GE ELECT 7: INDIGENOUS CREATIVE CRAFTS

OVERVIEW OF THE PHILIPPINE ARTS OTHER TRADITIONAL ARTS

(TRADITIONAL AND NON-TRADITIONAL ARTS) Such as non-ornamental metalwork, martial arts, supernatural
hearing arts, medicine, and astrological traditions cannot be
WHAT IS ARTS? clearly classified. (e.g., Martial Arts and Cuisine).
It is the expression of ideas and emotions through a physical
medium, like painting, sculpture, film, dance, writing, NON-TRADITIONAL ARTS
photography, or theatre. It includes dance, music, drama, visual arts, literature, film
and broadcast arts, architecture and related arts and design.
FILIPINO ARTS A prominent artist is named National Artist of the
These are arts from the beginning of civilization to the present Philippines.
day. These reflect various artistic influences on the country’s
culture, including indigenous art. DANCE
includes choreography, staging, and performance.
The National Commission for Culture and the Arts Filipino dance is influenced by the country’s folk art and
(NCCA), the Philippine government’s cultural agency, Hispanic traditions. Many styles have global influence.
categorizes Philippine arts into Traditional and Non- (e.g., Kunto-Lumad Dance and Maglalatik).
Traditional Arts.
MUSIC
TRADITIONAL ARTS refers to the centrality of composition, staging and
Philippine traditional arts include folk architecture, maritime performance. Filipino music is based on the traditions of
transport, weaving, sculpture, folk performing arts, folk many ethnic groups in the country, some of the which have
(oral) literature, folk graphic and plastic arts, ornaments, been influenced by other Asian and Western music (mainly
textile or textiles arts, pottery, and other forms of traditional Hispanic and American music) (e.g., Kundiman and Manila
culture and expressions. Sound).

ETHNOMEDICINE THEATER
is one of the oldest tradition arts in the Philippines. has a long history and is a central art form of directing,
Traditions and related items are practiced by medical artisans performance, stage, design, lighting and sound design,
and shamans. (e.g., Albularyo and Babaylan). and scriptwriting. It is of Austonesian character, evidenced
by ritualistic and imitative dances. Spanish culture has
FOLK ARCHITECTURE indluenced Filipino plays and theathrical performance. (e.g.
It varies by ethnicity and is made of materials such as Tulauk and Carrillo).
bamboo, wood, rock, coral, rattan, and grass.
(e.g., Bahay Kubo and Darul Jambangan). VISUAL ARTS
Include painting, sculptures, printmaking, photography,
MARITIME TRANSPORT installation art, mixed media works, illustration, graphic arts,
It includes boathouse, boat building and maritime traditions. performance art and imaging. (e.g., Camarin de la Virgen and
These structures are traditionally made of wood selected Mactan Shrine in Lapu-Lapu).
by elders and craftsmen and connected the islands.
(e.g., Balangay and Karakoa). LITERATURE
poetry, novels, essays, and literary and artistic criticism are
WEAVING usually influenced by folk literature with a focus on epics, folk
It is an ancient art form, and each ethnic group has its myths, and related stories and traditions. Calligraphy on
own weaving technique. Woven fabrics include basket various mediums was used to create literary works.
weaving, back strap weaving, headgear weaving, and fishnet (e.g., Doctrina Christiana).
weaving. (e.g., Cloth & Mat Weaving and Bakya).
FILM AND BROADCASTING
CARVING Focuses on directing, scriptwriting, production, design,
Sculpture includes woodcarving and folk sculpture cinematography, editing, animation, performance, and new
production. (e.g., Buraq and Rock Carving). media, Filipino cinema began with his 1897 introduction of
moving pictures to manila. (e.g., Country Maiden and Oro,
FOLK PERFORMING ARTS Plata, Mata).
Folk dances, dramas, and plays are performed. Each
ethnic group has its traditions, and Spain and America also ARCHITECTURE AND ALLIED ARTS
influence Filipino folk arts. Some dances are related to those focuses on non-folk architecture and related arts such as
of neighboring Austronesia and other Asia countries. interior design, landscape architecture, and urban design
(e.g., Binasuan and Tinikling). (e.g., Manila Cathedral and The Manila Hotel)

FOLK (ORAOL) LITERATURE DESIGN

This includes epics, songs, myths, and other oral literature of includes industrial design and fashion design (e.g., Fashion
Filipino ethnic groups. The poetry of this country is rich in and Kitchenwares).
metaphors. (e.g., Aswang and Florante at Laura).
NATIONAL ARTIST
FOLK GRAPHIC & PLASTIC ARTS The National Artist Award, now an order, is dubbed as
These are tattoos, folk characters, folk drawings and the highest state honor given to individuals who have
paintings. (e.g., Kapampangan and Folk Drawings). done much in their artistic fields. For most people, it is the
peak of artistry to be instituted as such, an honor, a title, and
ORNAMENTS recognition for the mastery of their craft and their significant
The decorative arts include accessories, and metalwork. contributions. The specific rationale to be elevated to this
(e.g., Beaded Ornaments and Funerary Ornaments). order is to "have made significant contributions to the
development of Philippine arts." A reason is both
POTTERY (CERAMIC) ARTS appealing yet unfree from certain biases that constitute "art"
(pottery, clay, folk clay sculpture) has been part of the itself.
Philippine culture for about 3,500 years. Notable artifacts
include the Manungul jar (890-710 BC) and anthropomorphic GUILLERMO ESTRALLA TOLENTINO
Maitum pottery (5 BC-225 AD). (e.g., Manunggul Jar and A Filipino sculptor and professor at the University of the
Indigenous Porcelain). Philippines. He was designated as a National Artist of the
Philippines for Sculpture in 1973, three years before his
death. (e.g., UP Oblation Monument, Andres Bonifacio
Monument, and Luisa Marasigan)
JUAN F. NAKPIL TEOFILO GARCIA
architect, teacher, and civic leader, is a pioneer and innovator A Filipino hatter who is regarded as a National Living
in Philippine architecture. He was awarded National Artist Treasure in the Philippines for making tabungaw hats, a
for Architecture in 1973. In essence, Nakpil's most type of Ilocano headwear.
significant contribution is his belief that there is such a thing
as Philippine Architecture, espousing architecture reflective of For centuries, the Ilocano people in Northern Luzon, where
Philippine traditions and culture. Garcia lives, have worn these hats, which are called, like the
(e.g., Capitol Theater, Quezon Hall, and Geronimo Delos vegetable they are formed from, tabungaw. High-school
Reyes) children wore them for graduations. Farmers sheltered
themselves under their brims while plowing fields. They've
FERNANDO AMORSOLO Y CUETO even been donned by revolutionaries charging into battle
The Philippines' first National Artist and is officially against the Spanish.
recognized as the "Grand Old Man of Philippine Art".
Renowned for his trademark luminosity and ability to render EDUARDO TUBIG MUTUC
the iconic provincial Filipina, Amorsolo's paintings usually A Filipino metalsmith and sculptor. He is known to be a
feature scenes in glowing rural landscapes. practitioner of the craft of pinukpuk, which involves the
(e.g., Princess Urdua, El Ciego, and The Palay Maiden) stamping of embellishments on metal sheets. Mutuc creates
works of both secular and religious nature using silver,
FRANCISCA REYES AQUINO wood, and bronze mediums. This includes retablos, mirrors,
Acknowledged as the Folk Dance Pioneer. This Bulakeña altars and carosas.
began her research on folk dances in the 1920s, making trips
to remote barrios in Central and Northern Luzon. She was the MAGDALENA GAMAYO
National Artist for Dance in 1973. A native of Pinili, Ilocos Norte, learned the Ilocano
(e.g., Folk Dances) weaving tradition of making inabel from her aunt at age
16. She became best known for weaving the sinan-sabong
Her research on the unrecorded forms of local celebration, since it is the most challenging pattern among the four.
ritual, and sport resulted in a 1926 thesis titled "Philippine
Folk Dances and Games," which was arranged specifically Inubon a sabong, meaning a string of flowers, is a design
for use by teachers and playground instructors in public and created by Magdalena Gamayo with a unique and difficult
private schools. weaving technique called "pinilian".

JOVITA FUENTES
One of the most extraordinary Filipino vocal talents, she
was also the first Filipino international star in the world of
opera.

In April 1925, Fuentes made her international debut as

Cio Cio San in Puccini's Madama Butterfly staged in Italy's
Teatro Municipale di Piacenza. She then went on to perform
in the Philippines, the United States, and Europe, where her
fame spread and where she essayed the lead roles in major
operas- Mimi in Puccini's La Bohème, Iris in Mascagni's Iris,
and Salome in Strauss's Salome. Her performance in the
New York production of Madama Butterfly was also highly
acclaimed.

