Experiment No.

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IDENTIFICATION OF PASSIVE COMPONENTS AND
FAMILIARIZATION OF BREAD BOARD

AIM:
To identify the passive components and familiarize bread boards.
OBJECTIVE :

After completion of this experiment, a student will be able to identify different types of
resistors, capacitors, inductors ,transformers and LDR. They are able to use bread board.

APPARATUS/TOOLS/EQUIPMENTS/COMPONENTS:

Sl. No Tools and Equipments with specification Quantity

1 Resistors - various types 5
2 Capacitors - various types 5
3 Inductors - various types 2
4 Transformers - various types 2
5 LDR 2
6 Bread board 1

PRINCIPLE:

1. Resistors :

A Resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the
voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law: I=V/R,
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units
of ohms. There are mainly two types of resistors:

1) Carbon Resistors
2) Wire wound Resistors

1) Carbon Resistors

There are many types of resistors, both fixed and variable. The most common type for
electronics use is the carbon resistor. They are made in different physical sizes with power

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dissipation limits commonly from 1 watt down to 1/8 watt. The resistance value and tolerance
can be determined from the standard resistor colour code. A variation on the color code is used
for precision resistors which may have five colored bands. In that case the first three bands
indicate the first three digits of the resistance value and the fourth band indicates the number of
zeros. In the five band code the fifth band is gold for 1% resistors and silver for 2%.

2) Wire Wound Resistors:

Wire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome,
around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two
caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint,
molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. Because of the very high surface
temperature these resistors can withstand temperatures of up to +450 °C. The aluminum-cased
types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat. Large wire wound resistors
may be rated for 1,000 watts or more.

Resistor colour-coding:

Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance printed on the body. But
there are some that are too smaller in size to have the values printed on it. Thus a system of
colour coding is used to indicate their values.

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Tolerance: It is the measure of the precision with which the resistor is made. It is manufacturer’s
tolerance that shows how the resistance varies from its actual colour coded value. A good
resistor should have low tolerance value.

2. Capacitors:

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy electro statically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin
layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static
electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and
negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor
is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric charge on
each conductor to the potential difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad,
which is equal to one coulomb per volt.

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Types of Capacitors:

How to read Capacitor Codes:

1st Digit 2nd Digit 3rd Digit (Multiplier ×) Tolerance Letter

0 0 0 ×1 C ±0.25 pF

1 1 1 ×10 D ±0.5 pF

2 2 2 ×100 E ±1 pF
3 3 3 ×1000 G ±2 %
4 4 4 ×10000 J ±5 %

5 5 5 ×100000 K ±10 %
6 6 6 ×1000000 L ±15 %

7 7 7 ×10000000 M ±20 %
8 8 8 ×100000000 N ±30 %

9 9 9 ×1000000000 Z +80 % to 20 %

Example: If a capacitor is marked 103J, its value is 10,000 pF ±5 %. If a capacitor code 104, it is
10 followed by four zeros, hence 10 0000 pF.

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 3. Inductors:

Inductor is a coil wound which provides more reactance for high frequencies and low
reactance for low frequencies. Molded inductors follow the same scheme except the units are
usually micro henries. A brown-black-red inductor is most likely a 1000 uH. Sometimes a silver
or gold band is used as a decimal point. So a red-gold-violet inductor would be a 2.7 uH. Also
expect to see a wide silver or gold band before the first value band and a thin tolerance band at
the end.

4. Transformers:

A transformer basically is very simple static (or stationary) electro-magnetic passive

electrical device that works on the principle of Faraday’s law of induction by converting
electrical energy from one value to another. The transformer does this by linking together two
or more electrical circuits using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the
transformer itself. A transformer operates on the principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in
the form of Mutual Induction. Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire
magnetically induces a voltage into another coil located in close proximity to it. There are two
types of transformers according to the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings.

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 1. Step up transformer: These have more turns in the secondary than primary. So the
secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage.

2. Step down transformer: These have more turns in the primary than secondary. So the
primary voltage is greater than the secondary voltage.

A transformer can be tested using a multimeter by measuring the resistance of primary

and secondary windings. If the number of turns is more, multimeter shows more resistance
value. If the value shows zero or infinity, then the transformer is faulty.

According to the type of core transformers can be classified as

1. Iron core
2. Ferrite core
In the case of iron core, it is normally designed for 50Hz and are known as power
transformers. The ferrite core transformers can be used for high frequency sinusoidal and non-
sinusoidal wave applications.

5. LDR (Light Dependent Resistors):

An LDR is basically a variable resistor and its value depends on the light intensity. Without
light its resistance is very high in terms of MΩ and is called dark resistance. As the intensity of
light increases, the resistance decreases.

