GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC ARVI

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING

SEMESTER: THIRD SCHEME: I

Course Name: DATA STRUCTURES USING “C”

Course Code: 22317

 Unit - I
Introduction to Data Structure

In computer terms, a data structure is a Specific way to store and organize data in a
computer's memory so that these data can be used efficiently later. Data may be arranged
in many different ways such as the logical or mathematical model for a particular
organization of data is termed as a data structure. The variety of a particular data model
depends on the two factors -
 Firstly, it must be loaded enough in structure to reflect the actual relationships of the data
with the real world object.
 Secondly, the formation should be simple enough so that anyone can efficiently process
the data each time it is necessary.
Categories of Data Structure:
The data structure can be sub divided into major types:
 Linear Data Structure
 Non-linear Data Structure
Linear Data Structure:
A data structure is said to be linear if its elements combine to form any specific order.
There are basically two techniques of representing such linear structure within memory.
 First way is to provide the linear relationships among all the elements represented
by means of linear memory location. These linear structures are termed as arrays.
 The second technique is to provide the linear relationship among all the elements
represented by using the concept of pointers or links. These linear structures are
termed as linked lists.
The common examples of linear data structure are:
 Arrays
 Queues
 Stacks
 Linked lists
Nonlinear Data Structure:
This structure is mostly used for representing data that contains a hierarchical
relationship among various elements.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 1

 Examples of Non Linear Data Structures are listed below:
 Graphs
 family of trees and
 table of contents

Tree: In this case, data often contain a hierarchical relationship among various elements.
The data structure that reflects this relationship is termed as rooted tree graph or a
tree.

Graph: In this case, data sometimes hold a relationship between the pairs of elements
which is not necessarily following the hierarchical structure. Such data structure is termed
as a Graph.

Array is a container which can hold a fix number of items and these items should be of the
same type. Most of the data structures make use of arrays to implement their algorithms.
Following are the important terms to understand the concept of Array.
 Element − Each item stored in an array is called an element.
 Index − Each location of an element in an array has a numerical index, which is
used to identify the element.
Array Representation: (Storage structure)
Arrays can be declared in various ways in different languages. For illustration, let's take C
array declaration.

Arrays can be declared in various ways in different languages. For illustration, let's take C
array declaration.

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 As per the above illustration, following are the important points to be considered.
 Index starts with 0.
 Array length is 10 which means it can store 10 elements.
 Each element can be accessed via its index. For example, we can fetch an
element at index 6 as 9.
Basic Operations
Following are the basic operations supported by an array.
 Traverse − print all the array elements one by one.
 Insertion − Adds an element at the given index.
 Deletion − Deletes an element at the given index.
 Search − Searches an element using the given index or by the value.
 Update − Updates an element at the given index.
Insertion Operation
Insert operation is to insert one or more data elements into an array. Based on the
requirement, a new element can be added at the beginning, end, or any given index of
array. Here, we see a practical implementation of insertion operation, where we add data at
the end of the array −
Algorithm
Let LA be a Linear Array (unordered) with N elements and K is a positive integer such
that K<=N. Following is the algorithm where ITEM is inserted into the Kth position of LA
1 . Start
2 . Set J = N
3 . Set N = N+1
4 . Repeat steps 5 and 6 while J >= K
5 . Set LA[J+1] = LA[J]
6 . Set J = J-1
1. Set LA[K] = ITEM

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 3

 Example
Following is the implementation of the above algorithm −

#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int LA[] = {1,3,5,7,8};
int item = 10, k = 3, n = 5; int i = 0, j = n;
printf("The original array elements are :\n"); for(i = 0; i<n; i++) {
printf("LA[%d] = %d \n", i, LA[i]);
}
n = n + 1; while( j >= k) {
LA[j+1] = LA[j];
j = j - 1;
}
LA[k] = item;
printf("The array elements after insertion :\n"); for(i = 0; i<n; i++) {
printf("LA[%d] = %d \n", i, LA[i]);
}
}

When we compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result −
Output

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 The original array elements are : LA[0] = 1
LA[1] = 3
LA[2] = 5
LA[3] = 7
LA[4] = 8
The array elements after insertion : LA[0] = 1
LA[1] = 3
LA[2] = 5
LA[3] = 10
LA[4] = 7

Deletion Operation
Deletion refers to removing an existing element from the array and re-organizing all
elements of an array.
Algorithm
Consider LA is a linear array with N elements and K is a positive integer such that
K<=N. Following is the algorithm to delete an element available at the Kth position of LA.
1 . Start
2 . Set J = K
3 . Repeat steps 4 and 5 while J < N
4 . Set LA[J] = LA[J + 1]
5 . Set J = J+1
6 . Set N = N-1
7 . Stop

Example

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 Following is the implementation of the above algorithm −

#include <stdio.h>
void main() {
int LA[] = {1,3,5,7,8};
int k = 3, n = 5; int i, j;
printf("The original array elements are :\n"); for(i = 0; i<n; i++) {
printf("LA[%d] = %d \n", i, LA[i]);
}
j = k;
while( j < n) { LA[j-1] = LA[j];
j = j + 1;
}
n = n -1;
printf("The array elements after deletion :\n"); for(i = 0; i<n; i++) {
printf("LA[%d] = %d \n", i, LA[i]); }}

When we compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result −
Output
The original array elements are : LA[0] = 1
LA[1] = 3
LA[2] = 5
LA[3] = 7
LA[4] = 8
The array elements after deletion : LA[0] = 1
LA[1] = 3
LA[2] = 7
LA[3] = 8

Search Operation
You can perform a search for an array element based on its value or its index.

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 Algorithm
Consider LA is a linear array with N elements and K is a positive integer such that
K<=N. Following is the algorithm to find an element with a value of ITEM using
sequential search.

