant cavity
and laser beam is obtained though these faces as shown Remaining two faces are roughened to
prevent lasing action in that direction.

Working: As the p- and n-type semiconductors are heavily doped, , Fermi level (EF) in
the n-type lies in the conduction band and in p-type it lies in the valence band. The Fermi level
is uniform throughout the unbiased diode as shown in the adjacent figure. When the junction is
forward biased, the energy levels shift as shown in the adjacent figure. The width of the
depletion region decreases due to injection of electrons and holes. At low forward currents,
the electron-hole recombination causes spontaneous emission of radiation and the diode acts
like an LED. When current is increased and reaches a threshold value, population inversion is
achieved in the depletion region due to large concentration of electrons in conduction band and
holes in valence band. The narrow region where population inversion is achieved becomes the
active region where lasing action takes place. The forward bias applied to the junction is thus
the pumping mechanism which produces population inversion. The photons travelling in the
junction along the resonant cavity stimulate recombination of electron hole pairs due to which
the intensity of coherent light builds up along the axis of the cavity.

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Positives-The semiconductor lasers have low power consumption, are compact and highly
efficient.
Negatives – Laser output is less monochromatic and more divergent when compared to other
lasers.
Moreover, they are temperature sensitive.

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Other applications of laser:

4. In medicine (Retinotherapy)
5. Precision length measurement
6. Bar code readers
7. Computer printers
8. Colour copiers
9. Holography – 3D
10. Fiberoptic communications

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Qn. Explain the principle of Holography.

Ans: The principle of holography can be explained in two steps:
1. Recording of the hologram and 2. Reconstruction of the image

1. Recording or construction of the hologram:

A laser beam is divided into two beams A (reference beam) and B (transmitted beam),
by a beam splitter, S. The transmitted beam B illuminates the object whose hologram is
to be recorded and part of light scattered by the object impinges on a photographic
plate. The reflected beam A, which is called the reference beam also falls on to the
photographic plate. The superposition of these two beams creates an interference
pattern
which is recorded on the plate. The plate is very fine, the spacing between the fringes
being as small as 0.001mm. The developed plate is known as the hologram. It contains
complete information about the amplitude and also about the phase of the light waves

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coming from the object and hence contains enough information to provide a complete
reconstruction of the object.
2. Reconstruction of the image: To view the 3-D image of the object, the object is
removed and hologram is placed in the place where it was formed, t laser beam which
is now termed as the read out wave, interacts with the interference pattern on the plate
and two images are produced by diffracted waves. One of them appears at the original
position occupied by the object (virtual image) and the other (real image) which can be
photographed directly without using a lens appears on the transmission side of the
photographic plate.

Applications of holography:
1. It is used to produce 3-D images
2. Holograms can store large amount of data and are used in ROM devices.
3. Microscopic holography is used to study 3-D structures of microorganisms.
4. Holographic interferometry is used to study minute distortions of an object due to
stress or vibration.

Few advantages of lasers over ordinary light:

1. Laser beam is highly monochromatic and hence is useful in performing a variety of
experimentsto understand materials for which ordinary light is not useful. This
monochromaticity also helpsin obtaining sharply defined fringes in holography.
2. Laser beam is highly intense and and hence can be used for laser welding, cutting
etc. wherein itgives very precise results.
3. Laser beam travels long distances without much divergence and hence can be used
to carryinformation from one place to another.

Important Formulae:
1. N2/N1 = e-(E2-E1)/kT
= e-hν/kT
2. E = P x t (For n photons, nE = P x t or nhν = P x t)
3. For a cavity of length L, and light of wavelength λ, number of modes possible is
n = 2L/λ

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OPTICAL FIBRES

An optical fibre is a device which can conduct light along any desired curved
path. Or optical fibre is a device to transmit light through bundle of thin fibres
of transparent material from one end to other end covering a very long
distance.
It works on the principle of total internal reflection.

r
Rarer n2
P
A
Denser n1 C
i i>C

O
Let a luminous object O be placed in a denser medium. A ray of light from O
incident normally on the interface of the two media proceeds undeviated. A ray
OP while passing from the denser medium into the rarer medium bends away
from the normal. As the angle of incident increases, the angle of reflection also
increases and for a particular angle of incidence the refracted ray just grazes
the surface of separation of the media, i.e., angle of refraction is 90. This
angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90
is known as the critical angle (C) for the given pair of media and for the
given colour of the light. For further increase in the angle of incidence (i.e., i >
C) the ray is not refracted but gets reflected back into the medium. This
phenomenon is known as total internal reflection (TIR).
Condition of TIR
1. The ray of light must travel from a denser medium into a rarer medium.
2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical
angle for the given pair of media and the given colour of light.