6. Breadboard:

In order to temporarily construct a circuit without damaging the components used to

build it, we must have some sort of a platform that will both hold the components in place and
provide the needed electrical connections. In the early days of electronics, most experimenters
were amateur radio operators. They constructed their radio circuits on wooden breadboards.
Although more sophisticated techniques and devices have been developed to make the assembly
and testing of electronic circuits easier, the concept of the breadboard still remains in assembling
components on a temporary platform.

A real breadboard is shown in Fig. (a) and the connection details on its rear side are
shown in Fig. (b). The five holes in each individual column on either side of the central groove
are electrically connected to each other, but remain insulated from all other sets of holes. In
addition to the main columns of holes, however, you'll note four sets or groups of holes along the

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top and bottom. Each of these consists of five separate sets of five holes each, for a total of 25
holes. These groups of 25 holes are all connected together on either side of the dotted line
indicated on Fig.1(a) and needs an external connection if one wishes the entire row to be
connected. This makes them ideal for distributing power to multiple ICs or other circuits.

Fig (a): Typical Bread Board

Fig (b) : Connection details

PROCEDURE:

1. Collect different types of Resistors and identify it.

2. Collect different types of Capacitors and identify it.
3. Collect different types of Inductors and identify it.
4. Collect different types of Transformers and classify according to the type.
5. Collect LDR and measure its resistance at different conditions.
6. Study the connection details of breadboard.

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OBSERVATIONS:

Sl. No Name of Component Type Value

RESULT:

Identified different types of passive components and studied the connection details of a
bread board.

INFERENCE:

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 Experiment No.2
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

AIM:
To identify the various types of Electronics Instruments used in Laboratory.
OBJECTIVE :
After completion of this experiment, a student be able to identify and use various
Electronics Instruments like Ammeter, Voltmeter, Multimeter, Function Generator, Power
Supply and CRO.

APPARATUS/TOOLS/EQUIPMENTS/COMPONENTS:

Sl. No Tools and Equipments with specification Quantity

1 Ammeter 1
2 Voltmeter 1
3 Multimeter(Analog and Digital) 1 each
4 Function Generator 1
5 Power Supply 1
6 CRO 1

PRINCIPLE:

1. Ammeter:

An Ammeter is a device used to measure current through a path. It is connected in series

with the load. So its internal impedance should be very low. There are two types of ammeters AC
and DC. DC Ammeter are mainly PMMC instruments, MI can measure both AC and DC currents,
also Electrodynamometer type thermal instrument can measure DC and AC, induction meters
are not generally used for ammeter construction due to their higher cost, inaccuracy in
measurement.

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2. Voltmeter:

A voltmeter, also known as a voltage meter, is an instrument used for measuring the
potential difference, or voltage, between two points in an electrical or electronic circuit. Some
voltmeters are intended for use in direct current (DC) circuits; others are designed for
alternating current (AC) circuits. Specialized voltmeters can measure radio frequency (RF)
voltage.

3. Multimeters:

A multimeter can measure continuity, resistance, voltage and sometimes even current,
capacitance, temperature, etc. When used to measure voltage, the multimeter is called a
voltmeter and it measures the potential difference across two points. When used to measure
resistance, the multimeter is called an ohmmeter and it measures the resistance through an
electrical component. When used to measure current, the multimeter is called an ammeter and
it measures the current flowing.

Digital Multimeter Multimeter probe Analog Multimeter

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 We can use the multimeter to measure the Voltage of a battery for example. Notice where
the leads are connected and where the dial is positioned on the multimeter.

We can use the multimeter to measure the resistance of a decade resistance box. Notice
where the leads are connected and where the dial is positioned on the multimeter.

We can use the multimeter to measure the Amps in a simple circuit consisting of a battery
and a resistance box. Notice that current is flowing from the battery, through the resistance box,
and through the multimeter

4. Power supply:

Regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to provide a constant dc

voltage of predetermined value across load terminals irrespective of ac mains fluctuations or

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load variations. The two main parts of a regulated power supply are a simple power supply and
a voltage regulating device. The power supply output is given as input to the voltage regulating
device that provides the final output. The voltage output of the power supply remains constant
irrespective of large variations in the input AC voltage or output load current. Laboratory type
power supply has an voltage ratings of 0-30V/5A and +/-15V. The voltage can be varied using
coarse control(rapid variation) and fine control(small variation). Similarly using current control
knob, we can adjust the maximum current. The figure below shows a dual power supply.

5. Function Generator:

Function generators are items of test equipment that are able to generate a variety of
simple repetitive waveforms. Straightforward signal generators such as RF signal generators or
simple audio oscillators focus on producing a good sine waves, but in many cases other
waveforms are needed. In addition to producing sine waves, function generators may typically
produce other repetitive waveforms including sawtooth and triangular waveforms, square
waves, and pulses. Another feature included on many function generators is the ability to add a
DC offset.