1 . Start
2 . Set J = 0
3 . Repeat steps 4 and 5 while J < N
4 . IF LA[J] is equal ITEM THEN GOTO STEP 6
5 . Set J = J +1
6 . PRINT J, ITEM
7 . Stop

Example
Following is the implementation of the above algorithm −

#include <stdio.h>
void main() {
int LA[] = {1,3,5,7,8};
int item = 5, n = 5; int i = 0, j = 0;
printf("The original array elements are :\n"); for(i = 0; i<n; i++) {
printf("LA[%d] = %d \n", i, LA[i]);
}
while( j < n){
if( LA[j] == item ) { break;
}
j = j + 1;
}
printf("Found element %d at position %d\n", item, j+1);
}

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 When we compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result −
Output
The original array elements are : LA[0] = 1
LA[1] = 3
LA[2] = 5
LA[3] = 7
LA[4] = 8
Found element 5 at position 3

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 Update Operation
Update operation refers to updating an existing element from the array at a given index.
Algorithm
Consider LA is a linear array with N elements and K is a positive integer such that
K<=N. Following is the algorithm to update an element available at the Kth position of LA.

1 . Start
2 . Set LA[K-1] = ITEM
3 . Stop

Example
Following is the implementation of the above algorithm −

#include <stdio.h>
void main() {
int LA[] = {1,3,5,7,8};
int k = 3, n = 5, item = 10; int i, j;
printf("The original array elements are :\n"); for(i = 0; i<n; i++) {
printf("LA[%d] = %d \n", i, LA[i]);
}

LA[k-1] = item;
printf("The array elements after updation :\n"); for(i = 0; i<n; i++) {
printf("LA[%d] = %d \n", i, LA[i]);
}
}

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 When we compile and execute the above program, it produces the following result −
Output
The original array elements are: LA [0] = 1
LA[1] = 3
LA[2] = 5
LA[3] = 7
LA[4] = 8
The array elements after updation : LA[0] = 1
LA[1] = 3
LA[2] = 10
LA[3] = 7

Unit - II
Bubble Sort
Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 10
 We take an unsorted array for our example. Bubble sort takes Ο(n2) time so we're
keeping it short and precise.

Bubble sort starts with very first two elements, comparing them to check which one is
greater.

In this case, value 33 is greater than 14, so it is already in sorted locations. Next, we
compare 33 with 27.

We find that 27 is smaller than 33 and these two values must be swapped.

The new array should look like this −

Next we compare 33 and 35. We find that both are in already sorted positions.

Then we move to the next two values, 35 and 10.

We know then that 10 is smaller 35. Hence they are not sorted.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 11

 We swap these values. We find that we have reached the end of the array. After one
iteration, the array should look like this −

To be precise, we are now showing how an array should look like after each iteration.
After the second iteration, it should look like this −

Notice that after each iteration, at least one value moves at the end.

And when there's no swap required, bubble sorts learns that an array is completely
sorted.

Now we should look into some practical aspects of bubble sort.

Algorithm
We assume list is an array of n elements. We further assume that swapfunction swaps
the values of the given array elements.

begin BubbleSort(list)
for all elements of list if list[i] > list[i+1]
swap(list[i], list[i+1]) end if
end for return list
end BubbleSort

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 12

 Pseudocode
We observe in algorithm that Bubble Sort compares each pair of array element unless the
whole array is completely sorted in an ascending order. This may cause a few complexity
issues like what if the array needs no more swapping as all the elements are already
ascending.
To ease-out the issue, we use one flag variable swapped which will help us see if any
swap has happened or not. If no swap has occurred, i.e. the array requires no more
processing to be sorted, it will come out of the loop.
Pseudocode of BubbleSort algorithm can be written as follows –

procedure bubbleSort( list : array of items )

loop = list.count;
for i = 0 to loop-1 do: swapped = false
for j = 0 to loop-1 do:
/* compare the adjacent elements */ if list[j] > list[j+1] then
/* swap them */ swap( list[j], list[j+1] ) swapped = true
end if end for
/*if no number was swapped that means array is sorted now, break the loop.*/
if(not swapped) then break
end if end for
end procedure return list

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Insertion Sort
We take an unsorted array for our example.

Insertion sort compares the first two elements.

It finds that both 14 and 33 are already in ascending order. For now, 14 is in sorted sub-list.

Insertion sort moves ahead and compares 33 with 27.

And finds that 33 is not in the correct position.

It swaps 33 with 27. It also checks with all the elements of sorted sub-list. Here we see that
the sorted sub-list has only one element 14, and 27 is greater than 14. Hence, the sorted
sub-list remains sorted after swapping.

By now we have 14 and 27 in the sorted sub-list. Next, it compares 33 with 10.

These values are not in a sorted order.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 14

 So we swap them.

However, swapping makes 27 and 10 unsorted.

Hence, we swap them too.

Again we find 14 and 10 in an unsorted order.

We swap them again. By the end of third iteration, we have a sorted sub-list of 4 items.

This process goes on until all the unsorted values are covered in a sorted sub-list. Now we
shall see some programming aspects of insertion sort.
Algorithm
Now we have a bigger picture of how this sorting technique works, so we can derive
simple steps by which we can achieve insertion sort.

Step 1 − If it is the first element, it is already sorted. return 1;

Step 2 − Pick next element
Step 3 − Compare with all elements in the sorted sub-list
Step 4 − Shift all the elements in the sorted sub-list that is greater than
the value to be sorted
Step 5 − Insert the value
Step 6 − Repeat until list is sorted

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 Pseudocode
procedure insertionSort( A : array of items ) int holePosition
int valueToInsert
for i = 1 to length(A) inclusive do: valueToInsert = A[i] holePosition = i
while holePosition > 0 and A[holePosition-1] > valueToInsert do:
A[holePosition] = A[holePosition-1]
holePosition = holePosition -1 end while
A[holePosition] = valueToInsert
end for
end procedure

Selection Sort
Consider the following depicted array as an example.