MANLILIKHA NG BAYAN
On the other hand, the Gawad Manlilikha ng Bayan
(GAMAΒΑ), translated officially in English as the National
Living Treasures Award, is given to artists in recognition
of their contributions to our "cultural heritage." The
Award, unlike the former, is not instituted as an order, yet
said to be an equivalent to the Order of the National Artists. A
simple contrast between the two would be that the National
Artist Award is given to masters of the fine arts and the
like, while the GAMABA is given to the artists of
indigenous and ethnic art.

GINAW BILOG
a Filipino poet who was recognized as a National Living
Treasure by the Philippine government. Bilog was a
Hanunuo Mangyan who was a native of Mansalay, Oriental
Mindoro. He was known for his efforts in preserving the
Mangyan poetry tradition of ambahan.

The ambahan is the traditional poetry of the Hanunuo

Mangyans of Oriental Mindoro. It is usually written on
bamboo in the Surat Mangyan, a centuries-old pre- Spanish
script. The syllabic script and the ambahan poetry have
complemented each other, contributing to their continued
existence today.

LANG DULAY
A Filipino traditional weaver who was a recipient of the
National Living Treasures Award. She is credited with
preserving her people's tradition of weaving T'nalak, a dyed
fabric made from refined abaca fiber.

Tnalak (also spelled tenalak) is a weaving tradition of the

Tboli people of South Cotabato, Philippines. T'nalak cloth
is woven exclusively by women who have received the
designs for the weave in their dreams, which they believe
are a gift from Fu Dalu, the T'boli Goddess of abacá.
 ITA 215: IT INFRASTRUCTURE & NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

IT INFRASTRUCTURE 5. Cloud and Mobile Computing

- Is a combination of Hardware, Software, Network, Security, - The growing bandwidth power of the Internet has pushed
Data Centers and Telecommunications. the client/server model one step further, towards what is
- The foundational technology components that enable and called the ―Cloud Computing Model.‖ Cloud computing refers
support an organization's information technology (IT) systems to a model of computing that provides access to a
and operation. shared pool of computing resources (computers,
storage, applications, and services) over a network, often
Includes: the Internet.

1. HARDWARE
• Servers, desktops, laptops, and other computing devices
• Storage systems
• Networking equipment (switches, routers, firewalls, etc.)
• Peripheral devices

2. SOFTWARE
• Operating systems
• Middleware
• Databases
• Application software
TECHNOLOGY DRIVERS OF INFRASTRUCTURE
3. NETWORKING
• Local Area Networks (LANs) 1. Moore’s Law and Microprocessing power
• Wide Area Networks (WANs) - Computing power doubles every 2 years
• Wireless networks - Nanotechnology
• Internet connectivity
• Communication protocols 2. Law of Mass Digital Storage
- The amount of data being stored each year doubles.
EVOLUTION OF IT INFRASTRUCTURE
3. Metcalfe’s Law and Network Economies
1. Tabulating Machine - Value or power of a network grows exponentially as a
- an electromechanical machine designed to assist in function of the number of network members.
summarizing information stored on punched cards.
- Invented by Herman Hollerith, the machine was 4. Koomey’s Law
developed to help process data for the 1890 U.S. Census. 5. Swanson’s Law
Later models were widely used for business applications such
as accounting and inventory control.

2. Mainframe
- The introduction of the IBM 1401 and 7090 transistorized
machines in 1959 marked the beginning of widespread
commercial use of mainframe computers. In 1965, the
mainframe computer truly came into its own with the
introduction of the IBM 360 series. Mainframe computers
became powerful enough to support thousands of online
remote terminals connected to the centralized mainframe
using proprietary communication protocols and proprietary
data lines. COMPUTER HARDWARE PLATFORMS
- refers to the underlying computer architecture,
3. Personal Computers components, and infrastructure that support the
- Proliferation of PCs in the 1980s and early 1990s operation of a system, device, or technology. It typically
launched a spate of personal desktop productivity includes elements such as the central processing unit (CPU),
software tools—word processors, spreadsheets, electronic memory, storage, and input/output devices.
presentation software, and small data management - consists of a hardware device and an operating system
programs—that were very valuable to both home and that an application, program or process runs upon.
corporate users. These PCs were stand-alone systems until
PC operating system software in the 1990s made it possible There are several common hardware platforms used in
to link them into networks. modern computing, including: (types)
1. Desktop/Workstation Platforms:
4. Client - Server - Traditional desktop computers with a tower case, monitor,
- In client/server computing, desktop or laptop computers keyboard, and mouse.
called clients are networked to powerful server - Workstations designed for professional applications like
computers that provide the client computers with a engineering, 3D modeling, video editing, etc.
variety of services and capabilities. Computer processing
work is split between these two types of machines. The client 2. Laptop/Notebook Platforms:
is the user point of entry, whereas the server typically - Portable computers with an integrated display, keyboard,
processes and stores shared data, serves up Web pages, or and touchpad/track pad.
manages network activities. The term “server” refers to - Offer mobility and battery-powered operation.
both the software application and the physical computer
on which the network software runs. 3. Server Platforms:
- Specialized computers designed for hosting, data
5. Enterprise Computing processing, and providing services to client devices.
- In the early 1990s, firms turned to networking standards - May feature enterprise-grade components, high-
and software tools that could integrate disparate networks performance processors, and redundant power supplies.
and applications throughout the firm into an enterprise-
wide infrastructure. As the Internet developed into a trusted 4. Mobile Platforms:
communications environment after 1995, business firms - Smartphones and tablets with touchscreen interfaces and
began seriously using the Transmission Control compact, portable designs.
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) networking standard to tie - Often powered by mobile-optimized system-on-a-chip (SoC)
their disparate networks together. processors.
5. Embedded Platforms: Market Impact: Windows' dominance in the market has
- Specialized hardware designed for specific applications, influenced software development, with most applications
such as industrial control systems, IoT devices, and single- being designed to be compatible with it.
board computers (e.g., Raspberry Pi). The operating system is widely used in business,
- Typically have limited resources but are optimized for their education, and gaming, making it a critical part of the global
intended use cases. IT infrastructure.

6. Cloud/Virtual Platforms: LINUX OPERATING SYSTEM

- Computing resources provided as a service, where the Definition: Linux, created by Linus Torvalds in 1991, is an
physical hardware is hosted in data centers and accessed open-source, Unix-like operating system valued
remotely. for its security, flexibility, and wide use in servers and
- Users can access cloud-based platforms through web development environments.
browsers or dedicated client applications.
Customization and Use: One of Linux’s key strengths is its
COMPUTER HARDWARE PLATFORMS COMPONENTS customizability. Users can choose from various distributions
1. Processor (CPU) (distros) like Ubuntu, Fedora, and CentOS, each tailored for
2. Memory (RAM) different purposes, from personal desktops to enterprise
3. Storage servers.
4. Motherboard
5. Power Supply Unit (PSU) Adoption and Influence: Linux powers a significant portion
6. Input/Output (I/O) Devices of the world’s servers, including those running major
7. Cooling System websites, cloud services, and supercomputers. Its influence
8. Expansion Slots extends beyond traditional computing environments, being
widely used in embedded systems, smartphones (through
Android), and other devices.
IT INFRASTRUCTURE COMPONENTS
MacOS
OPERATING SYSTEM PLATFORMS Definition: macOS, launched by Apple in 2001 and
is system software that manages computer hardware and founded by Steve Jobs, is a proprietary operating system
software resources, and provides common services for designed for Mac computers, known for its sleek design,
computer programs. strong security, and seamless integration with other Apple
products.
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM
• Manages the execution of processes and multitasking. User Experience: macOS is praised for its intuitive user
• Handles allocation and deal location of memory space. interface, consistent design language, and integration with
• Organizes, stores, retrieves, and manages data on storage Apple’s ecosystem, including devices like the iPhone, iPad,
devices. and Apple Watch.
• Controls and manages input/output devices.
Security and Privacy: Apple places a strong emphasis on
An operating system (OS) platform refers to the security and privacy in macOS, implementing features such
combination of hardware and software that enables as FileVault for disk encryption, Gatekeeper for app security,
applications to run on a computer. It encompasses the and regular security updates.
underlying computer system, including the microprocessor,
main storage, data bus, and attached I/O devices, as well as ENTERPRISE SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS
the operating system itself. refers to applications used by organizations to support
business operations, improve efficiency, and facilitate
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM PLATFORM decision-making.
These applications are typically integrated across various
 DESKTOP PLATFORMS departments, enabling seamless data sharing and
Designed for personal computers, these platforms include collaboration.
Windows, macOS, and Linux distributions.
 MOBILE PLATFORMS KEY CHARACTERISTICS
Optimized for smartphones and tablets, these platforms  SCALABILITY
include Android, iOS, and Windows Mobile. Enterprise software applications are designed to handle large
 SERVER PLATFORMS amounts of data and user traffic, making them suitable for
Designed for data centers and cloud computing, these organizations of all sizes.
platforms include Linux distributions, Windows Server, and  INTEGRATION
Unix-based systems. They often integrate with other systems and applications
 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS MAINFRAME PLATFORMS within the organization, such as CRM, ERP, and HR systems.
Designed for personal computers, these platforms include  COMPLEXITY
Windows, macOS, and Linux distributions. Enterprise software applications typically have a complex
 MAINFRAME PLATFORMS architecture and require significant customization to meet the
Designed for large-scale enterprise computing, these specific needs of the organization.
platforms include z/OS (formerly OS/390) and z/VM.  FUNCTIONALITY
They provide a range of features and functionalities to
WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM support business processes, such as data analytics,
Definition: Windows, developed by Microsoft and founded reporting, and workflow automation.
by Bill Gates in 1985, is a widely used proprietary operating
 SECURITY
system known for its user-friendly interface and broad
compatibility with software and hardware. Enterprise software applications prioritize security and data
protection, with features like access controls, encryption, and
Evolution: Since its initial release, Windows has evolved audit trails.
significantly, introducing major updates like Windows XP,
Windows 7, and the current Windows 10/11. These BENEFITS OF ENTERPRISE SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS
versions have added features such as improved security, 1. Improved Efficiency: Automate repetitive tasks and
enhanced graphics, and better support for modern hardware, streamline business processes.
maintaining its position as a dominant player in the OS
2. Enhanced Collaboration: Facilitate communication and
market.
data sharing across departments and teams.
3. Increased Productivity: Provide employees with the tools
and insights they need to make informed decisions.
4. Better Decision-Making: Offer data-driven insights and  OBJECT STORAGE: the data or files are broken into
analytics to inform strategic business decisions. pieces of information known as objects. Each object
5. Competitive Advantage: Differentiate the organization is a self-contained repository with a unique identifier.
through innovative use of technology and data.
CHALLENGES
EXAMPLE OF ENTERPRISE SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS
1. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems: Manage
financials, supply chain, human resources, and operations
across the organization.
2. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems:
Track customer interactions, sales, and marketing efforts.
3. Human Capital Management (HCM) systems: Manage
employee data, benefits, and performance.
4. Supply Chain Management (SCM) systems: Optimize
inventory, logistics, and procurement processes.
5. Business Intelligence (BI) tools: Analyze and visualize
data to inform business decisions.

