The Potential Application of Blockchain Technology in Enhancing Management of Transactions & Payment Automation in Construction
The Potential Application of Blockchain Technology in Enhancing Management of Transactions & Payment Automation in Construction
BY
SHAARIQ JOOSUB
H00286141
of
Presented To
Heriot-Watt University
AUGUST | 2022
DECLARATION
I, Shaariq Joosub, confirm that this work submitted for assessment is my own and is expressed
in my own words. Any uses made within it of the works of other authors in any form (e.g.
ideas, equations, figures, text, tables, programmes) are properly acknowledged at the point of
their use. A full list of the references employed has been included.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
CHAPTER 4 | RESEARCH FINDINGS & ANALYSIS ....................................................... 34
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 34
4.2 Approach to the Data Analysis ................................................................................ 34
4.3 Validity of Questionnaires ........................................................................................ 34
4.4 Findings’ Analysis ...................................................................................................... 35
4.4.1 Section A : Demographics..................................................................................................................35
4.4.2 Section B : Application of Blockchain in Construction Contract Management ...............................39
4.4.3 Section C : Impediments and Barriers to Blockchain Adoption in Construction Projects.................42
4.4.4 Section D : Improving the Uptake of Blockchain Technology ..........................................................46
4.4.5 Interview Questionnaires....................................................................................................................48
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LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to extend a special thanks and show my appreciation to the
academic & support staff at Heriot-Watt University Malaysia, for not only having equipped &
prepared me with a wealth of industry knowledge & comprehensive experience but as well as
for providing me with the opportunities to demonstrate my capabilities, not only to others in
the world of Academia but utmost importantly, to myself, allowing me to reach yet another
momentous pinnacle & milestone of my life's journey.
The assistance provided by assistant professor Mrs Sr Ruzanna B, Abd Rahman, was greatly
appreciated and exorbitantly fruitful. I would like to offer my feelings of gratitude for her time,
guidance, dedication, and consistent positive tones of encouragement throughout. Mrs Sr
Ruzanna, Abd Rahman, offered intellectually valuable advice and input, not only shaping the
outlook of this dissertation but instead moulding the ideologies and notions of my perceptions
and illustrated how I could play a role in unlocking the technical facets & shape the future of
the built environment.
I would also like to acknowledge and extend a special thank you to my parents for having
provided me with this once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for which I am grateful and forever
indebted. Above all else, I would like to thank my brother, Zaakir Joosub, for his
encouragement of imaginative & free thinking, to become a student of life, consistently driving
me to philosophically look at the world as a whole, always teaching me the importance of the
integration and unification of new technologies, societies, construction practices and the natural
world, always motivating me to unblur the ideological lines of division and to take positive
strides of action in creating a better & brighter future of the world.
I also wish to show my appreciation to my diverse set of friends, who had emboldened and
inspired me by sharing their unique cultural, ethnic, field of expertise and industry insights,
stories, opinions, and seasoned wisdom with me and had also provided me with heartening
support throughout the year and this journey.
Finally, I would like to express a deep sentiment of appreciation to all the respondents, for their
time, constructive feedback, critiques, and overall valued input for the research subject matter.
Without them, this dissertation would certainly not be possible.
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ABSTRACT
Information exchange is critical for construction projects due to their collaborative nature.
Blockchain technology creates a shared, secure and authorized logging across digital,
transactions. Bitcoin and cryptocurrencies function on the groundwork of this technology. It is
difficult to compromise (alter, hack, or destroy) information occurring within Blockchain
technology. This innovation is a digital transaction ledger that duplicates and distributes
transactional data across every computer network on the Blockchain. There is a projection that
the technology will revolutionize several areas of computing, more so concerning centralized
operations and privacy. Digitization is increasingly occurring in construction the construction
industry to enhance delivery and several critical areas of project management. A dynamic
collaboration between several companies constitutes the overall framework of construction
projects. Construction companies adopt communication technology to enhance information
exchange across several companies, groups, and teams working on the same project.
Blockchain technology can address several challenges within construction information
management.
Some of the key issues that compromise information management in the construction industry
include confidentiality, channel oversight, ledger metrics, multiparty aggression, change
tracing, inter-company record keeping, data ownership and provenance tracking. All the issues
mentioned earlier commingle with trust relations among actors in the industry, such as
contractors, subcontractors, suppliers, and clients. Mutual trust can enhances the
processes in construction project management. However, there is slow adoption of the
technology in the construction industry because of an association with increased fragmentation,
high costs for Small and Medium-sized Enterprise (SME) owners, and an absence of standard
adoption procedures among several other factors. Generally, the cryptocurrency industry uses
at higher rates than other industries due to early adoption. The technology’s integration with
the construction industry enhances efficiencies in building projects but it also comes with some
limitations to its adoption.
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GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS
IP : Intellectual Property
P2P : Peer-to-peer
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CHAPTER 1 | INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The construction industry is very complex due to its fragmented nature. Several construction
projects are associated with challenges like delayed payments, late delivery, and low
productivity throughout the lifecycle of a project (Hamledari & Fischer, 2021). Process
integration and enhancement through innovation can optimize the general performance of
building initiatives. The slow uptake of technology in construction makes the industry lag with
the weight of minimal efficiencies from vast opportunities and resources. The adoption of
technology in the construction process is both procedural and simultaneous. For instance,
adopting some technologies, like the blockchain, depends upon an existing information
database (Dakhli et al., 2019). Traditional methods of managing construction projects made
architects the epitome of all processes. Essentially, their expanded roles and significance made
them like walking databases - Architects had all the project information. The 20th century’s last
half saw a collapse of traditional drawing and calculation tools. The computer-aided design
(CAD) innovation altered the construction landscape with a shift from symbolic 2D and 3D
drawings on tracing papers to the introduction of separate layers within the CAD program. The
upshot was an optimized ability for engineers to mitigate design problems using the software’s
features, which have a characteristic complex graphical outlook and higher visual interactivity.
Another milestone innovation in construction focused on information management. Building
information modelling (BIM) is quintessential for blockchain technology (BCT) adoption in
the construction industry (Ye et al., 2020). Understanding how the technologies function and
their relevance can lay the groundwork for increased adoption.
BCT has several definitions that have a similar subtext. Its descriptions postulate it as a digital
transaction ledger with features that include decentralization, authentication, and security. It is
a chain of blocks that houses data using digital signatures throughout a decentralized network.
A decentralized information ledger suits a construction project because the procedures involve
peer-to-peer collaboration between companies and specialists (Franca et al., 2020). BCT has
data store algorithms that determine the authenticity of a block’s proof of work (POW). Despite
deconcentrating, data access is secure because of authentication. Blockchain data is inalterable
because it records the whole data history together with author information and timestamps. The
splintered predisposition of the construction industry necessitates strategies that can optimize
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information management and make processes seamless. Poor data management can bring
project inconsistencies in areas of contractual information, thereby causing contract problems.
The financial sector pioneered blockchain adoption. Processes in a construction project occur
simultaneously, but information management should be procedural. Provenance tracking, data
ownership, confidentiality, change tracing, cross-company record maintenance, storage, and
data ownership are some of the key problems that affect information management in the sector
(ICE, 2018). These challenges affect trust between stakeholders (suppliers, contractors,
subcontractors, and clients). Mutual trust optimizes the management of information throughout
the project’s lifecycle. For this reason, BIM adoption is requisite for blockchain adoption. The
financial sector uses blockchain more than any other industry. Cook (2021) suggests the
blockchain’s utilization in the financial industry can serve as a blueprint for its adoption in the
construction industry, specifically for payment automation and contract management.