For the first position in the sorted list, the whole list is scanned sequentially. The first
position where 14 is stored presently, we search the whole list and find that 10 is the
lowest value.

So we replace 14 with 10. After one iteration 10, which happens to be the minimum value
in the list, appears in the first position of the sorted list.

For the second position, where 33 is residing, we start scanning the rest of the list in a
linear manner.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 16

 We find that 14 is the second lowest value in the list and it should appear at the second
place. We swap these values.

After two iterations, two least values are positioned at the beginning in a sorted manner.

The same process is applied to the rest of the items in the array. Following is a pictorial
depiction of the entire sorting process –

Now, let us learn some programming aspects of selection sort. Algorithm

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 17

 Step 1 − Set MIN to location 0
Step 2 − Search the minimum element in the list
Step 3 − Swap with value at location MIN
Step 4 − Increment MIN to point to next element
Step 5 − Repeat until list is sorted

Pseudocode

procedure selection sort list : array of items

n : size of list
for i = 1 to n - 1
/* set current element as minimum*/ min = i
/* check the element to be minimum */ for j = i+1 to n
if list[j] < list[min] then
min = j; end if
end for
/* swap the minimum element with the current element*/ if indexMin != i
then
swap list[min] and list[i] end if
end for
end procedure

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 18

Merge Sort
To understand merge sort, we take an unsorted array as the following −

We know that merge sort first divides the whole array iteratively into equal halves unless
the atomic values are achieved. We see here that an array of 8 items is divided into two
arrays of size 4.

This does not change the sequence of appearance of items in the original. Now we divide
these two arrays into halves.

We further divide these arrays and we achieve atomic value which can no more be divided.

Now, we combine them in exactly the same manner as they were broken down. Please note
the color codes given to these lists.
We first compare the element for each list and then combine them into another list in a
sorted manner. We see that 14 and 33 are in sorted positions. We compare 27 and 10 and in
the target list of 2 values we put 10 first, followed by 27. We change the order of 19 and 35
whereas 42 and 44 are placed sequentially.

In the next iteration of the combining phase, we compare lists of two data values, and
merge them into a list of found data values placing all in a sorted order.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 19

 After the final merging, the list should look like this −

Now we should learn some programming aspects of merge sorting.

Algorithm
Merge sort keeps on dividing the list into equal halves until it can no more be divided. By
definition, if it is only one element in the list, it is sorted. Then, merge sort combines the
smaller sorted lists keeping the new list sorted too.

Step 1 − if it is only one element in the list it is already sorted, return.

Step 2 − divide the list recursively into two halves until it can no more be
divided.
Step 3 − merge the smaller lists into new list in sorted order.
Merge sort works with recursion and we shall see our implementation in the same way.
procedure mergesort( var a as array ) if ( n == 1 ) return a
var l1 as array = a[0] ... a[n/2] var l2 as array = a[n/2+1] ... a[n] l1 =
mergesort( l1 )
l2 = mergesort( l2 ) return merge( l1, l2 )
end procedure
procedure merge( var a as array, var b as array ) var c as array
while ( a and b have elements ) if ( a[0] > b[0] )
add b[0] to the end of c remove b[0] from b
else
add a[0] to the end of c remove a[0] from a
end if end while
while ( a has elements ) add a[0] to the end of c remove a[0] from a
end while
while ( b has elements ) add b[0] to the end of c remove b[0] from b
end while return c
end procedure

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 20

Quick sort
Quick sort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm and is based on partitioning of array of
data into smaller arrays. A large array is partitioned into two arrays one of which holds
values smaller than the specified value, say pivot, based on which the partition is made and
another array holds values greater than the pivot value.
Quick sort partitions an array and then calls itself recursively twice to sort the two resulting
subarrays. This algorithm is quite efficient for large-sized data sets as its average and worst
case complexity are of Ο(n2), where n is the number of items.
Partition in Quick Sort
Following animated representation explains how to find the pivot value in an array.

The pivot value divides the list into two parts. And recursively, we find
the pivot for each sub-lists until all lists contains only one element.
Quick Sort Pivot Algorithm
Based on our understanding of partitioning in quick sort, we will now try to write an
algorithm for it, which is as follows.

Step 1 − Choose the highest index value has pivot

Step 2 − Take two variables to point left and right of the list excluding pivot
Step 3 − left points to the low index
Step 4 − right points to the high
Step 5 − while value at left is less than pivot move right
Step 6 − while value at right is greater than pivot move left
Step 7 − if both step 5 and step 6 does not match swap left and right
Step 8 − if left ≥ right, the point where they met is new pivot

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 Quick Sort Pivot Pseudocode
The pseudocode for the above algorithm can be derived as −
function partitionFunc(left, right, pivot) leftPointer = left
rightPointer = right - 1
while True do
while A[++leftPointer] < pivot do
//do-nothing end while
while rightPointer > 0 && A[--rightPointer] > pivot do
//do-nothing end while
if leftPointer >= rightPointer break
else
swap leftPointer,rightPointer end if
end while
swap leftPointer,right return leftPointer
end function

Quick Sort Algorithm

Using pivot algorithm recursively, we end up with smaller possible partitions. Each
partition is then processed for quick sort. We define recursive algorithm for quicksort as
follows −

Step 1 − Make the right-most index value pivot

Step 2 − partition the array using pivot value
Step 3 − quicksort left partition recursively
Step 4 − quicksort right partition recursively