DATA MANAGEMENT AND STORAGE NETWORKING AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

refers to the process of optimizing the use of storage PLATFORMS
devices and protecting the integrity of data across
various media. It involves monitoring software and hardware
assets, resolving performance issues, and analyzing real-time TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
storage capacity to improve the end-user experience. Enable the transmission of data over public or private
networks.
KEY ATTRIBUTES
1. Performance: Ensuring fast access to data while NETWORK
maintaining system performance. A communications, data exchange and resource-sharing
2. Reliability: Protecting data from loss, corruption, or system created by linking two or more computers and
establishing standards, or protocols, so that they can work
unauthorized access.
together
3. Recoverability: Ensuring data can be restored in case of
system failure or data loss. Networks allow multiple users to share devices such as
4. Capacity: Managing storage capacity to accommodate printers and share data, for example spreadsheets which are
growing data volumes. collectively known as network resources.

FEATURES NETWORK BASICS

1. Storage Virtualization: Abstracting storage resources to Architecture -peer-to-peer, client/server
Topology - bus, star, ring, hybrid, wireless
improve flexibility and scalability.
Protocols - Ethernet, Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet
2. Automation: Streamlining storage management tasks Protocol (TCP/IP)
through software-defined storage. Media - coaxial, twisted-pair, fiber-optic
3. Security: Implementing robust security measures to
prevent unauthorized access and data breaches. ARCHITECTURE
4. Data Retention Policy: Defining data retention periods Peer-to-peer is the simplest type of network; every
and disposal processes to ensure compliance and optimize computer can communicate directly with every other
computer.
storage resources.
5. Monitoring and Analytics: Tracking storage system Client/Server networks use a central computer, known as
performance, capacity, and usage to identify bottlenecks and Server to facilitate communication and resource sharing
optimize resource allocation. between other computers on a network, which are known as
Clients.
TYPES OF DATA
 STRUCTURED DATA - Organized, easily searchable NETWORK TOPOLOGY
refers to the geometric arrangement of the actual physical
data, often in databases (e.g., spreadsheets).
organization of the computers and other network devices in a
 UNSTRUCTURED DATA - Data without a predefined network.
format (e.g., emails, videos) (e.g. Bus Topology, Star Topology, Ring Topology, Hybrid
 SEMI-STRUCTURED DATA - Data with some Topology)
organizational properties (e.g., XML files).
PROTOCOLS
ETHERNET uses a method called Carrier Sense Multiple
TYPES OF DATA STORAGE
Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to manage data
 CLOUD STORAGE: enables organizations to store transmission and prevent collisions. It supports a variety of
data in the cloud, making it more easily accessible to speeds, including Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet
authorized users through the internet. (1 Gbps), and 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps).
 SOFTWARE-DEFINED STORAGE: is an approach
used to manage data through abstraction. It works by Commonly used in office networks, home networks, and data
centers for connecting computers, switches, routers, and
abstracting data from the physical storage organized
other devices.
for network use.
 FILE STORAGE: is one of the most common data TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL AND INTERNET
storage approaches used by organizations. It stores PROTOCOL (TCP/IP) is the foundational protocol suite for
data in a hierarchical format as a single piece of the Internet and other networks. It combines two main
protocols. A layered suite, with each layer handling different
information.
aspects of communication. IP addresses devices on the
 BLOCK STORAGE: divides the storage into network, while TCP ensures the data is delivered correctly.
independent blocks. Each block has its own unique
identity that ensures data security and provides the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Ensures reliable,
freedom to place small pieces of information ordered, and error-checked delivery of data between
conveniently for faster retrieval. applications running on hosts.
Internet Protocol (IP): Handles addressing and routing of - Systems Integration: Combining different IT systems and
packets across the network, ensuring that they reach the software to work together seamlessly for organizations.
correct destination. - Application Services: Developing and maintaining custom
software applications for businesses.
MEDIA - Business Process Outsourcing (BPO): Handling specific
COAXIAL CABLE consists of a central conductor, an business processes for clients, such as human resources and
insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating finance.
layer. It's used for both analog and digital transmission. 3. ACCENTURE is a global professional services company
that offers a range of services in technology, consulting, and
Coaxial cables are highly resistant to electromagnetic operations. In the context of IT ecosystems, Accenture plays
interference, making them ideal for transmitting signals over several key roles:
long distances without significant loss of quality. - Consulting and Strategy: Accenture provides advisory
services to help organizations design and implement IT
TWISTED-PAIR CABLES consist of pairs of insulated copper strategies that align with their business goals. This includes
wires twisted together. They come in two varieties: digital transformation, technology modernization, and
innovation strategies.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Commonly used in - Technology Integration: They help integrate and
Ethernet networks. implement advanced technologies such as cloud computing,
artificial intelligence, and data analytics within existing IT
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has additional shielding to ecosystems.
reduce electromagnetic interference. - Managed Services: Accenture offers ongoing management
FIBER-OPTIC CABLES use light signals to transmit data. and support for IT systems, ensuring they run efficiently and
They consist of a core (made of glass or plastic), cladding, adapt to changing business needs.
and a protective outer coating. - Partnerships: They often collaborate with leading
technology providers (like Microsoft, Oracle, and SAP) to
It offers high-speed data transmission with minimal signal deliver specialized solutions and leverage their partners’
loss over long distances. They are immune to technologies.
electromagnetic interference and can support very high - Innovation: Accenture invests in research and development
bandwidths. to drive innovation in IT ecosystems, such as developing new
tools and methodologies to improve business processes.
NETWORKING & TELECOMMUNICATION PLATFORMS
IT infrastructure is built on key hardware components such as INTERNET PLATFORMS
servers, data centers, storage devices, and networking are online services or application that enables users to
equipment, which form the backbone of an organization’s interact, share, content, or conduct transaction over the
computing and data storage capabilities. Alongside this internet.
hardware, essential software—including operating systems
like Windows Server and Linux, virtualization platforms such They range from social media sites like Facebook and Twitter
as VMware, and management tools—ensures efficient to e-commerce platforms like Amazon. These platforms
operation and resource management. The growing adoption provide spaces for users to connect, communicate, and
of cloud infrastructure, whether public, private, or hybrid, engage with each other or with digital content. They often
provides flexible and scalable computing environments, have specific features, rules, and policies governing user
offering services like Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), behavior within their ecosystems.
Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service
(SaaS). Security is a critical aspect, with measures such as HISTORY OF INTERNET PLATFORMS TIMELINE
firewalls, intrusion detection/prevention systems (IDS/IPS), 1969 - Arpanet was the first real network to run on packet
encryption, and access control being integral to protecting switching technology (new at the time)
data and maintaining network integrity. 1970 - An Arpanet network was established between
Harvard, MT, and BBN in 1970.
CONSULTING AND SYSTEM INTEGRATION SERVICES 1971 - Email was first developed in 1971 by Ray Tomlinson
help businesses improve their use of technology and manage 1972 - France began its own Arpanet-like project in 1972
their IT systems. Consulting involves assessing current called CYCLADES.
technology, recommending improvements, and developing 1973 - The first trans-Atlantic connection and the popularity of
strategies to meet business goals. System Integration emailing.
focuses on making different IT systems work together 1974 - The beginning of TCP/IP 1974 was a breakthrough
seamlessly by designing, implementing, and testing year.
integration solutions. Together, these services enhance 1975 - The email client with the popularity of emailing. the
operational efficiency and support business growth. first modern email program was developed by John Vittal.
1977 - The PC modem was a big year for the development of
KEY FEATURES the internet as we know it today.
1. IBM or International Business Machines Corporation is 1978 - Spam is born and The Bulletin Board System (BBS)
a major multinational technology company. It specializes 1978 - MUD The earliest multiplayer games Usenet 1979 also
in a wide range of products and services, including: ushered into the scene
- Hardware: This includes servers, storage systems, and 1980 - ENQUIRE software
mainframes. 1982 - The modern emoticon was born.
- Software: IBM offers enterprise software solutions like 1983 - Arpanet computers switch over to TCP/IP
databases, middleware, and operating systems. 1984 - DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS)
- Cloud Computing: IBM provides cloud services for 1985 - Virtual communities 1985 brought the development of
infrastructure, platforms, and software. the WELL.
- Artificial Intelligence (AI): Through its Watson platform, 1986 - Protocol wars and The so called Protocol wars began
IBM develops AI and machine learning solutions. 1987 - The internet grows
- Consulting and Services: IBM offers IT consulting, 1988 - IRC-Internet Relay Chat First major malicious internet
systems integration, and technology services. base attack
1988 - AOL is launch and The proposal for the World Wide
2. EBS or Electronic Data Systems was an American Web
multinational IT services company founded in 1962 by 1990 - World Wide Web protocols finished, First commercial
Ross Perot. EDS provided a wide range of services dial-up ISP, The first search engine
including: 1991 - First Web Page created, First content-based search
- IT Outsourcing: Managing and operating clients' IT protocol, MP3 becomes a standard
infrastructure, including data centers, networks, and 1994 - Netscape navigator was released, along the first e-
applications. commerce transaction.
- Consulting Services: Advising companies on IT strategy, 1995 - The internet was commercialized.
systems integration, and technology implementation. 1996 - The launch of social media
1997 - Wifi
1998 - Google Internet
TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTION NETWORKING OPERATING SYSTEMS
1. Satellite Connection
2. Wireless Connection
NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM (NOS)
3. Isdn (Integrated Service Digital Network)
- is a computer operating system designed primarily to
4. Dial-Up Connection
support workstation, personal computer, and, in some
5. Broadband Connection
instances, older terminal connected on a local area network
6. Digital Subscriber Line
(LAN).
7. Cellular Connection
- is the core system of a server that provides applications and
8. Cable Internet
utilities to enhance business operations.