Some of the key issues that compromise information management in the construction industry
include confidentiality, channel oversight, ledger metrics, multiparty aggression, change
tracing, inter-company record keeping, data ownership and provenance tracking. All the issues
mentioned earlier commingle with trust relations among actors in the industry, such as
contractors, subcontractors, suppliers, and clients (Golosova and Romanovs, 2018). However,
there is slow adoption of the technology in the construction industry because of an association
with increased fragmentation, high costs for Small and Medium-sized Enterprise (SME)
owners, and an absence of standard adoption procedures among several other factors (Fu &
Zhu., 2021). Companies contribute to construction projects but digital revolutions in
communication procedures in construction transfer role-focus from construction organizations
to individual consultants. BIM adoption in modern construction adopts a digital framework of
information exchange in blocks for the various stages of project management, thereby requiring
integration with blockchain technology to enhance the management of this information (Adae,
2021). Generally, the cryptocurrency industry uses at higher rates than other industries due to
early adoption. The technology’s integration with the construction industry enhances
efficiencies in building projects but it also comes with some limitations to its adoption
(Greenwood & Kassem, 2019).
The integration of Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a prerequisite for BCT adoption
because the latter functions on the groundwork of an existing database. The blockchain’s utility
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in the construction industry includes digital property records maintenance, smart oracles, smart
contracts, multi-signature transactions, and timestamping transactions or acts (Ki et al., 2020).
Several factors influence blockchain management of building information; the size of data
requiring management, participants’ number, and the number of transactions from the
groundworks of the distinguishing factors between the BIM model’s blockchain and
traditional/conventional blockchain applications like Bitcoin (Ye et al., 2020). Hundreds of
transactions, each comprising several gigabytes, across dozens of users constitute blockchain
in building information whereas billions of transactions, each comprising about a kilobyte,
between users in their millions constitute blockchain in cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin and
Ethereum.
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4. What are some of the impediments against blockchain integration in the contract
management frameworks of construction projects?
This study aims to propose strategies for enhancing BCT adoption in contract management
during construction projects.
The study will focus on the South African Construction Industry (SACI). Several firms in
Durban, the country’s most populous city, provide case points for appraising blockchain’s
application in the industry. In addition, the expanse of this study covers quantity surveyors,
contractors, subcontractors, surveyors, clients, and managers working in private construction
companies.
The study can provide a guideline for universities to readjust the curriculum to fit student needs
in line with current construction practices. It can also facilitate the generation of trust-
improving strategies among varying types of industry stakeholders throughout the construction
lifecycle. The fragmented nature of the construction industry necessitates innovation-based
contract management strategies (Wu et al., 2021). Blockchain consolidates the authenticity and
reliability of records throughout a project’s lifecycle. The integration of Building Information
Modelling (BIM) is a prerequisite for BCT adoption because the latter functions on the
groundwork of an existing database. Construction projects fit the hybrid blockchain type
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because of control requirements for specific data and privacy of all information facets across
several stages of the construction project life cycle. The rationale for the hybrid blockchain
type in construction projects stems from their requirement of a database (Building Information
Modelling), shared access, control functionality, private transactions, and inter-company
consensus determination. The blockchain’s utility in the construction industry includes digital
property records maintenance, smart oracles, smart contracts, multi-signature transactions, and
timestamping transactions or acts (Ki et al., 2020).
Chapter 1 : Introduction
This section provides a background of innovation in the construction sector. The uptake of
technology relies upon procedure because some technologies function optimally when they are
integrated with other technologies. The section provides the aim, rationale, and objectives of
the study. The research questions act as a compass that facilitates the navigation of the study’s
aim.
This area appraises BCT application in the financial sector by analysing how the innovation
works in cryptocurrency transactions, specifically Bitcoin and Ethereum. Blockchain
technology can enhance the transparency and equitability of the present project management
and payment systems, thereby bringing effectiveness and accountability among project
stakeholders. This chapter investigates the current framework for BCT adoption in the
construction sector, together with challenges and opportunities.
This chapter evaluates the methods in the study. Qualitative and quantitative methods will
guide the study. It provides a discussion of the methods, selection criteria, omission criteria,
rationale, application, and limitations that associate with the chosen methods. Qualitative
methods provide case studies whereas quantitative methods provide metrics for the research to
determine the extent of application.
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Chapter 4 : Research Findings & Analysis
This chapter discusses the collection of primary data in this exegesis occurred under the
directorship of a questionnaire survey whose design targeted the study population. The
researching entity prepared several facets of questionnaires in a frame that suited the unity of
the hypothesis, problem statement, and the guiding research objectives and questions to achieve
the objective of the study.
This section of the paper discusses the propositions for enhancing BCT uptake, emanating from
the analysis of findings and literature review.
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CHAPTER 2 | LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The literature review’s premier section appraises the technology’s history wherein the study
sheds light on the concept and technical outlook of the technology as applied to the financial
sector. Thereupon, an extensive textual analysis of credible sources that are in tandem with the
scope of the study ensues, seeking to understand multifarious definitions of Blockchain
technology (BCT), targeting a formulation of a subtext and context that cut across several
definitions. The financial industry’s application of the technology shall provide a perfect rubric
upon which maxims of application that can suit the design of the construction industry may
thrive. Such an appraisal will lay the groundwork for the identification of specific applications
of BCT in the construction sector based on the discussed common subtext in definitions and
concepts. Derivation as a design of the chapter is manoeuvring techniques that employ a
general-to-specific model of information gathering. Accordingly, the section gradually
develops a vicissitude that facilitates a tactful exploration of the particular questions that guide
this area of analysis in the grand scheme of the larger picture, which the research aim
encapsulates.
Contract management using Blockchain technology is a key unit of appraisal within the
chapter. Successful inquiry into the history, specifically definitions, subtexts, and concepts, of
BCT enables a presentation of general and deep facts about the technology’s potential in the
execution of contracts within the construction industry on the premise of its success in the
financial sector. The immediate step entails an intensive analysis of specific issues affecting
BCT application in contract management in the industry of inquiry. Lifting the lid off the
bucket that enshrines impediments against its implementation scaffolds the study into the
proceeding sub-category of the section’s appraisal-how the current industry attempts to solve
the application problems. Finally, the chapter summary sub-category of an illustrious literature
review will provide an overview of the reverberating specific issues encircling BCT
implementation in the industry.
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2.2 Introduction to Blockchain Technology
The financial sector pioneered the application of Blockchain technology during the nascence
of cryptocurrency, particularly bitcoin. Blockchain is a distributed, unalterable ledger for
registering transactions, monitoring assets, and establishing trust relations within a business
network (IBM, 2022). The assets can be intangible, such as branding, Intellectual Property (IP),
copyrights, and patents, or tangible, like machinery or land. A Blockchain network in business
transactions permits the tracking and exchange of relevant valuables securely and cost-
effectively. Builtin (2022) defines BCT as a Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) that
bulwarks any digital asset’s history against breach, and it achieves this function via
cryptographic hashing and decentralization. Simply put, DLT is a form of a database that
houses protected data blocks that occur as a chronologically linked single-source data storage
system. The unalterable, often adopting the term “immutable” feature derives from the
technology’s framework of transacting digital assets; relevant parties share the data of asset,
instead of copying or transferring the information. BCT enables the function of real-time
distribution of the data of assets due to decentralization.
Thus, transparency arises as one of the major conveniences that technology brings to
transactions that occur in the context of business networks. Price Waterhouse Coopers-PWC
(2016) explained that the technology underpins the existence of cryptocurrency among several
other items of transaction. Bitcoin is markedly at the vanguard of assets based on blockchain’s
invention. This FinTech Company positions the description of the network in a way that is by
no means dissimilar to what the earlier described definitions infer. PWC (2016) positions the
technology as a decentralized ledger that carters for every exchange or transaction throughout
a peer-to-peer (P2P) network. Participants can use the innovation to authorize transactions,
indicating freedom from the requirement of a central clearing figurehead/authority. Probable
areas of BCT application include settling trades, voting, and fund transfers among several
others. Positioning this study from a business vantage point demands hypothesizing the
technology as a nascent business process-enhancement software (PWC, 2016). An entity
adopting the name Satoshi Nakamoto advanced the technology in 2008. Satoshi’s development
used the technology to function as bitcoin’s public transaction ledger, where coalescing nodes
authorized new blocks by following communication protocols.