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 22

 Quick Sort Pseudocode
To get more into it, let see the pseudocode for quick sort algorithm −
procedure quickSort(left, right)
if right-left <= 0 return
else
pivot = A[right]
partition = partitionFunc(left, right, pivot) quickSort(left,partition-1)
quickSort(partition+1,right)
end if
end procedure

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 23

Heap Sort
Heap sort is a comparison based sorting technique based on Binary Heap data structure. It
is similar to selection sort where we first find the maximum element and place the
maximum element at the end. We repeat the same process for remaining element.
What is Binary Heap?
Let us first define a Complete Binary Tree. A complete binary tree is a binary tree in which
every level, except possibly the last, is completely filled, and all nodes are as far left as
possible
A Binary Heap is a Complete Binary Tree where items are stored in a special order such
that value in a parent node is greater (or smaller) than the values in its two children nodes.
The former is called as max heap and the latter is called min heap. The heap can be
represented by binary tree or array.
Why array based representation for Binary Heap?

Since a Binary Heap is a Complete Binary Tree, it can be easily represented as array and
array based representation is space efficient. If the parent node is stored at index I, the left
child can be calculated by 2 * I + 1 and right child by 2 * I + 2 (assuming the indexing
starts at 0).
Heap Sort Algorithm for sorting in increasing order:
1. Build a max heap from the input data.
2. At this point, the largest item is stored at the root of the heap. Replace it with the
last item of the heap followed by reducing the size of heap by 1. Finally, heapify
the root of tree.
3. Repeat above steps while size of heap is greater than 1.
How to build the heap?
Heapify procedure can be applied to a node only if its children nodes are heapified. So the
heapification must be performed in the bottom up order.
Lets understand with the help of an example:

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 24

 Input data: 4, 10, 3, 5, 1
4(0)
/\
10(1) 3(2)
/\
5(3) 1(4)

Applying heapify
procedure to
index 1: 4(0)
/ \
10(1) 3(2)
/\
5(3) 1(4)

Applying heapify
procedure to
index 0: 10(0)
/\
5(1) 3(2)
/\
4(3) 1(4)
The heapify procedure calls itself recursively to build heap in top down
manner.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 25

 Radix Sort
The lower bound for Comparison based sorting algorithm (Merge Sort, Heap Sort, Quick-
Sort .. etc) is Ω(nLogn), i.e., they cannot do better than nLogn. Counting sort is a linear
time sorting algorithm that sort in O(n+k) time when elements are in range from 1 to k.
What if the elements are in range from 1 to n2?
We can’t use counting sort because counting sort will take O(n2) which is worse than
comparison based sorting algorithms. Can we sort such an array in linear time? Radix Sort
is the answer. The idea of Radix Sort is to do digit by digit sort starting from least
significant digit to most significant digit. Radix sort uses counting sort as a subroutine to
sort.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 26

Radix Sort

Do following for each digit i where i varies from least significant digit to the most
significant digit.
………….a) Sort input array using counting sort (or any stable sort) according to the i’th
digit.
Example:
Original, unsorted list:
170, 45, 75, 90, 802, 24, 2, 66
Sorting by least significant digit (1s place) gives: [*Notice that we keep 802 before 2,
because 802 occurred before 2 in the original list, and similarly for pairs 170 & 90 and 45
& 75.]
170, 90, 802, 2, 24, 45, 75, 66
Sorting by next digit (10s place) gives: [*Notice that 802 again comes before 2 as 802
comes before 2 in the previous list.]
802, 2, 24, 45, 66, 170, 75, 90
Sorting by most significant digit (100s place) gives: 2, 24, 45, 66, 75, 90, 170, 802
What is the running time of Radix Sort?
Let there be d digits in input integers. Radix Sort takes O(d*(n+b)) time where b is the
base for representing numbers, for example, for decimal system, b is 10. What is the value
of d? If k is the maximum possible value, then d would be O(log b(k)). So overall time
complexity is O((n+b) * logb(k)). Which looks more than the time complexity of
comparison based sorting algorithms for a large k. Let us first limit k. Let k <= nc where
c is a constant. In that case, the complexity becomes O(nLog b(n)). But it still doesn’t beat
comparison based sorting algorithms.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 27

Linear Search

Linear search is to check each element one by one in sequence. The following method
linearSearch() searches a target in an array and returns the index of the target; if not found,
it returns -1, which indicates an invalid index.
1 int linearSearch(int arr[], int target)
2 {
3 for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; i++)
4 {
5 if (arr[i] == target) return i;
6 }
7 return -1;
8 }
9
Linear search loops through each element in the array; each loop body takes constant
time. Therefore, it runs in linear time O(n).
Binary Search

For sorted arrays, binary search is more efficient than linear search. The process starts
from the middle of the input array:
 If the target equals the element in the middle, return its index.
 If the target is larger than the element in the middle, search the right half.
 If the target is smaller, search the left half.
In the following binarySearch() method, the two index variables first and last indicates
the searching boundary at each round.
int binarySearch(int arr[], int target)
{
int first = 0, last = arr.length - 1;
while (first <= last)
{
int mid = (first + last) / 2; if (target == arr[mid])

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 28

 return mid;
if (target > arr[mid]) first = mid + 1;
else
last = mid - 1;
}
return -1;
}
arr: {3, 9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82}

target: 10
first: 0, last: 6, mid: 3, arr[mid]: 27 -- go left
first: 0, last: 2, mid: 1, arr[mid]: 9 -- go right
first: 2, last: 2, mid: 2, arr[mid]: 10 -- found

target: 40
first: 0, last: 6, mid: 3, arr[mid]: 27 -- go right
first: 4, last: 6, mid: 5, arr[mid]: 43 -- go left
first: 4, last: 4, mid: 4, arr[mid]: 38 -- go right first: 5,
last: 4 -- not found