ONLINE PLATFORMS
NETWORK SERVICES
SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS File Sharing
includes the Facebook, YouTube andother Social Media - Allows users to access shared files and directories across
which allow us to create not only our personal accounts but the network
also pages and groups where you can share content.
Print sharing
BLOGGING PLATFORMS - Enables multiple users to send print jobs to shared printers.
are broadcast style communication systems that enable
authors to publish articles, opinions, or product reviewswhich
can be delivered to standalone websites, emails, feed User Administration
systems and social networks. - Administrators can create or remove user accounts as
needed.
TYPES OF NETWORK DEVICES - Customizes user profiles, including settings and
preferences.
1. REPEATER operates at the physical layers.
- Implements authentication mechanisms (e.g., passwords,
2. HUB is a basically multi-port repeater. biometrics) to verify users.
- Assigns permissions based on roles, ensuring users only
Hub has three types: access resources they need.
Active hub - Its serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring - Organizes users into groups for easier permission
center. management.
Passive hub - These are the hubs that collect wiring from - Applies specific policies and configurations to groups rather
nodes and power supply from the active hub.
than individual users.
Intelligent hub - Its works like an active hub and includes
remote management capabilities.
Data Back up
3. BRIDGE operates at the data link layer. - Configures regular backups (daily, weekly) to ensure data is
consistently saved.
Bridges has two types: - Allows manual backups when needed, especially before
Transparent Bridges - These bridges make use of two significant changes.
processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
Source Routing Bridges - Routing operation is performed - Makes a complete copy of all data, providing a
by the source station and frame specifies which route to comprehensive restore point.
follow. - Backs up only the data that has changed since the last
backup, saving time and storage.
4. SWITCH is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design - Backs up all changes made since the last full backup.
that can boost its efficiency (a large number of ports imply - Saves backups on local devices or servers for quick access.
less traffic) and performance.
- Utilizes off-site or cloud-based storage solutions for added
5. ROUTERS is a device like a switch that routes data security and disaster recovery.
packets based on their IP Addresses. - Provides clear methods for restoring data from backups
quickly and efficiently.
6. GATEWAY is a passage to connect two networks that may - Regularly tests backup restore procedures to ensure data
work upon different networking models. can be recovered successfully.

7. BROUTER is also known as the bridging router is a device

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
that combines features of both bridge and router.
• Highly stable due to central server.
8. NETWORK INTERFACE CARD is a network adapter that • Provide good security.
is used to connect the computer to the network. • Up gradation of new technology and hardware can be easily
implemented in the network.
THE INTERNET OF THINGS INTEGRATES EVERYDAY • Provide remote access to servers from different locations.
“THINGS” WITH THE INTERNET.
DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
The term IoT or Internet of Things refers to the collective
network of connected devices and the technology that • Depend on the central location to perform the operations.
facilitates communication between devices and the • High cost to buying server.
cloud, as well as between the devices themselves. • Regular updating and maintenance are required.

HOW DOES THE INTERNET OF THINGS WORK?

1. SMART DEVICES
CABLING INFRASTRUCTURE
2. INTERNET OF THINGS APPLICATION
3. A GRAPICAL USER INTERFACE.
NETWORK CABLING
- supports worldwide electronic communications (such as by
computer, phone, or fax), allowing organizations,
corporations, and individuals to exchange information by both
voice and data, including multimedia.
- Communications cables are used to interconnect, connect 6. Compliance with Standards
and transfer data and information between computers, • ANSI/TIA-568: A set of telecommunications standards from
routers, switches and storage area networks. the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) that
specifies how to design, build, and manage a cabling system
DIFFERENT CAMPUS NETWORK CHALLENGES that will support various communication systems.
1. Traffic Volume - The maximum amount of data • ISO/IEC 11801: An international standard that specifies
transmitted over an internet connection in a given amount of general-purpose telecommunication cabling systems that is
time. suitable for a wide range of applications.