Overall, blockchain’s definitions possess similar subtexts that instantiate the fundamental
elements of its concept. IBM (2022) identified immutable records, smart contracts, and
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Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) as the key Blockchain elements. Blockchain’s DLT
feature implies all network participants can access the shared ledger and its’ alter-proof
transaction records due to one-time registration of any exchange. Immutability of records is an
upshot of data existing in the form of a chain of interrelated blocks where a current block is a
development of the previous one, and a basis for the introduction of a new one in a co-echoing
way throughout the entire network, hence Blockchain (PWC 2016: Cooke, 2021). BCT
organizes the welter of multifarious but connected digital transactions using a protocol, or a
body of rules called smart contracts, which it stores and automatically executes. The technical
operational mode of Blockchain transactions is as follows in line with IBM (2022). First, the
technology records each occurring transaction as a data block. The transactions exhibit the
transfer of tangible and intangible assets. The data registers the information as per the
requirements and directions of the recorder, such as who, where, what, when, and how much.
Second, every block has points of connection to preceding and proceeding blocks. The blocks
verify the transaction sequence, time, and link inextricably to prevent a breach or addition of a
block between two existing ones. Third, BCT blocks transactions together in a hack-proof
chain. Blockchain is a derivative of the last technical model of the innovation’s functionality
in a digital ledger.
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2.3 Blockchain in Construction Contract Management
The elements of blockchain present opportunities that can optimize the management of
contracts in construction. The fragmented nature of the construction industry and projects has
historically compromised the quality and timely delivery of construction projects. BCT’s
elements can give digital databases of construction transactions several advantages that current
ones, such as Building Information Model (BIM) lack. A database, preferably the Building
Information Model (BIM) sets the tone for Blockchain Adoption in construction contract
management. A paucity of mitigating mechanisms, if any exist, imbue the management of
single activities over a BIM network with a central authority to guarantee the current data’s
non-repudiation. For this reason, trust between stakeholders seldom exists. Blockchain can
make the construction industry more transparent, effective, productive, and sustainable
(Institution of Civil Engineers-ICE, 2020). The construction industry remains among the
world’s high-impact sectors despite its fragmentation. Emerging technologies, blockchain, in
this case, presents several efficiencies that can enhance the industry’s operations. The
construction sector presently experiences a digital transformation revolution to enhance
efficiencies, business practice, and digital workflows. Blockchain can enhance construction
contracts and payments by veering existing payment and project management systems toward
a fair and transparent practice. BCT frees small and medium-sized enterprises from perpetual
cash flow risks by minimizing remediations, late payments, and disputes (Institution of Civil
Engineers, 2020). Resultantly, trust in the industry grows. BCT enables the creation of smart
contracts that automate administrative tasks and business processes in ways that satisfy the
agreed contractual terms between participants.
BCT is at the apex of technologies that embody the digital transformation in developed
economies. Stakeholders in the construction industry can use it as a method of managing assets
and contracts, wherein asset security gets reinforcement (Martino et al., 2020). The complex
links in a growing construction sector frustrate data/information sharing because of high
process costs and time lapses (Institution of Civil Engineers, 2018). Traditional data sharing
methods have negative influences on trust relations due to limited data access, lack of efficient
provenance tracking strategies, and reliance on a central figurehead for transaction
authorization. The digital revolution in the industry instantiates itself in the modification and
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transformative solutions that BCT brings to the communication methods between construction
project contractors. BIM ensures digital data exchange by providing a single database
enclaving all data, which operators share throughout the project lifecycle. The growing
application of BIM in construction projects sets the tone for collaboration and information
exchange between parties. However, BIM lacks the surety of transparency and reliability in
each transaction (Turk and Kline, 2017). Deficiencies in information exchange using BIM
include modification rights, model property, and error responsibility. Integration between BIM
and BCT can bring a dynamic context that can overcome BIM limitations (Martino et al., 2020).
Blockchain brings a precise and transparent data-sharing framework by decentralizing
information control.
Blockchain potential in the construction industry lies within its capabilities to remove the
inconveniences that have lately lowered the motivation for BIM model creation (Imvozone,
2018). The challenges discouraging construction contractors from creating BIM are
disintermediation, provenance tracking, as well as data ownership and recording. Martino et
al. (2020) stated some benefits that the construction industry can reap from BIM-BCT
integration. The first advantage is the creation of a single and reliable digital ledger that creates
a collaborative context that functions on the principle of transparent delineation of the duties
and responsibilities of participants. Therefore, blockchain dissipates the chances of disputes
and misunderstandings that may arise from performance and delivery. The second advantage
of blending BIM with blockchain is efficient provenance tracking whereby each participant in
the process can record data with specific details such as date, location, and material to allow
tracing. Consequentially, the security of data and intellectual property (IP) grows stronger due
to tracing and transparency. Third, BIM-BCT amalgamation automates transaction processes
that smart contracts embody. Cross-party relationships between the participants of smart
contracts entail handling asymmetrical information during several stages of a project life cycle
(Martino et al., 2020). The usefulness of BIM-BCT integration manifests in transparency,
security, and provenance of the assets’ data.
The development of the BIM model premises itself on a shared digital register whose actors
update and modify in the course of contract implementation. Participants can store all the
procedural developments that form a vicissitude of a tamper-proof chronological organization
of the welter of relevant tasks, responsibilities, and traded assets throughout the lifecycle of a
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construction project. The features of blockchain ensure the immutability of data and a
decentralized control system in every phase of the process. The Blockchain can support BIM
model development to support contract execution in all stages of a construction project
lifecycle based on a shared blockchain database. Martino et al. (2020) identified the design,
commissioning, construction, and asset management phases of a construction project lifecycle
in their study, arguing that BIM model development supports their execution and that
efficiency can improve upon the development of the model through Blockchain integration.
1. Design Phase
Regarding the design phase, BIM-based preparation methods allow participants to share and
exchange data through one digital platform. The coalition between BIM and BCT mitigates
gaps in digital information modelling and project data management, like administrative,
insurance, and financial information, which typically have their instantiation on sheets. The
prospective of linking automated payments to the model’s data through smart contracts ensures
a comprehensive application of service contracts within the confines of requests that
participants express. Notably, the typical BIM model ceases to exist as a central data-exchange
environment that operates on a cloud platform under third-party governance. A BIM-BCT
integrated platform is rather a peer-to-peer (P2P) data-sharing environment where every
participant can define and oversight information ownership without altering or adding
unauthorized information.
2. Commissioning/Bidding
The fragmented and complex predisposition of the construction industry lends tendering
procedures to several ambiguities. A shared ledger that enshrines all data in permanent,
accessible, and transparent ways dissipates all misunderstandings. The blockchain provides
protocols for storing data in an immutable way such that no contracting party can tamper with
any tendering document. BCT ensures that all participants can access the procedures and
criteria for assessing bids, thus removing probable operational nefariousness/ambiguity by
explicitly making justifications for tender awards and termination. Accordingly, tenderers
deposit bids on the distributed ledger in an unalterable way, and clients can access the bids at
the end of the reception deadline. The consequence is a transparent and equitable tendering
process that guarantees tender awards to bidders who satisfy the pre-established award criteria.
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3. Construction
Clients and project managers can monitor the progress of the construction phase using the 4D
and 5D models of dimensions. The BIM model permits comprehension of the real-time state
of construction works, whereas the blockchain, through continuous data storage, facilitates
provenance tracking⸺ therefore, project managers can trace the origin of project delays,
budget spillovers, and delayed payments. Clients gain more control over the progress and data
exchange relating to the onsite construction, which now occurs faster and more transparently.