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 29

 Binary search divides the array in the middle at each round of the loop. Suppose the array
has length n and the loop runs in t rounds, then we have n * (1/2)^t = 1 since at each round
the array length is divided by 2. Thus t = log(n). At each round, the loop body takes
constant time. Therefore, binary search runs in logarithmic time O(log n).
The following code implements binary search using recursion. To call the method, we need
provide with the boundary indexes, for example, binarySearch(arr, 0,
arr.length - 1, target);

binarySearch(int arr[], int first, int last, int target)

{
if (first > last) return -1;
int mid = (first + last) / 2; if (target == arr[mid])
return mid;
if (target > arr[mid])
return binarySearch(arr, mid + 1, last, target);
// target < arr[mid]
return binarySearch(arr, first, mid - 1, target);
}

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 30

Unit III
Stacks and Queues
STACK
A stack is an Abstract Data Type (ADT), commonly used in most programming languages.
It is named stack as it behaves like a real-world stack, for example – a deck of cards or a
pile of plates, etc.

A real-world stack allows operations at one end only. For example, we can place or
remove a card or plate from the top of the stack only. Likewise, Stack ADT allows all data
operations at one end only. At any given time, we can only access the top element of a
stack.
This feature makes it LIFO data structure. LIFO stands for Last-in-first-out. Here, the
element which is placed (inserted or added) last is accessed first. In stack terminology,
insertion operation is called PUSH operation and removal operation is called POP
operation.
Stack Representation
The following diagram depicts a stack and its operations −

A stack can be implemented by means of Array, Structure, Pointer, and Linked List. Stack
can either be a fixed size one or it may have a sense of dynamic resizing. Here, we are

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 31

 going to implement stack using arrays, which makes it a fixed size stack implementation.
Basic Operations
Stack operations may involve initializing the stack, using it and then de-initializing it.
Apart from these basic stuffs, a stack is used for the following two primary operations −
 push() − Pushing (storing) an element on the stack.
 pop() − Removing (accessing) an element from the stack. When data is PUSH onto
stack.
To use a stack efficiently, we need to check the status of stack as well. For the same
purpose, the following functionality is added to stacks −
 peek() − get the top data element of the stack, without removing it.
 isFull() − check if stack is full.
 isEmpty() − check if stack is empty.
At all times, we maintain a pointer to the last PUSH data on the stack. As this pointer
always represents the top of the stack, hence named top. The top pointer provides top
value of the stack without actually removing it. First we should learn about procedures to
support stack functions −
peek()
Algorithm of peek() function −
begin procedure peek
return stack[top]
end procedure

Implementation of peek() function in C programming language −

Example
int peek() {
return stack[top];
}

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 32

 isfull()
Algorithm of isfull() function −
begin procedure isfull
if top equals to MAXSIZE return true
else
return false endif
end procedure

Implementation of isfull() function in C programming language −

Example
bool isfull() {
if(top == MAXSIZE) return true;
else
return false;
}

isempty()
Algorithm of isempty() function −
begin procedure isempty
if top less than 1 return true
else
return false endif
end procedure

Implementation of isempty() function in C programming language is slightly different.

We initialize top at -1, as the index in array starts from 0. So we check if the top is below
zero or -1 to determine if the stack is empty. Here's the code −
Example
bool isempty() {
if(top == -1)
return true; else
return false;
}

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 33

 Push Operation
The process of putting a new data element onto stack is known as a Push Operation.
Push operation involves a series of steps −
 Step 1 − Checks if the stack is full.
 Step 2 − If the stack is full, produces an error and exit.
 Step 3 − If the stack is not full, increments top to point next empty space.
 Step 4 − Adds data element to the stack location, where top is pointing.
 Step 5 − Returns success.

If the linked list is used to implement the stack, then in step 3, we need to allocate
space dynamically.
Algorithm for PUSH Operation
A simple algorithm for Push operation can be derived as follows –
begin procedure push: stack, data
if stack is full
return null endif
top ← top + 1 stack[top] ← data
end procedure

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 34

 Implementation of this algorithm in C, is very easy. See the following code −
Example
void push(int data) { if(!isFull()) {
top = top + 1; stack[top] = data;
} else {
printf("Could not insert data, Stack is full.\n");
}
}

Pop Operation
Accessing the content while removing it from the stack, is known as a Pop Operation. In
an array implementation of pop() operation, the data element is not actually
removed, instead top is decremented to a lower position in the stack to point to the next
value. But in linked-list implementation, pop() actually removes data element and
deallocates memory space. A Pop operation may involve the following steps −
 Step 1 − Checks if the stack is empty.
 Step 2 − If the stack is empty, produces an error and exit.
 Step 3 − If the stack is not empty, accesses the data element at which top is
pointing.
 Step 4 − Decreases the value of top by 1.
 Step 5 − Returns success.