2. Number of users - The number of faculty members and 7. Testing and Certification
students attending universities and colleges frequently • Cable Testing: After installation, cables should be tested
increases, which raises the need for network capacity. using appropriate tools to ensure they meet performance
standards (e.g., continuity tests, attenuation, and crosstalk).
3. Security - Large student populations and open access • Certification: For professional installations, certification of
make it more difficult to regulate who connects to the the cabling system may be required to ensure compliance
network, which can result in security problems. It is crucial to with standards.
protect sensitive data, including financial information, 8. Grounding and Bonding
academic research, and student records. • Ensure that all network components, including racks and
cabinets, are properly grounded and bonded to prevent
4. Internet - Congestion and slower speeds might result from electrical hazards and to reduce noise.
using the network simultaneously.
DIFFERENT NETWORK CABLING SUBSYSTEMS
NETWORK CABLING RULES
1. Entrance Facilities (EF)
1. Cable Types and Categories - is defined as the point where the local service provider or
• Twisted Pair Cables (e.g., Cat5e, Cat6, Cat6a, Cat7): private network brings the outside connection to the building.
Commonly used in Ethernet networks. The higher the
category, the better the performance and higher data rates. Components: Includes cables, network interface devices,
• Fiber Optic Cables: Used for long-distance and high-speed primary protectors, and possibly transition hardware if
connections. They are immune to electromagnetic different cable types are used.
interference (EMI) and offer higher bandwidth than twisted
pair cables. 2. Equipment Room (ER)
- is defined as the area where the entrance cabling connects
2. Distance Limitations to the building’s internal wiring infrastructure.
• Twisted Pair Cables: Typically, Cat5e and Cat6 cables
have a maximum recommended length of 100 meters (328 Components: Contains patch panels, network switches,
feet) for a single run. Beyond this, signal degradation can routers, and servers. It may also include power supply
occur. systems like UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and cooling
• Fiber Optic Cables: Distances can vary widely based on systems.
the type of fiber (single-mode or multi-mode) and the
transmission equipment used. Single-mode can reach 3. Backbone Cabling (Vertical Cabling)
distances up to several kilometers. - The cabling that interconnects the equipment rooms,
telecommunications rooms, and entrance facilities within a
3. Installation Practices building or across a campus. It often runs vertically within a
• Avoid Sharp Bends: Cables should not be bent beyond building.
their minimum bend radius, as this can damage the cable and
impair performance. Components: Includes cables (typically fiber optic or high-
• Maintain Separation from Power Cables: Network cables performance copper), patch panels, and connectors.
should be kept away from power cables to avoid Backbone cabling supports the interconnection of different
electromagnetic interference (EMI). subsystems.
• Proper Labeling: All cables should be properly labeled at
both ends for easy identification. 4. Telecommunications Room (TR) or
• Secure Cables Properly: Use cable ties or other fasteners Telecommunications Closet (TC)
to secure cables, but avoid over-tightening, as this can - A room or closet that houses the telecommunications
damage the cables. equipment and the terminations of the horizontal cabling
system. It serves as the connection point between the
4. Cable Management backbone and horizontal cabling.
• Structured Cabling: Follow structured cabling principles to
ensure a clean and organized installation. This includes using Components: Includes patch panels, network switches, cross-
patch panels, racks, and cable management systems. connects, and sometimes active network equipment.
• Pathways: Use cable trays, conduits, or raceways to
organize and protect cables. 5. Horizontal Cabling
- The cabling that runs from the telecommunications room to
5. Environmental Considerations the individual workstations, devices, or equipment within a
• Temperature and Humidity: Install cables in environments floor of a building. It is often installed in a star topology.
where temperature and humidity are controlled to prevent
degradation. Components: Includes cables (e.g., Cat5e, Cat6, Cat6a),
• Plenum Spaces: In spaces where air circulates for HVAC patch panels, jacks, connectors, and sometimes
purposes (plenum spaces), use plenum-rated cables that are consolidation points or MUTOAs (Multi- User
fire-resistant. Telecommunications Outlet Assemblies).
6. Work Area (WA) PATCH CABLE
- The area where end-user devices are located, such as • Grey: standard network connections
offices or cubicles. It includes the network outlets and the • Black: used as a generic, default color
cabling connecting end- user devices to the network. • Purple: non-Ethernet digital connections
• Blue: terminal server connections
Components: Includes the network outlet, patch cords, and • Green: crossover connection
the end-user devices such as computers, phones, and • Yellow: POE connection
printers. The work area subsystem facilitates the final • Orange: non-Ethernet, analog connections
connection between the network and the user's equipment. • Pink: additional color option for any function
• Red: IP cameras
DIFFERENT STANDARDS AND CODES • White: additional color option for any function
1. TIA/EIA Standards: Telecommunications Industry
Association/Electronic Industries Alliance standards for ETHERNET CABLE COLOR CODING
cabling (e.g., TIA-568).
EIA/TIA 568A EIA/TIA 568B
White - Green White - Orange
The ANSI/TIA/EIA-568 standard was built and has
Green Orange
evolved over the years into its current form for many
White - Orange White - Green
simple reasons:
Blue Blue
White - Blue White - Blue
• To build a network cabling specification that would support
Orange Green
more than one vendor application.
White - Brown White - Brown
• To give direction of the design of all the telecommunications
Brown Brown
equipment and cabling items that are intended to serve
commercial companies.
• To specify a structured cabling system generic enough to DIFFERENT TYPES OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT’S
support both voice & data. 1. Cable Testers: is a specialized tool that network
• To establish technical & performance guidelines and give technicians rely on to assess the functionality and integrity of
some basic guidelines for the planning and installation of network cabling. Its primary purpose is to verify the physical
structured cabling systems technology. connections and wiring within a network infrastructure,
ensuring proper installation for optimal data transmission.
The ANSI/TIA-568-C standard addresses the following
things: 2. Crimping Tools: is a device that is used to make cold
• Subsystems of the structured cabling system. weld joints between wires and a connector through deforming
• Minimum requirements for the telecommunications cabling. one or both of them to hold the other. A special connector is
• Installation methods and networking practices. used to join metals together.
• Connector & pin assignments.
• The life span of a telecommunications cabling system 3. Fiber Optic Tools: are used to install, maintain, and test
technology (which should exceed 10 years) fiber optic cables, connectors, and networks. Fiber optic tools
• Media types & performance specifications for the latest are essential for ensuring that fiber optic networks are
horizontal and backbone cabling. installed and maintained correctly, so that they can provide
• Connecting the hardware performance specifications reliable and high-speed data transmission.
• Recommended topology & distances.
4. Punch Down Tools: It is used for inserting wire into
2. ISO/IEC 11801 insulation-displacement connectors on punch down blocks,
• The ISO/EIC is the international standard followed patch panels, keystone modules, and surface mount boxes.
worldwide for information technology systems. As its name
suggests, it standardizes and regulates structured cabling 5. Ethernet Cables: are used to provide an internet
systems within an IT network. connection, and connect devices to a local network. They
• The ISO standards are strictly reviewed every five years, plug into Ethernet ports on a variety of devices. The most
with the last major review & revision taking place in the year common use for an Ethernet cable is connecting a WiFi
2017. router or modem to the internet entry port or telephone line.
• Section 11801 deals with all the general standards for
network cabling in any commercial building. The section 6. RJ45 cables: are essential accessories for networking
covers data, voice & video services for cabling, along with devices in Ethernet connections.
some specifications for both copper cabling & fiber-optic
cabling. 7. Switches and Routers:
- A switch connects multiple devices to create a network,
STANDARD FOR CABLES COLORS - A router connects multiple switches, and their respective
- Cable colors are not universally accepted due to variations networks, to form an even larger network.
in release dates, industries, and countries. Technical - These networks may be in a single location or across
associations like Telecommunications Industry Association, multiple locations. When building a small business network,
Department of Defense, and IEEE aim to establish a you will need one or more routers.
universally accepted standard. Cable Wholesale offers
alternatives for cord consistency until a universally accepted 8. Patch Panels: is a piece of networking hardware that
standard is established. contains multiple ports to connect different Ethernet cables.
Patch panels allow you to label individual ports and organize
your cables in a central location, making it easier to manage.

9. Applicator systems: makes it easier to identify and trace

cables quickly when problems occur or when a move, add or
change is required.
 MICROSOFT WINDOWS SERVER operating systems. This means companies may need to
invest in more powerful hardware to run Windows Server
Windows Server is the platform for building an efficiently, which can add to overall costs.
infrastructure of connected applications, networks, and
web services, from the workgroup to the data center. Frequent Updates and Reboots: Windows Server requires
Windows Server bridges on-premises environments with regular updates, and sometimes these updates necessitate
Azure, adding additional layers of security while helping you system reboots. This can lead to temporary downtime, which
modernize your applications and infrastructure. might not be ideal for mission-critical systems that require
high availability.
Designed by Microsoft, Windows Server is a group of
operating systems to support enterprises and small and Resource-Intensive: Windows Server can be resource-
medium-sized businesses with data storage, intensive, requiring more CPU power and RAM compared to
communications, and applications. some leaner alternatives like Linux-based servers. This could
impact performance on less powerful hardware or in cases
Windows Server is a line of Microsoft operating systems where resources are spread thin across the network.
(OSes) comprised of extremely powerful machines.
Windows Server was first launched in April 2003. It’s Complex Licensing Model: The licensing structure for
typically installed on heavy-use servers serving as a Windows Server can be quite complex, with different versions
backbone for most IT companies, applications, and services. and editions based on features and capacities. This
The server handles the administrative group-related activities complexity can lead to confusion and unexpected costs if not
on a network. It organizes, stores, sends, and receives files managed carefully.
from devices connected to a network.
WINDOWS SERVER VERSIONS
ADVANTAGES
Scalability: Windows Server offers flexibility in scaling based WINDOWS NT 3.1
on organizational needs, supporting everything from small Microsoft's first major release was a 32-bit system,
businesses to large enterprises. The server editions come in retaining the desktop environment. Originally a rewrite of
various versions to handle different workloads, whether it's OS/2, it sold 300,000 copies before being replaced by
basic file sharing or high-end cloud services. Windows NT 3.5 in 1994.

Remote Access Capabilities: It includes features like WINDOWS NT 3.5

Remote Desktop Services (RDS), which allows users to a major release of Microsoft's Windows NT operating system,
access and control their servers remotely. This feature is was released in 1994 to improve performance. Known as
beneficial for businesses that have employees working from "Daytona" after the Daytona International Speedway, it was
different locations. declared obsolete in 2001.