The blockchain for a construction activity can successfully control the construction supply
chain, making it possible to trace materials. In instances of delay, one may appraise each
processing stage that the blockchain database registered, after which an individual may link it
internally to BIM (Koouhizadeh and Sarkis, 2018). Moreover, a record of work status data and
a list of suppliers optimize smart contract execution. The synergies between blockchain and
the building information model show the work progress and contractual requirements. For this
reason, payment automation functions seamlessly because clients release payments once
contractors reach milestones or achieve deliverables that the work program determines.
BIM digitizes information management practices, but the innovation commingles with several
life cycle management challenges. A blockchain-based BIM model enables the creation of the
as-built model of a structure with all information regarding every component of the building.
The life cycle of a built asset satisfies the principles of a circular economy under the
management of a BIM-BCT platform (Marzouk et al., 2018). Through blockchain, all
participants throughout a construction project collect the building information data and register
the information in the distributed registry, which can support future maintenance, retrofitting,
and dismissal of redundant services during a structure’s operational phase. While BIM creates
a detailed and multi-professional framework of collaboration for lifecycle management,
blockchain facilitates a decentralized and convenient data management and storage system.
Blockchain and BIM interactions secure all data in the P2P network. Blockchain-based BIM
secures building data in its original forms throughout the lifecycle of a building (Leng et al.,
2020).
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analyses texts that contain case studies that highlight impediments against BCT
implementation in construction contracts and payment automation. There is limited blockchain
assimilation in construction projects despite the opportunities for process optimization.
2.4.1 Regulation
A paucity of regulations underpins much distrust in the blockchain space. Policies that can
govern Blockchain adoption in economic and social contexts have serious limitations.
Markedly, the current regulatory guidelines show little recognition, if any, of the blockchain
technology. The European Union’s Circular Economy Action Plan is the single policy guide
that tangentially mentions blockchain (Molina et al., 2021) The document provides guidelines
for the application of innovative models premised on enhanced customer relations through
mass customization of technologies like Artificial Intelligence, big data, and blockchain (Law
and Taylor, n.d.). The policy guideline recognizes blockchain, but notably lacks a description
of specific adoption frameworks. Consequently, heavy regulatory uncertainty compromises
BCT uptake. Policy guidelines that govern technology uptake should outline specifics (Du et
al., 2021). On the contrary, policy formulation endeavours that can map blockchain uptake
grapple with the impediments that the blockchain’s novelty presents. For instance, the unstable
verbal terrain of the blockchain’s landscape complicates policy formulation. More specifically,
several texts interchangeably use ‘consensus ledger,’ ‘shared ledger’ and ‘distributed ledger’
(Yli-Huumo et al., 2017). The unstable terminology reflects the technology’s novelty and
ongoing research in several application areas, including the construction industry.
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2.4.2 Interoperability
The technology lacks full maturity due to the presence of several ongoing studies regarding
further application areas in the construction industry. Many grey areas remain unidentified in
the current stage of blockchain’s maturity. Integration levels of blockchain-powered value
chains are higher than in traditional value chains due to the creation of peer-to-peer networks.
Interoperability between blockchain and value chains in construction processes, such as
contract management, necessitates the maintenance of consistent data states during exchanges
across several computer systems (Teisserenc & Sepasgozar, 2021). One of the greatest
challenges that several construction companies collaborating with within a P2P network are
designing a BIM blockchain that suffices the peculiar utilities and needs of variant contractor
organizations (Brown, 2021). Another interoperability issue occurs when organizations
overstress short-term gains over lasting benefits in the development of the BIM blockchain.
Construction projects have two varieties of cross-BIM-blockchain interoperability (Mont rat et
al., 2019: Pillai et al.., 2022). The first one covers arbitrary data sharing and the second one is
associated with the exchange of digital assets. Companies should examine the interoperability
frameworks to avoid the risk of sole existence on a blockchain network due to a lack of synergy
with other organizations.
The pandemic’s disruptions in 2020 tightened organizational budget plans. Additional costs in
system establishment, implementation, and staff training (Olawumi et al., 2021). The skill gap
in BCT makes the marketplace very competitive. The Blockchain Council (2019) reported a
surge of blockchain engineers by over 500 per cent in 2019, whereas the base remunerations
for blockchain developers had little change. Small and medium-sized enterprises have low
budgets that cause cash flow strains. As such, these organizations remain sceptical about BCT
integration because of the latent costs. COVID 19 showed that organizational IT departments
could evolve faster than previously imagined. A deeper examination of financial barriers in
BCT integration reveals correlations with limited understanding and awareness of blockchain
(Brown, 2021). Accordingly, a widespread awareness of new technologies increases the ability
of businesses to make a business case for BCT adoption.
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2.5 Measures of Improving Blockchain Technology Adoption
Brown (2021) argued that organizations face similar challenges during blockchain
implementation. Therefore, identifying the challenges, as the previous section highlights, is the
first strategy of surmounting the impediments in the journey of successful implementation. A
2019 survey conducted by APQC showed that 66 per cent of organizations admitted familiarity
with BCT technology. In 2020, the figure rose to 80 per cent. Surprisingly, on the other hand,
the majority of organizations remain in the early adoption stages. The following measures can
enhance BCT adoption:
This strategy enables organizations to gain the advantages of the technology without making
significant investments in acquiring technical talents. The BaaS model can reduce the skill gap
in the context of other innovations, like robotic process automation (Brown, 2021). In a similar,
organizations in the construction industry can identify vendors who possess the skills to
implement blockchain solutions. Conversely, users only need to understand the basics of the
technology, and thus become free from the strain of mastering programming concepts to gain
insights surrounding the technology’s benefits. Similarly, users must comprehend the
procedures of executing smart contracts that use BCT to execute transactions and automate
payments. BaaS has the potential to bridge the skill gaps and financial barriers against
blockchain adoption in the construction industry.
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blockchains in the sense that each member is a trust anchor whom the network recognizes based
on cryptographic identity (Brown, 2021). The platform utilizes a permissioned blockchain to
provide privacy, provenance, and immutability of shipping documents.
The topics discussed in this chapter display how blending the BIM model and BCT can provide
benefits and enhance efficiencies in the primary phases of construction contract execution.
Blending several technologies is not a strange phenomenon in the AEC sector. BIM becomes
more efficient when it blends with other nascent technologies like blockchain technology
(BCT). This technology enables a tamper-proof information exchange layer in addition to the
current internet infrastructure (Hari & Lakshmana, 2016). Data that exists within the
framework of BIM is susceptible to manipulation. Blockchain brings the element of trust and
Security because of openness to participants' verification and the provision of visual evidence
for value transactions via its trusted database system. BIM building projects' pre-construction,
construction, and post-construction stages can accommodate blockchain to enhance
efficiencies. In the pre-construction stage, BIM permits the storage of an immutable record of
modifications that experts introduce and implement in the BIM model. BCT provides
permanent storage for the records with a digital signature and tamperproof assurance. Internal
and external stakeholders can share these records on BIM platforms. Only experts blend them
with BCT. The existence of permanent records provides justifications for legal arguments that
may arise over information exchange and manipulation because it facilitates errors' tracing,
reduces modifications, and enhances liability control. Stakeholders can capitalize on BCT's
provenance tracking capabilities to establish intellectual property (IP) ownership in the
elements in the shared models.
23
Blockchain technology enhances the records' authenticity and reliability in the construction
stage of a building project. The records include performed tasks, utilized materials, and any
other relevant information that can fit into the model. The current BIM system cannot reliably
verify the authorization of specific information, which creates gaps between an event's
occurrence and reporting. The blockchain identifies changes and incorporates their physical
implementation (Perera et al., 2017: Yaga et al., 2019). As a result, disputes over work
completion reduce. In this sense, the BCT reduces the risk of overlooking requisite information
and making errors. The BIM model records the final stages to form a threshold for further
upgrades and modifications upon completing a project. The record forms a reliable information
source for maintenance procedures. Blockchain technology enhances the Security of stored
sensitive information and a maintenance log for the facility's BIM model. Resultantly,
information auditing becomes seamless while the records in the custody of the facility manager
gain enhanced credibility and authenticity.