Often some of the low end function generators may only operate up to frequencies of
possibly around 100 kHz as the various shaped waveforms are normally only needed at lower
frequencies. However many other more comprehensive function generators are able to operate
at much higher frequencies, often up to 10 or 20 MHz.

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 Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive waveforms, generally
from the list below:

• Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard
sine wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with
a standard sinusoidal shape.

• Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to
produce. It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.

• Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator. It
is same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to 1:1.

• Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly
moves between a high and low point.

• Sawtooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the
waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a sawtooth.

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Function generator controls:
In addition to a selection of the basic waveforms that are available, other controls on the
function generator may include:
• Frequency: As would be expected, this control alters the basic frequency at which the
waveform repeats. It is independent of the waveform type.
• Waveform type : This enables the different basic waveform types to be selected:
1. Sine wave
2. Square wave
3. Triangular wave
• DC offset: This alters the average voltage of a signal relative to 0V or ground.
• Duty cycle: This control on the function generator changes the ratio of high voltage to
low voltage time in a square wave signal, i.e. changing the waveform from a square wave
with a 1:1 duty cycle to a pulse waveform, or a triangular waveform with equal rise and
fall times to a sawtooth.
6. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):

C.R.O. (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) is the instrument which is used to observe signal
waveforms. Signals are displayed in time domain i.e. variation in amplitude of the signal with
respect to time is plotted on the CRO screen. X-axis represents time and Y-axis represents
amplitude. It is used to measure amplitude, frequency and phase of the waveforms. It is also used
to observe shape of the waveform. C.R.O. is useful for troubleshooting purpose. It helps us to find
out gain of amplifier, test oscillator circuits. We can measure amplitude and frequency of the
waveforms at the different test points in our circuit. Thus, it helps us for fault finding procedure.
In dual channel C.R.O. X-Y mode is available which is used to create Lissajous patterns.

Front Panel Control:

The functions of the various controls of the CRO are as follows:-

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 1. Power on: It is used to switch on the instrument.
2. Intensity: It controls the trace intensity (brightness) by from zero to maximum.
3. Focus: It controls the sharpness of the trace. Focus and intensity control should be used
together to get a sharp, low intensity trace.
4. X-position: It is used to move the trace left to rite.
5. Y-position: It is used to move. the trace up and down
6. VOLT/DIV: It is used for displaying the wave form in suitable vertical size. Amplitude of
The signal can be determined by multiplying with the number of divisions in the y-axis
with the selected volt/div control. The vertical deflection can be selected from 5mV/div
to 10V/div in steps.
7. Time/div: It is used for displaying the wave form in suitable horizontal size. Time Period
of the displayed signal can be obtained by multiplying the number of division for one cycle
with the time /div
8. AC-GND-DC: It selects method of coupling of input signals. In ac, the direct coupling
component of the input signal is blocked. In GND, the input circuit is grounded but the
applied signal is not connected to a de ground. In de all components of the input are
passed to a vertical input amplifier of the oscilloscope.
9. CAL: It is the calibration signal output. It typically provides a 1 KHz square waveform.
10. CH1/CH2: This switch selects the trigger signal in INT mode derived from either channel
1(CH1) OR channel (CH2) inputs.
11. DUAL: In DUAL mod, the CRO operates as a dual trace oscilloscope.
12. AUTO/NORM: In auto mod, tracks give displays in the absence of any input signals. In
normal mod, tracks give displays only when the input signal is present.
13. HOLD OFF: This provides the hold off high frequency and complex signal triggering.
14. X10 mag: It expands the length of time base.
15. CT Mode

7. Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO):

While analog devices make use of continually varying voltages, digital devices employ
binary numbers which correspond to samples of the voltage. In the case of digital oscilloscopes,
an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is used to change the measured voltages into digital
information.

The digital storage oscilloscope, or DSO for short, is now the preferred type for most
industrial applications, although simple analog CROs are still used by hobbyists. It replaces the
unreliable storage method used in analog storage scopes with digital memory, which can store
data as long as required without degradation. It also allows complex processing of the signal by
high-speed digital signal processing circuits.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the ammeter in a circuit and measure the current flowing it.
2. Connect the voltmeter in a circuit and measure the voltage across the load.
3. Connect the multimeter to measure the voltage, current and resistance.
4. Using various control switches in function generator observe the different waveforms
using Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.
5. Switch ON the power supply and observe the output voltage using multimeter.
6. Using Function generator apply different wave forms and observe the wave forms using
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

RESULT:

Studied the operation and use of different laboratory equipments.

INFERENCE:

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