Security Features: Windows Server includes robust security WINDOWS NT 3.51

features, such as BitLocker, Windows Defender, Encrypted The third version of Microsoft's Windows NT operating
File System (EFS), and Windows Firewall. These features system, was released in 1995, offering client/server support
help protect against malware, ransomware, and unauthorized for inter-operating with Windows 95. Its successor, Windows
access. NT 4.0, followed in 2000. Mainstream support ended in
2000, 2001, and 2002, with both editions succeeded by
Extensive Software Support: Microsoft Windows Server is Windows NT 4.0 Workstation and Server.
compatible with a vast range of software applications. Many
enterprise software solutions are designed to run on Windows WINDOWS 2000
platforms, which ensures businesses have access to many Introduced Active Directory, a directory service for managing
options for running their operations. network objects, allowing administrators to perform tasks like
virtual private network configuration and data encryption. Key
User-Friendly Interface: Windows Server has a familiar features included Microsoft Management Console, NTFS 3.0
interface that resembles the desktop version of Windows, file system, and three editions.
making it easier for administrators familiar with the Windows
operating system to manage and navigate. This reduces the WINDOWS SERVER 2003
learning curve for users already accustomed to Microsoft Microsoft introduced Windows Server 2003, offering
products. security improvements over Windows 2000, including
hardened IIS, server roles, expanded encryption, built-in
Frequent Updates and Reboots: Windows Server requires firewall, NAT support, and Volume Shadow Copy Service.
regular updates, and sometimes these updates necessitate The release was available in four editions: Standard,
system reboots. This can lead to temporary downtime, which Enterprise, Datacenter, and Web.
might not be ideal for mission-critical systems that require
high availability. 2005: WINDOWS SERVER 2003 R2
Microsoft introduced the R2 designation for Windows Server
DISADVANTAGES 2003 R2, eliminating the need for new licenses. The release
Cost: One of the significant downsides of Windows Server is improved security and safety features, including Active
the high cost of licensing. Directory Federation Services, Active Directory Application
Unlike many Linux-based server platforms, which are free or Mode, file replication, and data compression for branch office
open-source, Windows Server requires businesses to servers. It also introduced the Security Configuration Wizard
purchase licenses, which can be expensive, especially for for consistent security policies across multiple machines.
smaller companies.
2008: WINDOWS SERVER 2008
Hardware Requirements: Windows Server tends to have Introduced Hyper-V virtualization software, failover clustering,
higher system requirements compared to some other server Event Viewer, Server Core, and Server Manager Console. It
also improved networking stack and Active Directory, and
came in Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, and Web editions.
2009: WINDOWS SERVER 2008 R2 HISTORY
Offers enhanced scalability and availability, enhanced Active MacOS, a successor to the classic Mac OS, was
Directory, and Remote Desktop Services (RDS) functionality. developed by NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs.
It includes BranchCache and DirectAccess for remote work, The Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was launched
shares administrative and security functionality from in 1989, based on the Mach kernel from Carnegie Mellon
Windows Vista, and transitions from a 32-bit to a 64-bit University. Apple acquired NeXT in 1997, allowing
version. OPENSTEP to serve as the basis for MacOS's next
generation operating system. MacOS X, named after the
2012: WINDOWS SERVER 2012 Roman numeral 10, evolved over time, adding and removing
Microsoft has introduced the "Cloud OS" in Windows applications, such as the iPod music player and music
server 2012, enhancing cloud-related features and updating software, and introducing the iPhone in 2007.
the operating system's storage infrastructure and Hyper-V
virtualization platform. New features include Hyper-V virtual ADVANTAGES
switch, Hyper-V Replica, Storage Spaces, and ReFS file Stability and Security: Mac OS X is known for its stability
system. The server version comes in four editions: and lower vulnerability to viruses compared to Windows. Its
Essentials, Foundation, Standard, and Datacenter, with Unix-based core provides strong security, reducing the risk of
different license options. malware and unauthorized access.

2013: WINDOWS SERVER 2012 R2 High-Quality Software: Apple’s native applications, such as
Microsoft updated Windows Server 2012 R2, introducing new Final Cut Pro and Logic Pro, are optimized for macOS and
features like Desired State Configuration, Storage tiring, and provide powerful tools for creative professionals.
Work Folders. These changes improve virtualization, storage,
networking, information security, and web services, ensuring Optimized Hardware and Software Synergy: Since Apple
consistency and performance. designs both the hardware and software, macOS runs
efficiently on Apple computers, maximizing performance.
2016: WINDOWS SERVER 2016
Microsoft introduces new features for workload migrations, User-Friendly Interface: macOS offers an intuitive and clean
including Docker containers, software-defined networking, interface that is easy to navigate, making it appealing for
Nano Server, Hyper-V shielded VM, and Network Controller, users who prioritize simplicity.
with Windows Server 2016 available in Standard and
Datacenter editions. DISADVANTAGES
Limited Compatibility with Non-Apple Hardware: macOS
2017: SEMI-ANNUAL CHANNEL AND LONG-TERM is primarily designed to run on Apple devices. It doesn’t work
SERVICING CHANNEL RELEASES well with custom-built or third-party systems, limiting
Microsoft split Windows Server into two channels: the Semi- hardware flexibility.
Annual Channel (SAC) and the Long-Term Servicing Channel
(LTSC). SAC caters to DevOps frameworks with a shorter Higher Cost: Apple devices tend to be more expensive than
release cycle, with releases every six months. LTSC offers a PCs running other operating systems, which may be a
more traditional release cycle, with five years of mainstream disadvantage for budget-conscious users.
support followed by five years of extended support. Microsoft
plans to add most enhancements from SAC releases into Limited Customization: macOS offers less customization in
LTSC releases. The first SAC release, Windows Server comparison to Windows, where users have more control over
version 1709, was released in October 2017. system settings, configurations, and appearance.

2012: WINDOWS SERVER 2019 Software Limitations for Gamers and Developers: While
Windows Server 2019 is Microsoft's thirteenth version of macOS is great for creative professionals, it lacks support for
the Windows Server operating system, released on October many games and specialized developer tools that are more
2, 2018, and succeeded by Windows Server 2022 on readily available on Windows.
August 18, 2021. Mainstream support ended on January 9,
2024, and extended support will end on January 9, 2029. FEATURES OF Mac OS
1. User Interface: macOS is known for its polished graphical
WINDOWS SERVER 2022 interface, including the Dock for application shortcuts, Finder
Windows Server 2022 is Microsoft's fourteenth major long- for file management, and top menu bar for system and
term servicing channels (LTSC) release, based on the "Iron" application controls.
codebase. Released on August 18, 2021, it is similar to
Windows 10 version 21H2, requires x64 processors, and is 2. Software Ecosystem: macOS supports a wide range of
incompatible with Windows 10 updates. It will be succeeded professional-grade software for tasks like graphic design,
by Windows Server 2025. video editing, music production, and software, and software
development. It also includes native apps like Safari (web
MACINTOSH OS browser), iCloud integration, and productivity apps (Pages,
MacOS, originally Mac OS X, is the primary operating Keynote, Numbers).
system for Apple's Mac computers and is the second most
widely used desktop OS after Microsoft Windows. It 3. Continuity and Handoff: macOS works seamlessly with
succeeded classic Mac OS, the primary Macintosh operating other Apple devices, allowing users to answer phone calls,
system from 1984 to 2001. MacOS was first released in send text messages, or copy-paste content between their
2001 and has since been a part of Apple's other operating Iphone, Ipad, and Mac.
systems, iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, tvOS, and audioOS. The
name was changed to "macOS" in 2016 to align with iOS, 4. Security and Privacy: macOS is designed with designed
watchOS, and tvOS branding. MacOS supports three major with built-in privacy controls, encryption,and regular security
processor architectures: PowerPC-based Macs, Intel updates, Features like Gatekeeper, File Vault, and system
architecture, and Apple silicon transition. integrity protection help keep the system secure.
5. Updates: macOS receives yearly updates that introduce consolidation and optimizing their hardware resources.
new features, enhance performance, and improve security. Hyper-V in Windows Server 2008 supports 64-bit computing,
multi-processor environments, and provides tools for effective
Some of the recent versions include macOS Monterey,
virtual machine management.
macOS, Big Sur, macOS Ventura.
3. Windows PowerShell
TIMELINE OF RELEASE Windows PowerShell is a powerful command-line shell and
1997 - Rhapsody Developer Release scripting language designed for system administrators. It
1999 - Mac OS X Server 1.0 (March 16, 1999) automates tasks and simplifies configuration management
2000 - Mac OS X Public Beta Kodiak (September 13, 2000) across large networks. Windows Server 2008 introduced
2001 - Mac OS X 10.1 Puma (September 25, 2001) PowerShell 1.0, which provides improved administrative
2002 - Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar (August 24, 2002) control and automation capabilities.
2003 - Mac OS X 10.3 Panther (October 24, 2003)
2005 - Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger (April 25, 2005) 4. Network Access Protection (NAP)
2007 - Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard (October 26, 2007) Network Access Protection is a feature designed to enforce
2009 - Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard (August 28, 2009) compliance with network health policies. It verifies the health
2011 - OS X 10.7 Lion (July 20, 2011) status of computers accessing the network, ensuring they
2012 - OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion (July 25, 2012) meet security standards, such as having up-to-date antivirus
2013 - OS X 10.9 Mavericks (October 22, 2013) software and the latest patches installed. If a computer fails to
2014 - OS X 10.10 Yosemite (October 22, 2014) meet these requirements, NAP restricts its access to the
2015 - OS X 10.11 El Capitan (September 30, 2015) network.
2016 - macOS 10.12 Sierra (September 20, 2016)
2017 - macOS 10.13 High Sierra (September 25, 2017) 5. Enhanced Security Features
2018 - macOS 10.14 Mojave (September 24, 2018) Windows Server 2008 provides a range of security features,
2019 - macOS 10.15 Catalina (October 07, 2019) including BitLocker Drive Encryption to protect sensitive data
2020 - macOS 11 Big Sur (November 12, 2020) and the Windows Firewall with advanced security settings for
2021 - macOS 12 Monterey (October 25, 2021) controlling network traffic. Additionally, the operating system
2022 - macOS 13 Ventura (October 24, 2022) improves role- based access control, making it easier for
2023 - macOS 14 Sonoma (September 26, 2003) administrators to define specific permissions based on roles
within the organization.
MICROSOFT WINDOWS SERVER 2008
is an enterprise-level operating system designed to provide a 6. Improved Active Directory
solid platform for networking, applications, and web services. Active Directory (AD) in Windows Server 2008 saw significant
Released on February 27, 2008, it is part of the Windows improvements. One key feature is Read-Only Domain
NT family and was built to succeed Windows Server Controllers (RODC), which enhances security in branch office
2003. Windows Server 2008 introduces various environments by preventing changes from being made
enhancements in terms of functionality, security, and locally. RODC provides an additional layer of protection,
manageability, making it a suitable choice for businesses that especially in distributed environments where physical security
require a robust server environment. may not be as tight.