However, several impediments cause limited BCT adoption in the construction industry despite
a growing awareness of the benefits it can bring to contract management and payment
automation. Brown (2021) postulated that varying organizations experience similar challenges
in BCT implementation and that identifying the challenges is the first step in mitigating the
problem. Martino et al. (2022) established the challenges against blockchain integration in the
construction industry go beyond the technology’s technical nature. Minimal collaboration
between peers and competitors in developing organizational BCT, legal barriers, financial
barriers and skill gaps are the challenges that cut across all organizations seeking BCT
application in contract management.
A lack of standard regulation brings ambiguities to go that beyond compliance concerns and
extend to benefits case construction companies experience difficulty to rationalize introduction
efforts. The nebulous nature of regulations is aggravated by the organizational culture of SMEs.
Most SMEs lack structured and standardized data specifications for Blockchain-BIM projects.
A lack of uniformity and replicable frameworks of data capture raises questions over whether
standard templates for data requests can suffice the unique organizational needs of several
companies undertaking blockchain-BIM projects. Another issue associated with organizational
culture differences across several firms entwines service delivery and budgets. SMEs undertake
projects without payback timeframes, and most do not risk integrating BIM because of its high
deployment costs. COVID 19’s surge has significantly transformed several business practices
24
across different industries. The pandemic’s adverse effects on businesses proved that
preparedness against previous threats is a good practice because it lays the groundwork for
dealing with similar challenges or the problem if it reoccurs, albeit with variations. Global
crises are not new phenomena as they have been occurring throughout history. Pandemics
appear to occur between 10 and 50-year intervals due to the nascence of novel virus
subcategories from virus re-assortment. Construction firms can embrace proactive, rather than
reactive measures to respond expeditiously in the happenstance of a global economic crisis that
disrupts supply chains. It is challenging to estimate the prolonged impacts when in the middle
of a global crisis, but studies show historical global crises correlate with minimum returns on
assets. Resultantly, individuals veer toward saving capital rather than investing. Economic
development reduces when people choose saving capital against investing. Blockchain
technology provides a good framework of process management in a trusted, authenticated and
secure way, which prevents delay and wastage of materials and time.
25
CHAPTER 3 | RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This section appraises the research strategies for achieving paper outcomes as outlined in the
objectives. The study, largely, consisted of qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Accordingly, the survey approach will be used in the collection of quantitative data. A
preparation of close-ended questionnaires facilitates the survey because it provided a baseline
upon which relationships between variables underwent appraisal.
This research procedure commingled with a series of undertakings surrounding the collection
of data. The feasibility of conclusions formed a strong rationale for a procedural data-gathering
process. Table 1 shows the steps followed in this exegesis. Steps 1 and 2 provided secondary
data whereas the remaining steps premised the primary data.
2. Literature review
5. Questionnaire Development
6. Data Collection
8. Conclusion
26
3.2 Research Ethics
Data collectors will gather data from a group. Most ethical considerations of the paper derive
from data collection. The impossibility of getting data from each member of a construction
project team underpins the sampling technique, wherein informed consent, anonymity, and
confidentiality played significant roles. In an endeavour to draw valid conclusions, the
probability sampling method has the best chance because the study intends to derive results
that instantiate the different groups of contractors in a construction project. The data records
are accurate and fit the ethical criterion of non-alteration or non-modification to suffice a
preconceived outcome. Within the probability sampling method, stratified sampling took
precedence because it enables the researcher to divide the study population into subgroups
depending on construction-related descriptions or job roles such as suppliers, contractors, and
clients.
This study adopted the qualitative and quantitative research design. The research objectives
included subjective and objective requirements that impelled both designs to arrive at feasible
outcomes. The two approaches complement each other during data assessment.
This exegesis used quantitative design to establish how variables are associated with each
other. This approach laid the groundwork for an objective assessment of the relationship
between the BCT and factors like roles, years of experience, attitudes as expressed in the Likert
scale, and awareness among several other factors (Habib, 2021). For instance, an appraisal of
the type of construction projects (Public or Private) against BCT adoption factors like cost
showed the relationship between the two variables.
A qualitative research approach focuses on the subject. This study sought to identify the roles
of the respondents, experience, type of projects, and their awareness of Blockchain technology.
The first section of the interviews focused on demographics, where the qualitative research
approach played a monumental role in the identification of subjects based on the earlier
mentioned categories of subjects in the demographics.
27
3.3.3 Justification of the Research
The reliance on literature in the study provided secondary data for the study. Consequentially,
the findings from the quantitative approach acted as primary data against which the discoveries
from a qualitative analysis formed consolidating arguments. The respondents’ interaction with
the technology, expressed in figures, provide tangible case points upon which secondary data
from qualitative methods formed reinforcing or inconsistent findings.
A survey questionnaire was used in the collection of quantitative primary data. The Likert scale
enabled the appraisal of the opinions and attitudes of stakeholders in a construction project.
This psychometric scale gave insights into a deep comprehension of the perspectives and views
concerning blockchain technology. The major assumption in the utilization of the scale was the
existence of a linear intensity and strength of the experience with an item (blockchain in this
case), ranging from complete disagreement to utter agreement. As such, the study employed
several statements with a scale to measure the respondents’ agreeableness to their suppositions.
The following statements that refer to the barriers against blockchain integration into the
construction contract management and payments helped respondents to identify their level of
agreement. On a scale of 1-5, where one implied the strongest disagreement and five motioned
the strongest level of agreement as illustrated in table 2.
Statement Rating
1 2 3 4 5
28
2. Blockchain requires technical know-how
to allow for effective implementation.
The second scale measured the level of agreement with the recommendations that would
improve the uptake of blockchain in the construction industry. Similarly, a scale of 1 to 5 was
used.
Statement Rating
1 2 3 4 5
29
3. Addressing security and privacy issues.
Data collection in this study emphasized construction industry players from construction
industry players. The administration of the questionnaires began with a focus on demographics,
for example, an identification of the respondents’ roles and their frequency in the construction
industry. In doing so, this exegesis identified the following roles.
30
Director 1 1.4 1.4 23.9
31
Thereafter, the study sought to identify the frequency of the respondents’ years of experience
as the chart below indicates, as well as the types of projects they undertook, notwithstanding
blockchain awareness.
The second part of the questionnaires covered the application of Blockchain in construction
project management, with a specific focus on payment automation, smart contracts, and the
willingness to adopt it. it
In this research, the random sampling technique is premised has premised the selection of the
research population and sampling to avoid subconscious bias from the study group. This
technique permitted similar and random opportunities for selection of the study population to
create a balanced subset that represented the entire target population as a unity, rather than
fragments.
The research relied upon secondary and primary data. The primary data collected was
categorised broadly into quantitative and qualitative data. The following figure summarises
the process.
32
Generally, this data collection method will inform discussions in the fourth chapter of this
research. The findings derive from primary data collection (PDC), wherein survey
questionnaires and interviews regarding the current BCT status in construction. Secondary data
collection, from the review of literature, adds weight to the raw findings of PDC through a
synthesis that lays the groundwork for key discoveries.
The data collected was analysed through SPSS software. Various statistical measures were
used in the analysis of data, such as descriptive and inferential statistics. This chapter appraises
the strategies that guide the exploration of previously enlisted research objectives. For the most
part, this study occurs against a backdrop of quantitative research, wherein several facets of its
general outlook provide a yardstick that predetermines multiplex approaches. As it shall
become evident, the study’s predisposition and entailing questions lay the groundwork for
ethical considerations because of the multiplicity and tapestry of subjects as well as the
significance of the research to the construction practice. A combination of the qualitative and
quantitative research methods gave validity to the study through an oversight framework of
data assessment in the delineation between primary and secondary data.