Algorithm for Pop Operation

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 35

 A simple algorithm for Pop operation can be derived as follows −
begin procedure pop: stack
if stack is empty return null
endif
data ← stack[top] top ← top - 1 return data
end procedure

Implementation of this algorithm in C, is as follows −

Example

int pop(int data) {

if(!isempty()) {
data = stack[top]; top = top - 1; return data;
} else {
printf("Could not retrieve data, Stack is empty.\n");
}
}

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 36

 Stack Applications
Three applications of stacks are presented here. These examples are central to many
activities that a computer must do and deserve time spent with them.
 Expression evaluation
 Backtracking (game playing, finding paths, exhaustive searching)
 Memory management, run-time environment for nested language features.
Expression evaluation
In particular we will consider arithmetic expressions. Understand that there are boolean
and logical expressions that can be evaluated in the same way. Control structures can also
be treated similarly in a compiler.
This study of arithmetic expression evaluation is an example of problem solving where you
solve a simpler problem and then transform the actual problem to the simpler one.
Aside: The NP-Complete problem. There are a set of apparently intractable problems:
finding the shortest route in a graph (Traveling Salesman Problem), bin packing, linear
programming, etc. that are similar enough that if a polynomial solution is ever found
(exponential solutions abound) for one of these problems, then the solution can be applied
to all problems.
Infix, Prefix and Postfix Notation
We are accustomed to write arithmetic expressions with the operation between the two
operands: a+b or c/d. If we write a+b*c, however, we have to apply precedence rules to
avoid the ambiguous evaluation (add first or multiply first?).
There's no real reason to put the operation between the variables or values. They can just as
well precede or follow the operands. You should note the advantage of prefix and postfix:
the need for precedence rules and parentheses are eliminated.

Infix Prefix Postfix

a+b +ab ab+
a+b*c +a*bc abc*+
(a + b) * (c - d) *+ab-cd ab+cd-*
b*b-4*a*c
40 - 3 * 5 + 1

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 37

 Postfix expressions are easily evaluated with the aid of a stack.
Infix, Prefix and Postfix Notation KEY
Infix Prefix Postfix
a+b +ab ab+
a+b*c +a*bc abc*+
(a + b) * (c - d) *+ab-cd ab+cd-*
b*b-4*a*c -*bb**4ac bb*4a*c*-
40 - 3 * 5 + 1 = 26 + - 40 * 3 5 1 40 3 5 * - 1 +

Postfix Evaluation Algorithm

Assume we have a string of operands and operators, an informal, by hand process is
 Scan the expression left to right
 Skip values or variables (operands)
 When an operator is found, apply the operation to the preceding two operands
 Replace the two operands and operator with the calculated value (three symbols are
replaced with one operand)
 Continue scanning until only a value remains--the result of the expression
The time complexity is O(n) because each operand is scanned once, and each operation is
performed once.
A more formal algorithm:
create a new stack
while(input stream is not empty){ token = getNextToken(); if(token instanceof operand){
push(token);
} else if (token instance of operator) op2 = pop();
op1 = pop();
result = calc(token, op1, op2); push(result);
}
}
return pop();
Demonstration with 2 3 4 + * 5 -

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 38

 Infix transformation to Postfix
This process uses a stack as well. We have to hold information that's expressed inside
parentheses while scanning to find the closing ')'. We also have to hold information on
operations that are of lower precedence on the stack. The algorithm is:
1 . Create an empty stack and an empty postfix output string/stream
2 . Scan the infix input string/stream left to right
3 . If the current input token is an operand, simply append it to the output string (note
the examples above that the operands remain in the same order)
4 . If the current input token is an operator, pop off all operators that have equal or
higher
5 . Precedence and append them to the output string; push the operator onto the stack.
The order of popping is the order in the output.
6 . If the current input token is '(', push it onto the stack
7 . If the current input token is ')', pop off all operators and append them to the output
string until a '(' is popped; discard the '('.
8 . If the end of the input string is found, pop all operators and append them to the
output string.
This algorithm doesn't handle errors in the input, although careful analysis of parenthesis
or lack of parenthesis could point to such error determination.
Apply the algorithm to the above expressions.
Backtracking
Backtracking is used in algorithms in which there are steps along some path (state) from
some starting point to some goal.
 Find your way through a maze.
 Find a path from one point in a graph (roadmap) to another point.
 Play a game in which there are moves to be made (checkers, chess).
In all of these cases, there are choices to be made among a number of options. We need
some way to remember these decision points in case we want/need to come back and try
the alternative
Consider the maze. At a point where a choice is made, we may discover that the choice
leads to a dead-end. We want to retrace back to that decision point and then try the other
(next) alternative.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 39

 Again, stacks can be used as part of the solution. Recursion is another, typically more
favored, solution, which is actually implemented by a stack.
Memory Management
Any modern computer environment uses a stack as the primary memory management
model for a running program. Whether it's native code (x86, Sun, VAX) or JVM, a stack is
at the center of the run-time environment for Java, C++, Ada, FORTRAN, etc.
The discussion of JVM in the text is consistent with NT, Solaris, VMS, UNIX runtime
environments. Each program that is running in a computer system has its own memory
allocation containing the typical layout as shown below.

Call and return process

When a method/function is called
1 . An activation record is created; its size depends on the number and size of the local
variables and parameters.
2 . The Base Pointer value is saved in the special location reserved for it
3 . The Program Counter value is saved in the Return Address location
4 . The Base Pointer is now reset to the new base (top of the call stack prior to the
creation of the AR)
5 . The Program Counter is set to the location of the first bytecode of the method being
called
6 . Copies the calling parameters into the Parameter region
7 . Initializes local variables in the local variable region

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 40

 While the method executes, the local variables and parameters are simply found by adding
a constant associated with each variable/parameter to the Base Pointer.
When a method returns
1 . Get the program counter from the activation record and replace what's in the PC
2 . Get the base pointer value from the AR and replace what's in the BP
3 . Pop the AR entirely from the stack.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 41

 QUEUE
Queue is an abstract data structure, somewhat similar to Stacks. Unlike stacks, a queue is
open at both its ends. One end is always used to insert data (enqueue) and the other is used
to remove data (dequeue). Queue follows First-In-First-Out methodology, i.e., the data
item stored first will be accessed first.

