fundamental

Definition - What does Computer mean?

A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations and
operations based on instructions provided by a software or hardware program. It is
designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions by combining
integrated hardware and software components.
A computer works with software programs that are sent to its underlying hardware
architecture for reading, interpretation and execution. Computers are classified
according to computing power, capacity, size, mobility and other factors, as personal
computers (PC), desktop computers, laptop computers, minicomputers, handheld
computers and devices, mainframes or supercomputers.

Classification of Computer
Analog Computer
Hybrid Computer
Digital Computer

Analog Computer
 An analog computer represents the data as physical quantities and operates on
the data by manipulating the quantities.
 It is designed to process data in which the variable quantities vary continuously.

Hybrid Computer
 A hybrid is a combination of digital and analog computers.
 It combines the best features of both types of computers, i.e. It has the speed
of an analog computer and the memory and accuracy of digital computer.
 It accepts analog signals, converts them into digital and processes them in
digital form.
  A hybrid computer may use or produce analog data or digital data.
 It accepts a continuously varying input, which is then converted into a set of
discrete values for digital processing.

Digital Computer

 A digital computer is designed to process the data in numerical form, its

circuits perform mathematical operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.

 The numbers operated on by a digital computer are expressed in the binary

system.

The four basic types of digital computers are as under:

 Supercomputer
 Mainframe Computer
 Minicomputer
 Microcomputer

Supercomputer
The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like
NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for
space exploration purpose.

The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an
entire building.

Seymour Cray designed the first Supercomputer "CDC 6600" in 1964. CDC 6600 is
known as the first ever Supercomputer.
Uses of Supercomputers
In Pakistan Supercomputers are used by Educational Institutes like NUST for
research purposes. Pakistan Atomic Energy commission & Heavy Industry Taxila
uses supercomputers for Research purposes.

Space Exploration
Supercomputers are used to study the origin of the universe, the dark-matters. For
these studies scientist use IBM’s powerful supercomputer “Roadrunner” at National
Laboratory Los Alamos.

Earthquake studies
Supercomputers are used to study the Earthquakes phenomenon. Besides that
supercomputers are used for natural resources exploration, like natural gas,
petroleum, coal, etc.

Weather Forecasting
Supercomputers are used for weather forecasting, and to study the nature and
extent of Hurricanes, Rainfalls, windstorms, etc.

Nuclear weapons testing

Supercomputers are used to run weapon simulation that can test the Range,
accuracy & impact of Nuclear weapons.

Mainframe computer
Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are
quite expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations
uses Mainframes to run their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because of its size. Super-computers
are the fastest computers with large data storage capacity, Mainframes can also
process & store large amount of data. Banks educational institutions & insurance
companies use mainframe computers to store data about their customers, students
& insurance policy holders.
Minicomputer
Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called
as “Midrange Computers”. These are small machines and can be accommodated on
a disk with not as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers &
Mainframes. These computers are not designed for a single user. Individual
departments of a large company or organizations use Mini-computers for specific
purposes. For example, a production department can use Mini-computers for
monitoring certain production process.

Microcomputer
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones
are all types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest
growing computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other three types
of computers. The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like
entertainment, education and work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-
computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony & Toshiba.
Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car,
Netbooks, Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of
Microcomputers.
Characteristics of Computer
 Computers have some important features which have made them so popular.
 A Computer can be categorized according to
Speed
Accuracy
Versatility
Reliability
Power of remembering
Diligence
Storage
Speed
Computers work at an incredible speed.
It can carry out instructions at a very high speed.
A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3-4 million simple instructions
per second.
It can perform arithmetic and logical operations within a fraction of second.
 Accuracy
Computer provides a high degree of accuracy.
Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy.
The degree of accuracy of a computer depends on the instruction and processor
type.

Versatility
Computer is versatile in nature.
It can perform different types of task easily.
At one moment user can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the
next moment they may play music or print a document.

 Power of remembering
A computer can store and recall any information because it has secondary storage.
All information can be retained as long as desired by the user and that can be
recalled almost simultaneously and accurately even after several years.
 Diligence
Computers can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and
accuracy from the start till the end.
Being a machine, a computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and
lack of concentration.
 Storage
Large volume of data and information can be stored in the computer and also
retrieved whenever required.
Computer has two types of storage. They are Primary storage and Secondary
storage.
In Primary Storage, a limited amount of data can be stored temporarily like RAM,
ROM.
Secondary storage can store a large amount of data permanently like floppy and
compact disk.