33
CHAPTER 4 | RESEARCH FINDINGS & ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
The collection of primary data in this exegesis occurred under the directorship of a
questionnaire survey whose design targeted the study population. The researching entity
prepared several facets of questionnaires in a frame that suited the unity of the hypothesis,
problem statement, and the guiding research objectives and questions to achieve the objective
of the study. Six sets of questionnaires encapsulated all the requisite data for the study. This
section of the research consolidates the methodology section by instantiating evidence and facts
that augment the validity of collected data. In doing so, an exercise of prudence demanded the
chapter’s dissection into sub-categories to avoid the risk of clashing several elements in
discourse.
The data analysis strategy in this study impels the utilization of bar graphs, tables, and pie
charts. These tools provided a direct data analysis method as per the requirements of the nature
of the findings; they act as visual aids that validate observations and appraisals that expose the
undertones of the study population’s responses to the questionnaires. For a similar reason, a
frequency analysis for the examination of descriptive analysis occurred to determine the
repetitiveness of several phenomena as identified by the participant's responses. The Likert
scale provided a tool against which measurements of the respondents’ attitudes and level of
agreeableness or apathy toward statements of facts happened. The concluding approach of data
analysis adopted a comparison between findings from the gathered data and the results of
previous literature that encircles the topic of discourse.
The formulation of the questionnaires occurred on the premise of construct validity to measure
the theoretical construct. This validity encompassed several types of validity. Generally,
questionnaire surveys are tools of metrics. They impress themselves as measurement
instruments within a quantitative approach to analysis. Validity identifies the extent to which
a survey or an instrument measures the item that its purpose of creation set forth. The six sets
of questionnaires for this study, by qualitative analysis, satisfied face validity. The respondents
34
acknowledged the relevance of the questions to their practice. The formulation of the
questionnaires given the research objectives and guiding questions cover all aspects of the areas
of investigation and thus suffice content validity. However, the weakness of face validity
creates a need for another form of consolidating validities. Criterion validity is evident in the
study considering that the questions have relevance to external criteria, specifically the
hypothesis (predictive criteria) and statement of the problem, which have the backing of the
literature review (concurrent criteria). Criterion validity correlates the questions with the topic
of study. Due to the categorical nature of the external criteria – by a mere distinction between
groups of respondents, known group validity instantiated itself on the questionnaires.
This section appraises the responses of the participants based on their years of experience and
professional affiliations. In addition, it establishes the type of projects that the respondents have
worked on to provide a basis from which blockchain adoption will be explored. Lastly, the
section sort to establish if the parties had any level of awareness of blockchain.
The respondents within the sample possess varying levels of professional roles and different
levels of experience in their professional practice. Seventy-one participants filled out a
questionnaire to describe their professional roles and years of experience in the field. The
majority of the participants were quantity surveyors, followed by engineers, project managers,
contractors and site operatives as figure 3 shows.
35
Quantity surveyors took 22.5 percent of the study sample, engineers comprised 21.1 percent,
project managers constituted 12.7 percent, architects represented 9.9 percent, and contractors
and site operatives comprised 8.5 percent each. Other professionals in the industry like
customer service representatives, logistics managers, legal advisors, global support executives,
interior designers, quantity survey trainees and site design coordinators among several others
had low frequencies.
According to figure 4, 69.01 percent of the participants had less than five years of experience
in the industry. Going by table 3, 11.27 percent of the sample had experience ranging from five
to ten years, 8.5 percent represented those with ten to fifteen years, while 11.27 percent had
over fifteen years of experience.
Years of Experience
36
Figure 4 : Years of Experience in Construction.
Figure 5 shows that 50.7 percent of the respondents worked in private funded projects while
25.4 percent worked in publicly funded construction works. Only 23.9% acknowledged
working for both publicly and privately funded projects as table 6 shows. Private institutions
commission and pay for private construction works while the government oversees the entire
public building project. Many construction workers function within the private sector because
publicly funded projects are large. Public contracts have more security and reliability than
private projects, but most respondents function within private funded contracts. The private
sector accounts for three-quarters of construction output in the UK and the public sector only
accounts for a quarter.
37
Table 6 : Types of Construction Projects.
59.15 percent of the respondents expressed familiarity with the blockchain while 40.75%
admitted to being ignoramuses concerning the technology as figure 6 shows. The financial
sector pioneered blockchain’s utilization for transaction management. Research about the
38
potential of BCT application in the construction sector is still underway. Furthermore, most
private-funded projects are yet to adopt BCT because of high implementation costs.
Figure 7 shows that 36.6 percent of the respondents admitted to the use of manual payment
systems in their organizations. According to table 5, 16.9 percent acknowledged no definite
structure of payment while 46.5 percent used automated payment.
39
Table 7 : Payment Systems in Construction.
71.8% of the respondents acknowledged that they witnessed complete non-payment of parties
and delays during dealings with contractors. Only 28.2 percent experienced no delays or non-
payment. This is illustrated in figure 8.
40
Figure 8 : Frequency of Delays and Non-Payment in Construction.
50.7 percent of the respondents expressed their organization’s desire to adopt blockchain,
32.2% were not sure, while 14.1% showed unwillingness. This is illustrated in figure 9.
41
67.6% of the respondents showed their organizations do not use smart contracts, as illustrated
in figure 10. Significantly, that shows a gradual appreciation of the technology in the
construction industry.
This section analyses the responses to the barriers to blockchain adoption in the construction
industry. To begin with, 78.87 percent of the respondents showed their organization’s
willingness to adopt BCT and 21.13 percent showed no desire to adopt the innovation as
illustrated in table 6. The section that showed unwillingness to adopt the technology decried
the influence of the industry’s fragmented nature on adoption. Insufficient knowledge
concerning BCT across the sector’s large community caused apathy. Other factors included
reliability, security, and long-term viability.
42
Table 8 : Willingness to adopt Blockchain.
Accordingly, the Likert scale facilitated data collection from the participants to determine
adoption barriers. 46.5 percent and 16.9 percent of the respondents agree and strongly agree
that blockchain adoption correlates with high implementation costs. 47.9 percent of participants
strongly acknowledge the relevance of technical knowledge for effective BCT implementation.
Most respondents (40.8 percent) showed that their organizations were comfortable with their
current contract management methods. Most participants agreed insufficient or absent
regulation impedes adoption as shown in table 8.
Blockchain is associated 2 7 17 33 12
with the high cost of
2.8% 9.9% 23.9% 46.5% 16.9%
implementation.
Blockchain requires 1 3 13 20 34
technical know-how to
1.4% 4.2% 18.3% 28.2% 47.9%
allow for effective
implementation.
43
My current organisation is 3 8 29 22 9
satisfied with the current
methodologies in place,
despite their flaws.
Limited understanding of 2 5 18 18 28
its capability.
2.8% 7.0% 25.4% 25.4% 39.4%
The respondent's response to the barriers against BCT application in construction contract
management showed that knowledge of technical information concerning its application ranks
first with a mean of 4.17 as illustrated in table 9. Regulatory standards comprise the second
most important factor with a mean of 3.94. Satisfaction with current transaction frameworks
occurred at the bottom the of salient organization of the barriers. Generally, the mean of the
44
barriers ranges between 3.37 and 4.17. The standard deviation remains high across all
impediments (Over 0.9), implying an even distribution of the views of the participants.
Descriptive Statistics
45
Blockchain is associated 71 3.65 .115 .972 .946
with high cost of
implementation.
Valid N (listwise) 71
This section explains the opinions and views of the respondents regarding how to improve the
adoption of blockchain technology in construction projects. More specifically, this part
appraises reliability statistics and descriptive statistics, wherein the latter form’s part two of the
analysis of the findings. 40.8 percent and 38 percent of the sample population agreed and
strongly agreed that improving user experience and training enhances blockchain adoption.