A real-world example of queue can be a single-lane one-way road, where the vehicle
enters first, exits first. More real-world examples can be seen as queues at the ticket
windows and bus- stops.
Queue Representation
As we now understand that in queue, we access both ends for different reasons. The
following diagram given below tries to explain queue representation as data structure −

As in stacks, a queue can also be implemented using Arrays, Linked-lists, Pointers and
Structures. For the sake of simplicity, we shall implement queues using one-dimensional
array.
Basic Operations
Queue operations may involve initializing or defining the queue, utilizing it, and then
completely erasing it from the memory. Here we shall try to understand the basic
operations associated with queues −
 enqueue() − add (store) an item to the queue.
 dequeue() − remove (access) an item from the queue.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 42

 Few more functions are required to make the above-mentioned queue operation efficient.
These are −
 peek() − Gets the element at the front of the queue without removing it.
 isfull() − Checks if the queue is full.
 isempty() − Checks if the queue is empty.
In queue, we always dequeue (or access) data, pointed by front pointer and while
enqueing (or storing) data in the queue we take help of rear pointer.
Let's first learn about supportive functions of a queue −
peek()
This function helps to see the data at the front of the queue. The algorithm of peek()
function is as follows −
Algorithm
begin procedure peek
return queue[front]
end procedure

Implementation of peek() function in C programming language −

Example
int peek() {
return queue[front];
}

isfull()
As we are using single dimension array to implement queue, we just check for the rear
pointer to reach at MAXSIZE to determine that the queue is full. In case we maintain the
queue in a circular linked-list, the algorithm will differ. Algorithm of isfull() function −
Algorithm
begin procedure isfull
if rear equals to MAXSIZE return true
else
return false endif
end procedure

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 43

 Implementation of isfull() function in C programming language −
Example
bool isfull() {
if(rear == MAXSIZE - 1) return true;
else
return false;
}

isempty()
Algorithm of isempty() function −
Algorithm
begin procedure isempty
if front is less than MIN OR front is greater than rear return true
else
return false endif
end procedure

If the value of front is less than MIN or 0, it tells that the queue is not yet
initialized, hence empty.
Here's the C programming code −
Example
bool isempty() {
if(front < 0 || front > rear) return true;
else
return false;
}

Enqueue Operation
Queues maintain two data pointers, front and rear. Therefore, its operations are
comparatively difficult to implement than that of stacks.
The following steps should be taken to enqueue (insert) data into a queue −
 Step 1 − Check if the queue is full.
 Step 2 − If the queue is full, produce overflow error and exit.
 Step 3 − If the queue is not full, increment rear pointer to point the next empty
space.
 Step 4 − Add data element to the queue location, where the rear is pointing.
 Step 5 − return success.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 44

 Sometimes, we also check to see if a queue is initialized or not, to handle any
unforeseen situations.
Algorithm for enqueue operation
procedure enqueue(data)
if queue is full
return overflow
endif
rear ← rear + 1 queue[rear] ← data return true
end procedure

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 45

 Implementation of enqueue() in C programming language −
Example
int enqueue(int data) if(isfull())
return 0;
rear = rear + 1; queue[rear] = data;
return 1; end procedure

Dequeue Operation
Accessing data from the queue is a process of two tasks − access the data where front is
pointing and remove the data after access. The following steps are taken to
perform dequeue operation −
 Step 1 − Check if the queue is empty.
 Step 2 − If the queue is empty, produce underflow error and exit.
 Step 3 − If the queue is not empty, access the data where front is pointing.
 Step 4 − Increment front pointer to point to the next available data element.
 Step 5 − Return success.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 46

 Algorithm for dequeue operation

procedure dequeue
if queue is empty return underflow
end if
data = queue[front] front ← front + 1 return true
end procedure

Implementation of dequeue() in C programming language −

Example
int dequeue() { if(isempty())
return 0;
int data = queue[front]; front = front + 1;
return data;
}

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 47

Unit – IV

LINKED LIST
A linked list is a sequence of data structures, which are connected together via links.
Linked List is a sequence of links which contains items. Each link contains a connection to
another link. Linked list is the second most-used data structure after array. Following are
the important terms to understand the concept of Linked List.
Link − Each link of a linked list can store a data called an element.
Next − Each link of a linked list contains a link to the next link called Next.
LinkedList − A Linked List contains the connection link to the
first link called First.
Linked List Representation
Linked list can be visualized as a chain of nodes, where every node points to the next
node.

As per the above illustration, following are the important points to be considered.
 Linked List contains a link element called first.
 Each link carries a data field(s) and a link field called next.
 Each link is linked with its next link using its next link.
 Last link carries a link as null to mark the end of the list.
Types of Linked List
Following are the various types of linked list.
 Simple Linked List − Item navigation is forward only.
 Doubly Linked List − Items can be navigated forward and backward.
 Circular Linked List − Last item contains link of the first element as
next and the first element has a link to the last element as previous.
Basic Operations
Following are the basic operations supported by a list.
 Insertion − Adds an element at the beginning of the list.
 Deletion − Deletes an element at the beginning of the list.
 Display − Displays the complete list.
 Search − Searches an element using the given key.
 Delete − Deletes an element using the given key.

Insertion Operation

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 48

 Adding a new node in linked list is a more than one step activity. We shall learn this with
diagrams here. First, create a node using the same structure and find the location where it
has to be inserted.

Imagine that we are inserting a node B (NewNode), between A

(LeftNode) and C (RightNode). Then point B.next to C −

NewNode.next −> RightNode;

It should look like this −

Now, the next node at the left should point to the new node.
LeftNode.next −> NewNode;

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 49

 This will put the new node in the middle of the two. The new list should look like this −

Similar steps should be taken if the node is being inserted at the beginning of the list.
While inserting it at the end, the second last node of the list should point to the new
node and the new node will point to NULL.
Deletion Operation
Deletion is also a more than one step process. We shall learn with pictorial representation.
First, locate the target node to be removed, by using searching algorithms.