Computer system
A computer is made up of multiple parts and components that facilitate user
functionality. A computer has two primary categories:
Hardware
electrical , electronic or mechanic components to making a actual machine is called
hardware.
the main parts of hardware are:
input
processing
output
storage (memory)
Software:
a set of instruction execute or programmed is called software. the main
types of software are.

system software (operating system)

application software (ms office)

input process output

storage
INPUT DEVICES
Definition - What does Input Device mean?
An input device is a hardware or peripheral device used to send data to a computer.
An input device allows users to communicate and feed instructions and data to
computers for processing, display, storage and/or transmission.

there are many input devices are...

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps
to input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of
traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided
for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with
104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
types of keys :
 alphabetic keys (A-Z)
 numeric keys (0-9)
 functions keys ( f1-f12)
 special keys
(Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,
Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.)
 control keys
(These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete,
Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-
control device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base,
which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding
signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster
than the arrow keys of
the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor
position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its
both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket.
The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a
displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It
consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.

 used for digital signature as well as

directly can be write on screen.
 to use light pen we need electronic
digital plate.
 Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and
by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine.
It is used when some information is available on paper and it is to be
transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.

scanner capture image which can be saved

in jped or pdf formate.

now scanner is inbuilt in printer.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into
a digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited
before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital
form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a
series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used
by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts

graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer
is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a
digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to

a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number
of cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number and
cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that
contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

(MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error
prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into
a machine readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the
form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling
goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may
be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an
alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer that the bar code
reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of
mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few
alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking

the answer sheets of
examinations having multiple
choice questions.
PROCESSING
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the heart and brain of a computer. It receives data input, executes instructions,
and processes information. It communicates with input/output (I/O) devices, which send and
receive data to and from the CPU. Additionally, the CPU has an internal bus for
communication with the internal cache memory, called the backside bus. The main bus for
data transfer to and from the CPU, memory, chipset, and AGP socket is called the front-side
bus.
The CPU contains internal memory units, which are called registers. These registers contain
data, instructions, counters and addresses used in the ALU's information processing.
Some computers utilize two or more processors. These consist of separate physical CPUs
located side by side on the same board or on separate boards. Each CPU has an
independent interface, separate cache, and individual paths to the system front-side bus.
Multiple processors are ideal for intensive parallel tasks requiring multitasking. Multicore
CPUs are also common, in which a single chip contains multiple CPUs.

कं प्‍यूटर की संरचना (Computer Architecture) में सेंट्रल

प्रोसेसिंग यूनिट (Central Processing Unit) केे न्‍द्र में रहता
है इनपुट यूनिट (Input unit) द्वारा डाटा और निर्देशों को कं प्‍यूटर में
एंटर किया जाता है और इसके बाद सेंट्रल प्रोसेसिंग यूनिट (Central Processing Unit) डाटा को प्रोसेस करता है
और आपको आउटपुट देता है, डाटा को प्रोसेेस करनेे में यह अपने दो भागोंं की मदद लेता है अर्थमेटीक लॉजिक
यूनिट (Arithmetic Logic Unit) और कं ट्रोल यूनिट (Control Unit) -
प्रोसेसिंग से पहले प्राइमरी मेमोरी (Primary memory में जो डाटा होता है और जो निर्देश होते हैं वह अर्थमेटिक
लॉजिक यूनिट में ट्रांसफर हो जाते हैं और वहां पर उनकी प्रोसेसिंग का कार्य होता है Arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) से जो परिणाम मिलते हैं उनको प्राइमरी मेमोरी में ट्रांसफर कर दिया जाता है और प्रोसेसिंग समाप्त होने के
बाद में प्राइमरी मेमोरी (Primary memory) में जो डाटा बचता है या अंतिम परिणाम बचते हैं वह एक आउटपुट
डिवाइस (Outputdevice) के माध्यम से आप तक पहुंचा दिए जाते हैं
इनपुट डिवाइस से डाटा कब लेना है स्टोर यूनिट में डाटा कब डालना है वैल्यू से डाटा को कब लेना है और जब वह
डाटा प्रोसेस हो जाए उसको आउटपुट डिवाइस तक कब भेजना है यह सारे काम करता है कं ट्रोल यूनिट
अर्थमेटीक लॉजिक यूनिट (Arithmetic Logic Unit )
अर्थमेटीक लॉजिक यूनिट (Arithmetic Logic Unit ) अंकगणितीय गणना (Arithmetic Calculation) और
तार्किक गणना (Logical calculation) का काम करता है, जैसे जोड़, घटाव, गुणा, भाग और <, >, =, हाँ या ना
कं ट्रोल यूनिट (Control Unit)
कं ट्रोल यूनिट (Control Unit) कं प्‍यूटर में हो रहे सारे कार्यो नियंत्रित करता है और इनपुट, आउटपुट डिवाइसेज,
और अर्थमेटीक लॉजिक यूनिट (Arithmetic Logic Unit ) के सारे गतिविधियों के बीच तालमेल बैठाता है।
Binary to decimal number conversion
decimal binary
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010

OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is any device used to send
data from a computer to another device or user. Most computer data output that is meant
for humans is in the form of audio or video. Thus, most output devices used by humans are
in these categories. Examples include monitors, projectors, speakers, headphones and
printers. output divided into 2 types...
soft copy (display
A computer can still function without an output device. However, without an output device,
there’s no way to determine what the computer is doing. There is no indicator of errors or
the need for additional input. For example, you can detach your monitor from your
computer, the computer will still function, but it’s not going to be very beneficial.

soft copy output devices

 Monitor – This is the most common computer output device. It creates a
visual display for users to view processed data. Monitors come in various
sizes and resolutions.
Common Types of Monitors
 Cathode Ray Tube – use phosphorescent dots to generate the pixels that
constitute displayed images.
 Flat Panel Screen – use liquid crystals or plasma to produce output.
Light is passed through liquid crystals to generate the pixels.
All monitors depend on a video card that is positioned on the computer motherboard
or in a special expansion slot. The video card sorts out the computer data into image
details that the monitors can show.
Projector – is a display device that projects a computer-created image.
The computer transmits the image data to its video card, which then sends the video
image to the projector. It is usually used for presentations or for viewing videos.
Speakers – are attached to computers for the output of sound. Sound cards are
required in the computer for speakers to function. Speakers range from simple, two-
speaker output devices to surround-sound multi-channel units.
Headset – is a combination of speakers and microphone. It is mostly used by
gamers and is also great tool for communicating with family and friends over the
internet using a VOIP software.
hard copy output devices
 Printer – generates a hard copy version of processed data such as documents
and photographs. The computer transmits the image data to the printer, which
then physically recreates the image, usually on paper.
 Resolution: Printer resolution (the sharpness of text and images on
paper) is usually measured in dots per inch (dpi). Most inexpensive
printers provide sufficient resolution for most purposes at 600 dpi.

 Speed: If you do much printing, the speed of the printer becomes

important. Inexpensive printers print only about 3 to 6 sheets per
minute. Color printing is slower. More expensive printers are much
faster.

Types of Printers

 Ink Jet – sprays tiny dots of ink on a surface to form an image.

 Laser – utilises toner drums that roll through magnetized pigment and
then transfer the pigment to a surface.
  Dot Matrix – utilises a print head to set in images on a surface, using an
ink ribbon. This is commonly used from 1980 to 1990.

Plotter – generates a hard copy of a digitally depicted design. The design is

sent to the plotter through a graphics card and forms the design using a pen. It
is generally used with engineering applications. It basically draws an image
using a series of straight lines.

STORAGE DEVICES (Memory)

Definition - What does Storage Device mean?

A storage device is any computing hardware that is used for storing, porting and
extracting data files and objects. It can hold and store information both temporarily
and permanently, and can be internal or external to a computer, server or any similar
computing device.A storage device may also be known as a storage medium or
storage media.

There are two different types of storage devices:

  Primary storage devices: Generally smaller in size, these are designed to hold data
temporarily and are internal to the computer. They have the fastest data access
speed, and include RAM and cache memory.
 RAM (random access memory)

SRAM (Static RAM)

DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
ROM (read only memoy)

 PROM (programmable read only memory)

 EPROM (electrical programmable read only memory)
 EEPROM (erasable electrical programmable read only memory)

 Secondary storage devices: These usually have large storage capacity, and they
store data permanently. They can be either internal or external to the computer, and
they include the hard disk, optical disk drive and USB storage device.
Optical Storage
Optical storage is any storage method in which data is written and read with
a laser for archival or backup purposes. Typically, data is written to optical media, such
as CDs and DVDs. For several years, proponents have spoken of optical storage as a near-
future replacement for both hard drives in personal computers and tape backup in mass
storage

Optical storage is the storage of data on an optically readable medium. Data is recorded
by making marks in a pattern that can be read back with the aid of light, usually a beam of
laser light precisely focused on a spinning optical disc.

there are 4 category in optical drive are.......