456.5 percent strongly agreed that enhancing security and addressing privacy concerns could
guarantee improved uptake levels. 38.8 percent of participants expressed strong agreement with
the government’s support of the technology for increased adoption. 40.8 percent of the
respondents strongly agree with the value of making BCT mandatory for public construction
projects as a method of increasing blockchain uptake.
Reliability Statistics
.765 .776 4
46
Table 11 : Presentation of Likert Scale’s Findings on BCT implementation Barriers.
Improving user 3 2 10 29 27
experience and training.
The government’s 4 4 15 21 27
support of the
technology. 5.6% 5.6% 21.1% 29.6% 38.0%
Making it compulsory 6 5 16 15 29
among public projects for
accountability. 8.5% 7.0% 22.5% 21.1% 40.8%
Descriptive statistics show that Improving user experience and training ranks first among the
strategies for increasing BCT uptake, with a mean of 4.13 as table 9 illustrates. The second
priority strategy entails improving user experience and training, with a mean of 4.06. The
government’s support of the technology comes third and making BCT adoption compulsory
for public projects ranks last. The standard deviation remains high across all strategies for
increasing adoption (above 1), implying an even distribution of the views of the participants.
47
Table 12 : Priority Strategies of increasing Blockchain uptake.
Descriptive Statistics
Valid N (listwise) 71
The questionnaires that the respondents answered had four sections. This part of the study
attempts to code the recurring themes, which mirror the objectives, across the several
interview facets. The following table presents the theme categorization of the interviews, sub-
themes and coding quotations from the interview respondents.
48
Table 13 : Thematic Analysis Table.
49
contact with the client and
explaining the situation
(Respondent HA).
In the event of large-scale
projects, yes (Respondent
IS).
Challenges against BCT A. Cost Lack of technical knowhow
implementation in B. Technical knowledge about the technology,
construction contracts. C. Government regulations, and traditional
regulation business mind-set amongst
D. Security older societies (Respondent
E. Satisfaction with CK).
current payment
The main issue with
methods despite
blockchain is a general lack
flaws (rigidity)
of knowledge of the
F. Limited information
technology and a general
lack of comprehension of
how it operates, especially
in industries other than
finance. Investment and idea
exploration is being
hampered by this, but in
future, there are lots of
possibilities to adapt this
technology in the
construction industry
(Respondent HA).
Lack of experience with the
technology, resistance to
change, integration with
clients’ subcontractors and
suppliers who do not have
the system (Respondent
EM).
Strategies for enhancing A. Awareness training Yes, organisations in the
BCT uptake in construction B. Mandating BCT for industry need to be offered
projects. public projects training programmes to
C. Security initiate the adoption process
Enhancement (Respondent IS).
Industry people must be
aware of blockchain
technology adoption in the
construction industry. The
50
construction business
consistently adopts new
technologies more slowly
than other economic sectors.
Even though some
technologies, including
building information
modelling and robotics 3D
printing, have been adopted,
there have been some
difficulties. With the
features and capacities to
enhance the construction
supply chain, and promote
transparency, sustainability,
and other factors, blockchain
technology is also seen as a
game-changer for the
industry (Respondent HA).
The themes reveal several pertinent discoveries regarding BCT uptake in construction.
1. Demographics
51
addition, the Blockchain democratizes transactions by facilitating community agreement on
identity, checks, and validation by freeing transaction processes from centralized authorities.
There is much regulatory uncertainty. The rationale behind an absence of laws includes
difficulty keeping up with all blockchain-related jargon and a subsequent unstable verbal
terrain. For example, people use several terms interchangeably to describe blockchain
technology. These terms include open or permissionless blockchains, consensus ledger, shared
ledger, and distributed ledger. In some instances, people may utilize them in one sentence, like
when an individual calls a shared distributed ledger. The changing language reflects the
technology's novelty and ongoing studies and research (Yli-Huumo et al., 2017). The upshot is
a requirement for further research and studies concerning anticipatory regulation.
Adopting the Blockchain comes with extra costs in system establishment, implementation, and
staff training. Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) operate on lower budgets than large
firms do. The adoption rate is dangerously minimal in SMEs than in large firms because of
slow BIM adoption. As a result, Blockchain has higher design and implementation costs than
BIM. This justification explains why large and small firms in the construction industry take a
long to integrate the technology. Blockchain's implementation in the finance sector has attained
exemplary maturity, but this remains a distant goal for stakeholders in the construction
industry. Cost issues stem from procuring the requisite software, hardware, and staff
acquisition challenges.
Interoperability in Blockchain implies that all users see the same thing. Interoperability is one
of the most common impediments against Blockchain adoption in the construction industry.
The biggest challenge is that one company designs and implements a blockchain that suits its
specific needs and desired utilities. Another interoperability problem occurs when companies
overemphasize short-term incentives without counterbalancing their aims against future
developments. Interoperability is a primary concern for prospective adopters of building
blockchain solutions. Cross-blockchain interoperability comes in two varieties, each
containing specific considerations that vary from what companies may address with non-
distributed and traditional systems (Catalini and Gans, 2020: Montrat et al., 2019). The first
category is the digital asset exchange, and the second one is the arbitrary data exchange.
Companies must judiciously appraise the interoperability needs while adopting the blockchain
52
technology to avoid the risk of a lonely existence in a blockchain network due to an absence of
interoperability.
This section begins with a summary of the findings against a backdrop of supporting literature
that can consolidate the discoveries, while at the same time focusing on the objectives. The
agenda is a discovery of lapses and gaps in the literature to get a basis for recommending
strategies for future studies and research.
The first objective of this exegesis was to determine the role of Blockchain in construction. A
detailed review of the literature revealed that blockchain facilitates contract management and
payment automation. Table 14 summarises findings regarding objective one.
Role Study
53
Contract Management Wang et al. 2017
36.6 percent of the respondents admitted to the use of manual payment systems in their
organizations. According to table 5, 16.9 percent acknowledged no definite structure of
payment while 46.5 percent used automated payment. Construction companies adopt the
blockchain for digital contract management to minimize costs. Blockchain can revolutionize
business information management, especially in the data sharing area. It creates tamperproof
transaction records, which minimize corruption and fraud issues, and makes transactions
auditable (Wang et al., 2017). In addition, the blockchain democratizes transactions by
facilitating community agreement on identity, checks, and validation by freeing transaction
processes from centralized authorities.
71.8% of the respondents acknowledged that they witnessed complete non-payment of parties
and delays during dealings with contractors. Only 28.2 percent experienced no delays or non-
payment. The second objective was to analyse BCT application in payment automation within
construction contract management. Several studies have identified the current application of
BCT in payment automation as illustrated in Table 15.
Medium-sized construction firms apply BCT Sigalov et al. (2021), Tezel et al. (2020)
for large construction projects.
54
Increased BCT uptake in other sectors increases the willingness of stakeholders in the
construction industry to adopt the technology (Czachorowski et al., 2019). Contractors in the
construction industry have historically and traditionally lamented late and non-payments.
Digitization facilitates payment automation, but the system remains less effective because
payment applications rely on inefficient workflows and time-consuming document preparation,
review, approval, and execution. Block-chain-based intelligent contracts are decentralized
(Sigalov et al., 2021). The blockchain is a socio-technical technology that provides a
decentralized system for managing automated payments in a transparent and trustworthy way.
BCT ensures that only authenticated parties undertake a transaction. Regardless. SMEs only
apply blockchain for large construction projects (Tezel et al., 2020). Existing payment
applications, though digitized, cannot support reliable progress in payment automation because
of lagging BIM uptake, which sets the tone for BCT adoption. Therefore, most SMEs focus on
traditional payment methods due to limited understanding of the technology (Kramer, 2019:
Wang et al., 2020).
The third objective was to identify the challenges against BCT implementation in construction
contracts through case studies. Table 16 summarises the findings and case study literature.