Note: From law of refraction we have, n 1 sin i = n2 sin r (i = C, r

= 90)
n1 sin C = n2 sin 90  n1 sin C = n2
n2  n2 
sin C = or C = sin – 1  
n1  n1 
Optical Fibre Construction
Fibre that are use for optical communication are waveguides made up of
transparent dielectrics whose function is to guide visible and infrared light over
long distances.
Polyurethene Jacket

Cladding
Core

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An optical fibre consist of a cylinder of glass or plastic called the core,

surrounded by a cylindrical shell of glass or plastic of lower refractive index
called cladding. The cladding inturn is covered by polyurethene jacket. Light is
transmitted within the core. The cladding helps to keep the light waves
confined to the core on account of its lower refractive index than that of the
core. In addition the cladding provides some mechanical strength to the core.
The additional jacket provided, protects the fibre from moisture and abrasion
(rubbing or scrapping away).

Many such fibres, each one protected by individual jackets are grouped to form
a cable. A cable may consist of one to several hundred fibres.
In optical fibre, the core and cladding are made up of either plastic or glass and
it is found that plastic fibres are flexible and inexpensive. Usually there are 3
types of optical fibres.
1. Glass core with glass cladding
2. Plastic core with plastic cladding
3. Glass core with plastic cladding

Optical fibre as wave guides: (Principle of propagation/working

mechanism)

Cladding
Core i>C
i>C
Light ray

A waveguide is a tubular structure through which energy of some sort could be

guided in the form of waves. Since light waves can be guided through a fibre, it
is called light guide. It is also called fibre wave guide or fibre light guide.

The wave guide works in the following way:

The cladding in an optical fibre always has a lower refractive index than that of
the core. The light signal which enters into the core can strike the interface of
the core and cladding only at large angle of incidence (greater than critical
angle), because of the ray geometry shown in the figure. Therefore the light
signal undergoes total internal reflections many times and the signal sustains
its strength and also confines itself completely within the core during
propagation. Thus the optical fibre functions as waveguide
Any sharp bends in the core is avoided, since for sharp bends, the light fails to
undergo total internal reflections because of which the signal strength comes
down drastically.

Note: In case of total internal reflection, there is absolutely no absorption

(loss) of light energy at the reflecting surface. The entire incident energy is
returned along the reflected light. Because this phenomenon there will be a no
loss of energy during reflection the optical fibre are able to sustain the light
signal transmission over very long distance in spite of large number of
reflections that occurs within the fibre.

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Numerical Aperture & Ray propagation in the fibre

lost
Acceptance cone 90

1 ( C
i<c B i>c

C =,90 - 
0 ) 1 Fibre axis
0 ( O
i < 0
n1
i > 0
n2
A

n0
Incident ray
Core Cladding

Let us consider a ray having critical incidence at the core – cladding interface.
Consider ray AO entering into the core at an angle 0 to the fibre axis. Let it be
refracted along OB at an angle 1 in the core and proceeds to fall at the critical
angle of incidence (= 90 - 1) at B. Since it is a critical angle of incidence,
the ray is refracted at 90 to the normal drawn at the interface i.e., it grazes
along BC.

Hence it is clear, that any ray which enters at an angle less than 0 will have
refracting angle less than 1 because of which its angle of incidence (90 - 1) at
the interface will become more than critical angle of incidence, and it undrgoes
total internal reflection.
If any ray enters at an angle greater than 0, it will be incident at the core-
cladding aperture at an angle less than critical angle and will be refracted into
the cladding region, which will be lost.
If OA is rotated, keeping 0 constant, it describes a conical surface. Only those
rays which fall into the fibre within the acceptance cone will be totally internally
reflected and are confined within the fibre for propagation. Angle 0 is called
the acceptance angle and its sine i.e., sin 0 is called the numerical
aperture (N.A) of the fibre.
The light gathering capacity of the fibre is represented by numerical aperture.
Let n0, n1, n2 be the refractive indices of surrounding medium, core of the fibre
and cladding respectively
Applying Snell’s law at the point of entry of the ray AO we have
n0 sin 0 = n1 sin 1 ---------------- (1)
At the point B on the interface, the angle of incidence = 90 - 1
 Again applying Snell’s law at B,
n1 sin (90 – 1) = n2 sin 90
or n1 cos 1 = n2 ( sin 90 = 1)
n
or cos 1 = 2 --------------------- (2)
n1
Rewriting equation (1) we have
n
Sin 0 = 1 sin 1 sin2  + cos2  = 1
n0
n1
= 1  cos2 1  sin2  = 1 – cos2 
n0

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 sin  = 1  cos2 
Substituting for cos 1 from equation (2), we have
2
n1 n2
Sin 0 = 1 2
n0 n1
2 2
n1 n1  n2
=
n0 n1
2

2 2
n1 n1  n2
=
n0 n1
2 2
n1  n2
=
n0
If the medium surrounding the fibre is air, then n0 = 1
2 2
 sin 0 = n1  n2
2 2
i.e., N.A = n1  n2
If i is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be able to
propagate,
if i < 0
or sin i < sin 0
2 2
or sin i < n1  n2
or sin i < N.A
This is the condition for propagation.