ADVANTAGES 7. Failover Clustering

Wide Application Support: Windows Server 2008 supports This version of Windows Server introduces enhancements to
a broad range of software and applications, making it a failover clustering, ensuring high availability for critical
versatile choice for businesses of all sizes. applications. The improved clustering capabilities make it
easier for organizations to implement disaster recovery plans
Enhanced Security Features: With the inclusion of features and ensure continuity of services.
like BitLocker, Network Access Protection (NAP), and
enhanced firewall management, Windows Server 2008 offers
better protection against security threats.
LINUX UNIX
Improved Performance and Scalability: This server edition
improves system performance and scalability with features HOW WAS UNIX CREATED?
such as enhanced multicore processor support and better • It was derived from MULTICS – MULTiplexed Information
memory management. Computing System
• Developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s at Bell Labs by
DISADVANTAGES Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, et al.
End of Support: Windows Server 2008 reached its end of • It was first called UNICS - UNiplexed Information Computing
life in January 2020, which means it no longer receives System
security updates from Microsoft, making it vulnerable to
security threats unless businesses use extended support KEY FEATURES
services. • Supports multitasking
• It is designed to support multiple users simultaneously
Cost of Licensing: Like most Microsoft products, Windows • written in C, which contributed to its widespread adoption
Server 2008 requires a license, which can be costly • Organizes files into a tree-like structure which simplifies
depending on the number of users and servers in use. system management
• Includes file permissions and ownership, access controls for
Resource Intensive: Windows Server 2008 may require users and groups which enhances security.
significant hardware resources (memory, processing power)
for optimal performance, especially for large-scale operations. ADVANTAGES OF UNIX:
1. Mature and Stable: UNIX has a long history and is known
KEY FEATURES: for its stability and reliability in enterprise environments.
1. Server Core Installation Option 2. Multiuser and Multitasking: Supports multiple users and
One of the most notable features of Windows Server 2008 is tasks simultaneously, making it suitable for servers and large
the introduction of the Server Core installation option. Server systems.
Core is a minimal installation without a graphical user 3. Security: Strong security features and permissions
interface (GUI), which reduces the system's footprint and management, often used in critical systems.
minimizes the attack surface. Administrators interact with the 4. Standardization: POSIX standards ensure compatibility
system mainly through the command line, which also results between different UNIX systems.
in fewer updates and improved security. 5. Scalability: Can handle large and complex workloads
efficiently.
2. Hyper-V Virtualization
Hyper-V is Microsoft’s native hypervisor, allowing users to run
multiple virtual machines on a single physical server. This
feature is essential for businesses implementing server
DISADVANTAGES OF UNIX: BRIEF HISTORY OF BSD
1. Cost: UNIX licenses can be expensive, especially for 1979: Early Filesystem Work
enterprise versions. The first work on the UNIX file system at Berkeley attempted
2. Complexity: The system can be complex to administer to improve both the reliability and the throughput of the file
and may have a steeper learning curve. system.
3. Limited Hardware Support: Often tied to specific
hardware platforms, which may limit flexibility. 1982: Birth of the Fast File System
The first version of the current BSD file system was written in
HOW WAS LINUX CREATED? 1982 and became widely distributed in 4.2BSd.
• Created by Linus Torvalds
• Inspired from Minix 1986: Dropping Disk-Geometry Calculations
• Torvalds began development on August 1991 The BSD file system organization divides a disk partition into
• First version, Version 0.01 was released on Sept.1991 one or more areas, each of which is called a cylinder group.

KEY FEATURES 1987: Filesystem Stacking

• Customizable By 1987, it became desirable to find ways of providing new
• Community & support filesystem features without having to alter the current stable
• Lightweight - Good performance filesystem code. Stacking several file systems on top of one
• Stable, secure, reliable another were implemented in the 4.4BSD system.
• Cost effective - FREE!!!
• An open-source operating system kernel 1988: Raising the Blocksize By 1988, disk capacity block size
• Lots of available ―distros‖ was raised to 8-kbyte blocks with 1-kbyte fragments.

ADVANTAGES OF LUNIX: 1990: Dynamic Block Reallocation The system places small
1. Open Source: Free to use, modify, and distribute, file blocks in small areas of free space within the storage,
fostering a large community of contributors and users. then it gets reallocated to an area with bigger spacae as the
2. Flexibility: Highly customizable with numerous file grows in size.
distributions tailored to different needs (e.g., Ubuntu, Fedora,
CentOS). 1996: Soft Updates
3. Wide Hardware Support: Supports a broad range of In Ganger and Patt [4], an alternative approach called soft
hardware, from servers to desktops and embedded systems. updates was proposed and evaluated in the context of a
4. Strong Community and Support: Extensive online research prototype. Following a successful evaluation, a
resources, forums, and commercial support options. production version of soft updates was written for BSD in
5. Security: Regular updates and a strong community 1996.
contribute to robust security practices.
1999: Snapshots
DISADVANTAGES OF LINUX: In 1999, the file system added the ability to take snapshots. A
1. Fragmentation: Many distributions and versions can lead filesystem snapshot is a frozen image of a file system at a
to fragmentation and compatibility issues. given instant in time.
2. Software Compatibility: Some proprietary software is not
available or is less well-supported on Linux. 2001: Raising the Blocksize,Again
3. Learning Curve: Advanced features and configurations
may be challenging for beginners. 2002: Background Fsck
After soft updates, there is value in having a version of fsck
WELL KNOWN LINUX DISTROS FOR NETWORKING (file system consistency check) that can run in the
background on an active file system to find and recover any
1. Debian lost blocks and adjust inodes with overly high link counts.
• Released in 1993 by Ian Murdock
2003: Multi-Terabyte Support
2. Kali A new file system WAS BUILT, one that would use 64-bit
• Released in 2013 by Offense Security block pointers.