78.87 percent of the respondents showed their organization’s willingness to adopt BCT and
21.13 percent showed no desire to adopt the innovation as illustrated in table 6. The novelty of
BCT compromises integration with construction projects due to several reasons, including
regulations and legal barriers, interoperability concerns, and high costs (Olawumi et al., 2020).
55
Blockchain integration with construction projects requires an existing information database
upon which the technology’s efficiencies can take root. The construction sector has a
notoriously lower technology uptake rate than other sectors, such as the financial sector. There
is limited blockchain understanding in construction projects despite the opportunities for
process optimization. (Xu et al., 2021). 46.5 percent and 16.9 percent of the respondents agree
and strongly agree that blockchain adoption correlates with high implementation costs. 47.9
percent of participants strongly acknowledge the relevance of technical knowledge for effective
BCT implementation. Most respondents (40.8 percent) showed that their organizations were
comfortable with their current contract management methods. Most participants agreed
insufficient or absent regulation impedes adoption as shown in table 8.
The fourth objective entailed proposing strategies for enhancing BCT uptake in construction
projects. Table 14 shows the discovered barriers and backing literature.
56
40.8 percent and 38 percent of the sample population agreed and strongly agreed that improving
user experience and training enhances blockchain adoption. 456.5 percent strongly agreed that
enhancing security and addressing privacy concerns could guarantee improved uptake levels.
38.8 percent of participants expressed strong agreement with the government’s support of the
technology for increased adoption. 40.8 percent of the respondents strongly agree with the
value of making BCT mandatory for public construction projects as a method of increasing
blockchain uptake.
Small and Medium-sized construction Enterprises have a lower budget than large firms do. As
a result, their profit margins are lower due to cash flow pressures. Resultantly, such firms
choose traditional systems or less advanced technology. The limited range of laws and
regulations guiding BCT adoption arises from unmediated jargon, which makes the verbal
terrain for policy articulation challenging to traverse (Nannayakara et al., 2021). For instance,
people interchangeably utilize the terms 'consensus ledger', 'shared ledger', and 'distributed
ledger.' The inconsistent vocabulary is a mere reflection of the innovation's novelty and
ongoing research (Elghaish et al., 2021). That traded asset data should retain its uniqueness and
consistent state during transfer across varying information systems. Interoperability concerns
emerge when companies emphasize short-term adoption incentives over long-term ones.
Companies struggle to create a blockchain-based system specific to their desired utilities and
needs. Blockchain interoperability covers digital data transfer and arbitrary data exchange.
57
CHAPTER 5 | RECOMMENDATIONS & CONCLUSION
This study had a decentralized focus. The questionnaires’ administration targeted participants
from developed and developing countries to better understand blockchain from a global point
of view. The limitations in the study included time constraints in the administration of
questionnaires that respondents responded to through google documents, whose administration
focused on East Africa and the UK in Europe. Hence, these two regions do not provide a
general view of the status of BCT uptake in all developing and developed countries.
Blending BIM and Blockchain underpins effective contract management and payment
automation regarding blockchain management and its role in the construction industry. The
blockchain can facilitate several construction engineering contracts, including cost, efficiency,
speed, time, confidence, and management. The Blockchain technology is a primary enabler of
smart contracts. Second, concerning application in payment automation within construction
contract management, convenience is one vital contract element that increase blockchain’s
demand in contract management because of its inherent customizability during transaction
management (Li & Kassem, 2021). Construction projects involve several stakeholders and
achieving deliverables requires oversight strategies. Presently, cryptocurrency transactions are
the only ones that occur over blockchain. A block represents this transaction’s data. Block
distribution occurs in the P2P network that validates the transaction through a consensus-
derived code. Adding each block to a blockchain follows, acting as tamperproof transaction
records. On challenges against BCT implementation in construction contracts, awareness
training, regulatory intervention and technical training can improve its uptake.
58
5.3 Recommendations for Future Studies
The following recommendations can improve studies regarding BCT Uptake in the
construction sector.
3. Investigate the training models in learning institutions that teach construction courses.
A generational shift that veers from vocational training, which most students perceive
as the last option. The cost of labour rises due to a shortage of skills because the experts
that institutions churn out have limited comprehension of Blockchain.
59
5.3 Conclusion
The AEC sector lags in process digitization. For this reason, it becomes difficult to keep up
with emerging technology when full adoption of the previous innovations has not materialized.
Adopting blockchain technology requires the foundation of an existing database for process
management, such as BIM, in building projects (Czmoch & Pekala, 2014). Several construction
companies are yet to achieve a full rollout of the model in their organizations. Blockchain
technology is unique because it facilitates information distribution across several devices in
different formats and copies. Distributed information is difficult to alter or modify. It ensures
that copied data in different devices is consistent. Resultantly, three distinctive features that
separate data stores in blockchain technology from traditional databases emerge; cryptographic
recording and data protection and decentralized solutions to process concerns and issues. These
features coincide with the collaborative dynamics in building and construction projects
undertaken by several companies seeking to achieve one overall objective by realizing several
deliverables across the project life cycle (PLC). Blockchain technology can improve the
implementation of Building Information Modelling by enhancing collaboration through a shift
from peer-to-peer information-sharing networks to instantaneous information updates for every
individual serving in a BIM project.
60
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66
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY
OBJECTIVES
QUESTIONNAIRE
All the information provided is CONFIDENTIAL and is strictly for research purposes
under this study. Personal data collected will not be displayed nor published to the public.
Student’s ID No : H00286141
E-mail : [email protected]
1
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTIONNAIRE INFORMATION
Section A : Demographics
Automation
Section A : Demographics
Contractor
Architect
Engineer
Project Manager
Quantity Surveyor
Site Operatives
Below 5 years
5-10 years
10-15 years
Above 15 years
2
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
Publicly funded
Privately funded
Both
Yes
No
Manual
Automated Systems
No defined structure
Yes
No
3
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
3. Research indicates that Blockchain can enable smart contracts and payment
automation. Is this a feature your organisation would be willing to adopt and
leverage?
Yes
No
Maybe
4. Has your organisation attempted or currently using smart contracts for construction
contract management?
Yes
No
The following statements refer to the barriers against blockchain integration into
construction contract management and payments. Identify your level of agreement with
the following statements, on a scale of 1-5, where 1 strongly disagrees and 5 strongly
agrees.
Statement Rating
1 2 3 4 5
4
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
1. What are some of the measures that can improve and enhance the uptake of
blockchain in the Construction Industry? Identify your level of agreement with the
following statements, on a scale of 1-5, where 1 strongly disagrees and 5 strongly
agrees.
Statement Rating
1 2 3 4 5
5
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME & EFFORT IN COMPLETING THIS SURVEY
FORM
We would very much appreciate it if you could provide your contact details in the case, we
need to contact you for further information. Please be rest assured that your identity will be
kept confidential and will not be disclosed.
Name :
Company :
Contact Number :
E-mail :
Shaariq Joosub
6
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY
OBJECTIVES
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
All the information provided is CONFIDENTIAL and is strictly for research purposes
under this study. Personal data collected will not be displayed nor published to the public.
Student ID No : H00286141
E-mail : [email protected]
7
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
INTERVIEW INFORMATION
Section A : Demographics
automation
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
8
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
9
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
6. How has the issue of late payments or complete non-payment affected relationships
between parties?
7. Have you heard of blockchain-enabled smart contracts and their application in the
construction industry?
8. What are some of the advantages you think the industry can benefit from?
10
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
9. Does your organisation intend to make use of blockchain and smart contract
capabilities?
10. Describe the current barriers you may currently have to the full appreciation of
blockchain technology?
11. Do you feel the adoption rate can be improved? What are some of the
recommendations?
11
APPENDIX A : SURVEY | INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
We would very much appreciate it if you could provide your contact details in the case, we
need to contact you for further information. Please be assured that your identity will be kept
confidential and not disclosed.
Name :
Company :
Contact Number :
E-mail :
Shaariq Joosub
12