CD ROM (Compact disk read only memory)

 read only CD
CD WRITER (compact disk writer)
 read & write CD

DVD ROM (digital versatile disk read only memory)

 read & write CD
 read only DVD
DVD writer (digital versatile disk writer)
 read & write CD
 read & write DVD
BIT : it is a smallest unit of computer memory.

8 bit = 1 byte
1024 byte = 1 kilobyte (kb)
1024 kilobyte = 1megabyte(mb)
1024 megabyte = 1 gigabyte (gb)
1024 gigabyte = 1 terabyte TB)
Magnetic Memory
FDD (Floppy Disk Drive)
Magnetic Tape
Usb (Universal Serial Bus)
HDD (Hard Disk Drive)
Floppy Disk Drive
The floppy drive is a piece of computer hardware that reads data from, and writes data to, a
small disk.
The most common type of floppy drive is the 3.5" drive, followed by the 5.25" drive, among
other sizes.
The floppy disk was the primary method to transfer data between computers and back up
files externally, from the late 1900s all the way up to the early 21st century. For the most
part, the floppy disk drive is now completely obsolete.
This older storage device has been replaced by other portable devices and built-in
computer hardware not only because they're more common and therefore
compatible with other devices, but because they're more capable and can store
much more data.

Magnetic Tape
Definition - What does Magnetic Tape Drive mean?
A magnetic tape drive is a storage device that makes use of magnetic tape as a medium for
storage.
It uses a long strip of narrow plastic film with tapes of thin magnetizable coating. It is
essentially a device which records or perhaps plays back video and audio using magnetic
tape, examples of which are tape recorders and video tape recorders.

Usb (Universal Serial Bus)

 Definition - What does Universal Serial Bus (USB) mean?
A Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a common interface that enables communication between
devices and a host controller such as a personal computer (PC). It connects peripheral
devices such as digital cameras, mice, keyboards, printers, scanners, media devices,
external hard drives and flash drives. Because of its wide variety of uses, including support
for electrical power, the USB has replaced a wide range of interfaces like the parallel and
serial port.

HDD (hard disk drive)

A hard disk is part of a unit -- often called a disk drive, hard drive or hard disk drive -- that
stores and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an
electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces. Today's computers typically come
with a hard disk that can contain anywhere from billions to trillions of bytes of storage.
types of hard disk drive are......
ATA (advanced technology attachment )
PATA (parallel advanced technology attachment)
SATA (serial advanced technology attachment )
hard disk drive technolgy.............

had disk size ...........

40 GB, 80GB, 160GB, 320GB, 500GB
1 TB , 2 TB, 4TB
Hard disk speed........
rotation per minute(rpm)
5400 rpm
7200 rpm
hard disk drive partitions
hard disk support 2 types of partitions
1. primary partition
 support upto 4 partition
2. secondary or extended partition
  can be created multiple logical drive

format:
formatting is a procedure which erase the data from the disk after its
create tracks & sectors record in the particular drive.
file system
 FAT (file allocation table)

 NTFS (new technology file system)

 REFS (resilient file system)

sectors

tracks

Software
Software
Software is basically a set of instructions grouped into programs that make the
computer to function in the desired way.
It is collection of programs to perform a particular task.
There are so many different types of softwares available for different purposes.
Without the software, we cannot do any task using the computer.
Software is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and
more efficient for humans to use than machine language.
Types of Software
The software is widely available and there may be vast and a variety of software.
 Software are categorized into,
System Software
Application Software

System Software
 Systems software is a set of
instructions that serves primarily as an
intermediary between computer
hardware and application programs, and may also be directly manipulated by
knowledgeable users.

Systems software provides important self-regulatory functions for computer systems,

such as
Loading itself when the computer is turned on.
Managing hardware resources such as secondary storage for all applications
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Providing commonly used sets of instructions for all applications to use.
 Without using the system software, there may be no computer program that can
run on a computer system.
 So the system software is an important or indispensable part of the computer
system.