3. Fedora 2004: Access-Control Lists

• Derived from Red Hat Linux which was released in 1994. Generally referred to as an ACL. It replaces the group
• Red Hat Linux was discontinued in 2003 permissions for a file with a more specific list of the users who
• Red Hat Inc., developer of Red Hat Linux, decided to focus are permitted to access the files.
on RHEL (Red Hat Enterprise Linux)
• Red Hat Linux was evolved to Fedora Core through 2005: Mandatory Access Controls
community support in 2003. Data labels provide permissions for a mandatory access
control (MAC) framework enforced by the kernel.
4. RHEL (Red Hat Enterprise Linux)
• Commercial Linux distro developed by Red Hat Inc. 2006: Symmetric Multi-Processing
• Best for commercial and enterprise use. In the late 1990s, the FreeBSD Project began the long hard
task of converting their kernel to support symmetric multi-
BERKELEY SOFTWARE DISTRIBUTION processing.
• BSD stands for "Berkeley Software Distribution".
• Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) is a group of related BSD ADVANTAGES:
open source Unix-like operating systems (OS) with 1. Robust Performance: Known for its performance and
origins in early versions of Research Unix at Bell Labs. advanced networking capabilities.
• BSD is configured for internet hosting, web hosting, and 2. Licensing: BSD licenses are permissive, allowing code to
hosting many servers on one system. It is the first OS to have be used and modified with fewer restrictions compared to
added an internet protocol. BSD OSes have a very strongly GPL.
enforced time-sharing system. 3. Security Features: Includes advanced security features
It is the name of distributions of source code from the like jails (virtualization) and the OpenBSD project has a
University of California, Berkeley, which were originally strong focus on security.
extensions to AT&T’s Research UNIX® operating system. 4. Consistency: BSD variants like FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and
NetBSD offer a consistent experience and are known for their
The overall operating system comprises: stability.
• The BSD kernel
• The C library, the base API for the system. BSD DISADVANTAGES:
• Utilities such as shells, file utilities, compilers and linkers. 1. Smaller User Base: Less popular than Linux, leading to
• The X Window system, which handles graphical display. fewer resources and community support.
• Many other programs and utilities. 2. Compatibility: Some applications and hardware may have
less support compared to Linux.
3. Commercial Support: Fewer commercial support options In particular, any derivative work of a product released under
compared to the GPL must also be supplied with source code if requested.
Linux.
By contrast, the BSD license is less restrictive: binary-only
WHAT’S A REAL UNIX®? distributions are allowed. This is particularly attractive for
- The BSD operating systems are not clones, but open source embedded applications.
derivatives of AT&T’s Research UNIX® operating system,
which is also the ancestor of the modern UNIX® System V. WHO SHOULD USE BSD, WHO SHOULD USE LINUX?
Choosing between the two is a difficult one. Here are some
- In 1976, the Computer Sciences Research Group (CSRG) guidelines:
of the University of California in Berkeley, CA, started • "If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it": If you already use an open
releasing tapes of their software, calling them Berkeley source operating system, and you are happy with it, there is
Software Distribution or BSD. probably no good reason to change.
• BSD systems, in particular FreeBSD, can have notably
- Initial BSD releases consisted mainly of user programs, but higher performance than Linux. But this is not across the
that changed dramatically when the CSRG landed a contract board. In many cases, there is little or no difference in
with the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency performance. In some cases, Linux may perform better than
(DARPA) to upgrade the communications protocols on their FreeBSD.
network, ARPANET. • In general, BSD systems have a better reputation for
reliability, mainly as a result of the more mature code base.
- Sun Microsystems licensed UNIX® and implemented a • BSD projects have a better reputation for the quality and
version of 4.2BSD, which they called SunOS. When AT&T completeness of their documentation.
themselves were allowed to sell UNIX® commercially, they • The BSD license may be more attractive than the GPL.
started with a somewhat bare-bones implementation called • BSD can execute most Linux binaries, while Linux cannot
System III, to be quickly followed by System V. The System V execute BSD binaries.
code base did not include networking, so all implementations
included additional software from the BSD, including the NOVELL NETWARE
TCP/IP software, but also utilities such as the csh shell and The selection of the right network operating system (NOS) is
the vi editor. Collectively, these enhancements were known crucial for efficient network management. This study focuses
as the Berkeley Extensions. on defining the requirements and features of Novell NetWare
and compares it with other NOS options.
- By 1990, the CSRG’s funding was running out, and it
faced closure. Some members of the group decided to Defining the requirements
release the BSD code, which was Open Source, without the Using Silberschatz et al. (2018), we explore the essential
AT&T proprietary code. IT happened with the Networking requirements of an NOS, including memory management, file
Tape 2, usually known as Net/2. Net/2 was not a complete systems, and security protocols.
operating system: about 20% of the kernel code was missing.
Novell NetWare’s requirements included Intel processor
- William F. Jolitz, wrote the remaining code and released compatibility and varying memory capacities based on
in early 1992 as 386BSD. another group of ex-CSRG network size.
members formed a commercial company called Berkeley
Software Design Inc. and released a beta version of an OS KEY FEATURES OF NOVEL NETWARE
called BSD/386, which was based on the same sources. The 1. File and Print Services: Efficient file sharing across
name of the operating system was later changed to BSD/OS. networks.
2. Novell Directory Services (NDS): Centralized resource
WHY IS BSD NOT BETTER KNOWN? and user management.
1. The BSD developers are often more interested in polishing 3. Security: Access control, encryption, and password
their code than marketing it. policies.
2. Much of Linux’s popularity is due to factors external to the 4. Networking: IPX/SPX and later TCP/IP protocols.
Linux projects, such as the press, and to companies formed 5. Reliability: Known for uptime and scalability.
to provide Linux services. Until recently, the open source
BSDs had no such proponents. ADVANTAGES OF NOVELL NETWARE:
3. In 1992, AT&T sued BSDI, the vendor of BSD/386, alleging 1. Network Services: Historically strong in network
that the product contained AT&T copyrighted code. management and file- sharing capabilities.
2. Management Tools: Advanced tools for managing
WHAT VERSIONS OF BSD ARE AVAILABLE? networks and user permissions.
• FreeBSD aims for high performance and ease of use by 3. Reliability: Known for stability and reliability in networked
end users, and is a favourite of web content providers. environments.
• NetBSD aims for maximum portability: "of course it runs
NetBSD". It runs on machines from palmtops to large servers, DISADVANTAGES OF NOVELL NETWARE:
and has even been used on NASA space missions. 1. Declining Use: Has become less popular and relevant
• OpenBSD aims for security and code purity: it uses a with the rise of other operating systems.
combination of the open source concept and rigorous code 2. Cost: Licensing and support costs can be high.
reviews to create a system which is demonstrably correct. 3. Limited Modern Support: Less support for modern
applications and hardware compared to Linux and BSD.
• DragonFlyBSD aims for high performance and scalability
under everything from a single-node UP system to a COMPARISON OF NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
massively clustered system. Windows NT Server
Integrated GUI, Active Directory, TCP/IP support.
There are also two additional BSD UNIX® operating
systems which are not open source: Unix (Solaris):
• BSD/OS the oldest of the 4.4BSD derivatives. It was not Temporary storage for data and instructions.
open source, though source code licenses were available at
relatively low cost.
• Apple’s Mac OS® X is the latest version of the operating Linux (Red Hat)
system for Apple®'s Mac® line. The BSD core of this Open-source, flexible, secure, with TCP/IP support.
operating system, Darwin, is available as a fully functional
open source operating system for x86 and PPC computers.
Novell NetWare excelled in environments needing file and
HOW DOES THE BSD LICENSE DIFFER FROM THE GNU directory services, but modern alternatives like Linux and
PUBLIC LICENSE? Windows NT, with TCP/IP support, are more suited for
Linux is available under the GNU General Public License today’s networks.
(GPL), which is designed to eliminate closed source software.
DIFFERENCES

UNIX
Robust and mature, used in many high, performance
environments with varied network configurations.

LINUX
Highly flexible and widely used, supports a broad range of
networking features and configurations with strong
community support.

BSD
Known for advanced networking features and security, with
different variants suited for specific needs.

NOVEL NETWARE
Was a leading solution for file and print services in the 80s
and 90s, but now largely obsolete.

NETWORK CROSS – PLATFORM MANAGEMENT

CISCO SWITCH AND ROUTER CONFIGURATION

WHAT IS SWITCH?
- Switches facilitate the sharing of resources by connecting
together all the devices, including computers, printers, and
servers, in a small business network.

WHAT IS ROUTER?
- A router works as a dispatcher, directing traffic and
choosing the most efficient route for information, in the form
of data packets, to travel across a network.
- A router connects your business to the world, protects
information from security threats, and even decides which
devices have priority over others.

Just as a switch connects multiple devices to create a

network, a router connects multiple switches, and their
respective networks, to form an even larger network.

WHAT IS NETWORK TOPOLOGY?

- describes how the nodes or devices (physical or virtual) in a
network are arranged and how they communicate with each
other.
- can be physical (referring to where physical devices are
placed in relation to each other) or logical (referring to how
data is transmitted through the network, including any virtual
or cloud resources).

COMMON NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

BUS TOPOLOGY
- Every node in the network is connected along a linear path.
- This simple topology is used most often for small networks.

STAR TOPOLOGY
- A central node connects to all other nodes in the network.
- This is a common and stable topology that’s often used for
local area networks (LANs).

RING TOPOLOGY
- Nodes are connected in a loop, and traffic may flow in one
direction or in both directions.
- Ring networks tend to be cost-effective, but not as scalable
or stable as other network topologies.

MESH TOPOLOGY
- Nodes are linked in such a way that multiple paths between
nodes are possible.
- This type of network topology increases the resiliency of the
network, but also increases cost.
- A network may be fully meshed (all nodes connecting to all
other nodes) or partially meshed (only some nodes having
multiple connections to other nodes).

TREE TOPOLOGY
- Multiple star topologies are connected together in a larger
star configuration.