Fractional index ():

The ratio of the difference between the refractive indices of core and cladding
to the refractive index of core of an optical fiber is called fractional index.
n1  n2
= ----------- (*)
n1
Relation between N.A and :
n1  n2
We have  =
n1
Or n1 – n2 = n1 ----------- (A)

n1  n2
2 2
Also N.A =

= (n1  n2 )(n1 - n2 )

= (n1  n2 )n1  From (A)

Since n1  n2, (n1 + n2)  2n1
 N.A = 2n1.n1 
2
= 2n1 

or N.A = n1 2

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Therefore the value of numerical aperture (N.A) can be increased by increasing

the value of fractional index (), so as to receive maximum light into the core.
But fibres with large  will not be useful for optical communication due to the
occurrence of a phenomen inside the fibre called multipath dispersion or
intermodal dispersion. This phenomenon introduces a time delay factor, in
the travel length and may cause distortion of the transmitted optical signal.
This leads to pulse broadening, which inturn limits the communication
distance.

V – number: (based on the theory proposed by Van – Cittert – Zernike

theorem)
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fibre is determined by a
parameter called V number (denoted as V). If the surrounding medium is air,
the V – number is given by,
d 2 2 d
V= n1  n2 or V = (NA)
 
Where d is the core diameter
n1 is the refractive index of the core
n2 is the refractive index of the cladding
 is the wavelength of light propagating in the fibre
NA is the numerical aperture
V2
Number of modes 
2
Types of optical fibres and modes of propagation:
There are mainly three types of optical fibres, they are
1. Step – index single mode fibre
2. Step – index multi mode fibre
3. Graded – index multimode fibre
This classification is done depending on the refractive index profile, and the
number of modes that the fibre can guide.

1. Step – index single – mode fibre

60 t0 70 m

Cladding n2
8 to 10 m Geometry
n1 Light ray
Core

n2

R.I
Profile

R.I

 Radial distance 

Input pulse Output pulse

It consists of a core material of uniform refractive index (n 1). The core is

surrounded by a cladding which is made up of a material of uniform refractive
index (n2). But the refractive index of cladding is lower than the refractive
index of core. This results in a sudden decrease in the value of refractive index

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from core to cladding. Thus its R.I. profile takes the shape of a step. The
diameter of the core is about 8 – 10 m and external diameter of cladding is
about 60 – 70 m

Since the core is narrow, it can guide just a single mode as shown in figure.
Hence it is called single mode fibre. Single mode fibres are most commonly
used and it is less expensive. They need lasers as the source of light.
They find particular application in submarine cable system.

2. Step – index Multimode fibre:

100 to 250 m

Higher order mode

Cladding
50 to
200 m
Geometry
Core

Lower order mode

R.I
Profile

R.I

 Radial distance 

Input pulse Output pulse

It is similar to step index single mode fibre except the diameter of the core is
very large compared to the single mode fibre. The diameter of the core is
about 50 t0 200 m. Thus a large number of rays propagate in the fibre. Its
refractive index profile is also similar to that of a single mode fibre, but with
longer plane regions for the core.
Source used in this type of fibre is either LED or laser.
The rays travel in a zig-zag manner, in which the high angle modes travel a
longer distance as compared to the low angle modes, causing intermodal
dispersion. Therefore a sharp pulse broadens as it travels long distances in the
fibre, which inturn limits the communication distance
3. Graded index Multimode fibre

Cladding 100 to 250 m

Core

50 to
200 m

R.I
Profile

R.I
Input pulse Output pulse
 Radial distance 

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Graded index multimode fibre is similar to that of the step-index multimode

fibre in geometry. But its core material has a special feature that its refractive
index value decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis and
becomes equal to that of the cladding at the interface. The refractive index of
the cladding remains uniform. Its refractive index profile is shown in the figure.
The source used is either a laser or LED.
In this fibre, a number of modes can be transmitted. The rays move in a
sinusoidal path through the core. Light travels at a lower speed in the high
refractive index region of the core (n = c/v) than that in the low refractive
index region. Since the fastest components of the rays take the longer path
and the slower components take the shorter path in the core, the time of travel
of the different modes will be almost same. This reduces the effect of
intermodal dispersion. Therefore losses are minimum with little pulse
broadening.