 Types of System Software

Operating System
Utility Programs

Utility Programs
 Utility software is a type of system software designed to help analyze, config,
optimize and maintain the computer.
 Due to this focus, utilities are often rather technical and targeted at people with
an advanced level of computer knowledge.

Examples of utility software include,

Virus scanner - to protect the system from viruses.
Disk defragmenter - to speed up the hard disk.
System monitor - to look at the current system resources.
File managers - to add, delete, rename and move files and folders
Application software can be used as a productivity/business tool; to assist with graphics
and multimedia projects.
Examples of Application Software
Microsoft Word
Microsoft PowerPoint
Macromedia Freehand
Adobe Photoshop
CorelDraw

Operating System
 Operating System is an important system software found almost in all computers.
 Operating is defined as the program, that instructs the computer how to work with
its various components.
 It helps to manage files and checks the various peripheral devices such as
printers, monitors, etc.
 The operating system itself is a collection of programs, these programs translate
our instructions to the computer's language.
 And then translate the computer's response from computer's language to the user
understandable form.
Characteristics of Operating System
Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of
Operating Systems −

 Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part
of it is in use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the
memory when a process or program requests it.

 Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and

deallocates the processor when it is no longer required.

 Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O
controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how
much time.

 File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides

who gets the resources.

 Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of

passwords and other similar techniques.

 Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request

for a service and from the system.

CUI (Command User Interface)

exp. DOS (Disk operating system)
GUI (Graphical User Interface)
exp. windows

Types Of Operating System

Dos
Windows
Linux
Mac Windows Operating Is
Solaris Popular & Familiar
Os2
Android
DOS (Disk Operating System)
 dos is command user interface, single user operating system.
 there are two types of command
 internal & external command
dos commands are.....
cls
to clear the screen.
dir
to show the all files and directory (folders) in particular drive.
copy con
to create a new file.
date
to show the current date.
time
to show the current time
type
to show the file matter.
ren
to change the any file name (rename)
del
to delete the any existing file.
copy
to make duplicate file from existing file
move
to move any files from one location to another location.
md
making a directory (foloder)
cd
changing the directory
rd
removing the directory

Windows
A window is a graphical interface element used to display the contents of an
application for the user to view and interact with. A window is usually a
rectangular area that can be resized and is generally editable according to the
capabilities and limitations imposed on it by the application providing it. The
window is essential in facilitating multitasking in a modern operating system,
as it allows users to visually and manually switch between running
applications and make general interactions with the operating system.

generation of windows
windows 3.1
windows 95
Popular Windows
windows xp, windows 2003
windows 7, windows 2008r2
windows 10, windows 2012
windows 98
windows me
windows nt
windows 2000
windows xp professional
windows 2003
windows vista
windows 7
windows 2008
windows 2008r2
windows 8
windows 10
windows 2012
windows 2016

ELEMENTS OF THE WINDOWS 7 DESKTOP

Icons-small pictures that represents an object available to your computer

Desktop picture or background-Displays the colours and graphics of your

desktop; you can change the desktop background to look the way you want it
such as using a picture. Also called wallpaper
Desktop-your workplace on the screen.

Start Button-provides access to Windows 7 programs, documents, and

information on the Internet. Generally located in the lower left corner of the
desktop.
 Program buttons-launches Internet Explorer, Windows Media Player,
Windows Explorer and the program buttons that you have chosen to pin to the
taskbar.

Taskbar-contains the Start button and buttons that give you quick access to
common tools and the programs currently running. Generally located along
the bottom of the desktop.

Notification area-shows the notification icons, the current date and time and
lets you set the clock. Also known as the system tray and generally located in
the lower right corner of the desktop.

Recycle Bin icon-contains files and folders that you delete. The deleted files
are not gone until you empty the Recycle bin.

Component Of Windows
Desktop
My Documents
Task Bar System Maintenance Tools
Accessories
Control Panel  diskcleanup
 defragmentation
Accessories  temp
 note pad
 word pad  %temp%
 paint  prefetch
 calculator
 sticky note  cookies
 command
 windows explore

control panel
 programs and features
 user account
 display
 windows update
 mouse setting
 device manager

Networking & Communication

What is a Network?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network

devices, peripherals, or other devices connected to one another to allow
the sharing of data. An excellent example of a network is the Internet,
which connects millions of people all over the world. Below is an example
image of a home network with multiple computers and other network
devices all connected to each other and the Internet.