Application of Fibre Optics:

1. Point to Point communication:
Binary
electrical

 Information such
as voice – analog
(Electrical)
Coder
signals

Optical Fibre
Optical
Transmitter

Light Source
Binary
Information


Photo electrical
Decoder again in
detector
analog form
Signals

Analog information such as voice of a telephone user gives rise to electrical

signal in analog form. This analog signal is converted into binary data using
coder. The binary data comes out as a stream of electrical pulses from the
coder. These electrical pulses are transformed into optical power with the help
of an optical source such as LED or lasers. This unit is called as optical
transmitter from which the optical power is fed into the fibre.
Only certain modes of the incident light, which enters into the core within the
acceptance cone will be sustained for propagation within the fibre by means of
total internal reflection.
Finally at the receiving end, the optical signal from the fibre is fed into a photo
detector, where the signal is converted into pulses of electric current which is
then fed to decoder which converts the binary data into analog signal which will
be the same information as voice.

2. Sensing device: Optical fibre can be used as sensing devices wherein they are
employed to sense parameter such as pressure, voltage or current and the
information is then fed to a processor from which the information is obtained.

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3. Local area networks: Optical fibres provides more efficient communication

facilities in local area networks, wherein the information is required to be
exchanged between terminals which are located at different places.
4. Fibre – Optic endoscope (Fibroscope): It is an optical instrument by using
which a visual inspection or photography of internal parts of human body could
be carried out.
5. Fibrescope with suitable modification is sued in industry for examining welds,
nozzles and combustion chambers in jet aircraft which will be inaccessible for
direct observation.

ATTENUATION:
The loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the
fibre is called attenuation. It is also called fibre loss.
Factors contributing to the attenuation in optical fibre are –
a) Absorption losses.
b) Scatting losses.
c) Bending losses (Radiation loss)
d) Coupling losses.

a. Absorption losses: The loss of signal power occurs due to absorption of

photons associated with signal. Photons are absorbed by
1) Impurities in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of &
2) Intrinsic absorption by the glass material itself.

1. Absorption by impurities:
The impurities that are generally present in fiber glass are iron, chromium,
cobalt & copper. During signal propagation when photons interact with these
impurities, the electrons (in the impurities) absorb the photons and get
excited to higher energy level. Later these electrons give up their absorbed
energy either as heat or light energy. The re-emission of light is of no use,
since it will usually be in a different wavelength or in different phase with
respect to the signal. Hence it is a loss.
2. Intrinsic absorption:
The fiber itself has a tendency to absorb light energy however small it may
be. Hence there will be a loss and is termed as intrinsic absorption.

b. Scattering losses:

(Rayleigh Scattering)
 Defect

The power loss due to the scattering of light energy due to the obstructions
caused by imperfections and defects, which are of molecular size, present in
the fiber itself. The scattering of light by the obstructions is inversely
1
proportional to the 4th power ( i.e., ) of the wavelength of light
λ4
transmitted through the fiber. Such a scattering is called Rayleigh
scattering. The loss due to the scattering can be minimized by using the
optical source of large wave length.
c. Bending Losses (Radiation losses):
Radiation losses occur due to bending of fiber. There are two types of bends.
1. Microscopic bend.

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2. Macroscopic bend
These bends are caused during manufacture as well as due to the applied
stress on the fiber.

Rays scattering
Microscopic bend
Macroscopic bend

Core

Rays escaping from fibre

At the point of bend the light will escape to the surrounding medium due to
the fact that the angle of incidence at that point becomes lesser than the
critical angle. Hence it will not undergo total internal reflection. In order to
avoid this type of losses, the optical fiber has

to be laid without sharp bends and they should be freed from the external
stresses by providing mechanical strength by external encasements.

d. Coupling losses: Coupling losses occur when the ends of the fibers are
connected. At the junction of coupling, a film may exist or joint may be
inclined or may be mismatched and they can produce a loss. This is known as
coupling loss. This loss can be minimized by a technique called splicing.

Note:
The net attenuation is given by a factor called attenuation coefficient (),
in dB/km

10  Pout 
It is expressed by the relation,  (dB/km) =  log 
L  in 
P
Where Pin is the power coupled into the power (power of the input signal)
Pout is the power output at the end (power of the output signal)
L is the length of the fibre in km

Advantages of optical fibres:

1. Optical fibre material are easily available.
2. Optical fibre carries very large amount of information in either digital or
analog form
3. Cost of optical fibre is less compared to the other modes of communication.
4. Optical fibre are light in weight and compact, so the transformation easy.
5. Optical fibre are not effected by lightening or sparkling.
6. Optical fibre do not radiate energy.
7. Optical fibres protect the electrical signal from corrosive and flammable
environments.

Limitations of optical fibres:

1. Optical connectors used for connecting two fibres are highly expensive.

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2. Whenever a fibre suffers a line break, operations required to establish the

connections are highly skillful and time consuming.
3. Fibres undergo expansion and contraction with temperature that upset some
critical alignments, which lead to loss in signal power.
4. Maintenance cost of the systems with optical fibre is very high.
5. Optical fibre break if sharply bent.

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