Some of the basic hardware components

that can be used in networks include:
 Interface Cards: These allow computers to communicate over the network
with a low-level addressing system using media access control (MAC)
addresses to distinguish one computer from another.

 Repeaters: These are electronic devices that amplify communication signals

and also filter noise from interfering with the signals.

 Hubs: These contain multiple ports, allowing a packet of information/data to

be copied unmodified and sent to all computers on the network.

 Bridges: These connect network segments, which allows information to flow

only to specific destinations
 Switches: These are devices that forward, make forwarding decisions and
otherwise filter chunks of data communication between ports according to the
MAC addresses in the packets
of information.

 Routers: These are devices that forward packets between networks by

processing the information in the packet.
  Firewalls: These reject network access requests from unsafe sources, but
allow requests for safe ones.

Three very common types of networks include:

 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

You may also see references to a Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN), a Wireless LAN
(WLAN), or a Wireless WAN (WWAN).

Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is
generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building.

Computers connected to a network are broadly categorized as servers or workstations. Servers are
generally not used by humans directly, but rather run continuously to provide "services" to the
other computers (and their human users) on the network. Services provided can include printing
and faxing, software hosting, file storage and sharing, messaging, data storage and retrieval,
complete access control (security) for the network's resources, and many others.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect networks in larger geographic areas, such as Florida, the
United States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to
connect this type of global network.

Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter of
seconds, without paying enormous phone bills. Two users a half-world apart with workstations
equipped with microphones and a webcams might teleconference in real time. A WAN is
complicated. It uses multiplexers, bridges, and routers to connect local and metropolitan networks
to global communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear
to be much different than a LAN.

network topology
A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting
lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the physical topology and the
logical (or signal) topology.

Network Address
 Physical Address
 exp. mac (media access control)
 48 bit address (hexadecimal )
 Logical Address
 ip address

there are 5 classes

CLASS A (0-127)
CLASS B (128-191)
CLASS C (192-223)
CLASS D (224-239)
CLASS E (240-255)

we can assign class A,B,C only

class d and e we use for R& D
private address
class a 10.0.0.0
class b 172.16.0.0
class c 192.168.1.0

Internet & Digital Collaboration

As computing advanced, peer-to-peer (P2P) communication was gradually delivered
and enhanced. Since the 1990s, the internet has greatly influenced and upgraded
networking to global standards. Billions of internet users rely on multiple application
and networking technologies, including:
Internet Protocol (IP): The internet’s primary component and communications
backbone. Because the internet is comprised of hardware and software layers, the
IP communication standard is used to address schemes and identify unique
connected devices. Prominent IP versions used for communications include Internet
Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6).
Communications: The internet is the most cost-effective communications method in
the world, in which the following services are instantly available:

 Email
 Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services
 Online movies and gaming
 Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Instant messaging
 Internet forums
 Social networking
 Online shopping
 Financial services

The internet originated with the U.S. government, which began building a computer
network in the 1960s known as ARPANET. In 1985, the U.S. National Science
Foundation (NSF) commissioned the development of a university network backbone
called NSFNET. The system was replaced by new networks operated by commercial
internet service providers in 1995. The internet was brought to the public on a larger
scale at around this time.

CONTROLLER OF CERTIFYING AUTHORITIES (CCA)

CENTRE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF ADVANCED COMPUTING (C-DAC)

CENTRE FOR RAILWAY INFORMATION SYSTEMS (CRIS)

COMMON SERVICES CENTRE (CSC)

DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE SERVICES
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL POLICY & PROMOTION (DIPP)
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (DST)

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF SUPPLIES AND GOODS (DGS&D)

EDUCATION & RESEARCH IN COMPUTER NETWORKING (ERNET)

MINISTRY OF CORPORATE AFFAIRS (MCA)

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION RESEARCH AND TRAINING (NCERT)

NATIONAL INFORMATICS CENTRE (NIC)

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (NIELIT)

NATIONAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION

NATIONAL PAYMENTS CORPORATION OF INDIA

Digitize India Platform

1. Randomly serves snippets to contributors

2. Snippets are matched for converted data in the match engine
3. Correct entries get reward points for each correct words digitized
4. Platform organizes the snippet text digitized by contributors
5. Document are re-assembled and provided back to the organizations

Practical Session

Ms Office
Microsoft word
Microsoft excel
Microsoft power point and
Internet