TargetNode.next −> NULL;

The left (previous) node of the target node now should point to the next node of the target
node −

LeftNode.next −> TargetNode.next;

This will remove the link that was pointing to the target node. Now, using the following
code, we will remove what the target node is pointing at.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 50

 We need to use the deleted node. We can keep that in memory otherwise we can
simply deallocate memory and wipe off the target node completely.

Reverse Operation
This operation is a thorough one. We need to make the last node to be pointed by the
head node and reverse the whole linked list.

First, we traverse to the end of the list. It should be pointing to NULL. Now, we shall
make it point to its previous node −

We have to make sure that the last node is not the lost node. So we'll have some temp
node, which looks like the head node pointing to the last node. Now, we shall make all left
side nodes point to their previous nodes one by one.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 51

 Except the node (first node) pointed by the head node, all nodes should point to their
predecessor, making them their new successor. The first node will point to NULL.

We'll make the head node point to the new first node by using the temp node.

The linked list is now reversed.

Program:
#include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdbool.h>
struct node { int data; int key;
struct node *next;
};

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 52

 struct node *head = NULL; struct node *current = NULL;
//display the list void printList() {
struct node *ptr = head; printf("\n[ ");
//start from the beginning while(ptr != NULL) {
printf("(%d,%d) ",ptr->key,ptr->data); ptr = ptr->next;
}
printf(" ]");
}
//insert link at the first location void insertFirst(int key, int data) {
//create a link
struct node *link = (struct node*) malloc(sizeof(struct node));
link->key = key; link->data = data;
//point it to old first node link->next = head;
//point first to new first node head = link;
}
//delete first item
struct node* deleteFirst() {
//save reference to first link struct node *tempLink = head;
//mark next to first link as
first head = head->next;

//return the deleted link

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 53

 return tempLink;
}
//is list empty bool isEmpty() {
return head == NULL;
}
int length() {
int length = 0;
struct node *current;
for(current = head; current != NULL; current = current->next) { length++;
}
return length;
}
//find a link with given key struct node* find(int key) {
//start from the first link struct node* current = head;
//if list is empty if(head == NULL) {
return NULL;
}
//navigate through list while(current->key != key) {
//if it is last node
if(current->next == NULL) { return NULL;
} else {
//go to next link
current = current->next;
}
}

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 54

 //if data found, return the current Link return current;
}

//delete a link with given key struct node* delete(int key) {

//start from the first link struct node* current = head;

struct node* previous = NULL;
//if list is empty if(head == NULL) {
return NULL;
}
//navigate through list while(current->key != key) {
//if it is last node
if(current->next == NULL) { return NULL;
} else {
//store reference to current link previous = current;
//move to next link current = current->next;
}
}
//found a match, update the link if(current == head) {
//change first to point to next link head = head->next;
} else {
//bypass the current link previous->next = current->next;
}
return current;
}

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 55

 void sort() {
int i, j, k, tempKey, tempData; struct node *current;
struct node *next;
int size = length(); k = size ;
for ( i = 0 ; i < size - 1 ; i++, k-- ) { current = head;
next = head->next;
for ( j = 1 ; j < k ; j++ ) {
if ( current->data > next->data ) { tempData = current->data; current->data = next->data;
next->data = tempData;
tempKey = current->key; current->key = next->key; next->key = tempKey;
}

current = current->next; next = next->next;

}
}
}

void reverse(struct node** head_ref) { struct node* prev = NULL;

struct node* current = *head_ref; struct node* next;

while (current != NULL) { next = current->next; current->next = prev; prev = current;

current = next;
}

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 56

 *head_ref = prev;
}
void main() { insertFirst(1,10); insertFirst(2,20); insertFirst(3,30); insertFirst(4,1);
insertFirst(5,40); insertFirst(6,56);
printf("Original List: ");
//print list printList();
while(!isEmpty()) {
struct node *temp = deleteFirst(); printf("\nDeleted value:");
printf("(%d,%d) ",temp->key,temp->data);
}
printf("\nList after deleting all items: "); printList();
insertFirst(1,10); insertFirst(2,20); insertFirst(3,30); insertFirst(4,1); insertFirst(5,40);
insertFirst(6,56);
printf("\nRestored List: "); printList();
printf("\n");
struct node *foundLink = find(4);
if(foundLink != NULL) { printf("Element found: ");
printf("(%d,%d) ",foundLink->key,foundLink->data); printf("\n");

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 57

 } else {
printf("Element not found.");
}
delete(4);
printf("List after deleting an item: "); printList();
printf("\n"); foundLink = find(4);

if(foundLink != NULL) { printf("Element found: ");

printf("(%d,%d) ",foundLink->key,foundLink->data); printf("\n");
} else {
printf("Element not found.");
}
printf("\n"); sort();
printf("List after sorting the data: "); printList();
reverse(&head);
printf("\nList after reversing the data: "); printList();
} Original List:
[ (6,56) (5,40) (4,1) (3,30) (2,20) (1,10) ]
If we compile and run the above program, it will produce the following
Deleted
result value:(6,56) Deleted value:(5,40) Deleted value:(4,1) Deleted value:
− Output
(3,30) Deleted value:(2,20) Deleted value:(1,10)
List after deleting all items:
[]
Restored List:
[ (6,56) (5,40) (4,1) (3,30) (2,20) (1,10) ]

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 58

 Element found: (4,1)
List after deleting an item:
[ (6,56) (5,40) (3,30) (2,20) (1,10) ]
Element not found.
List after sorting the data:
[ (1,10) (2,20) (3,30) (5,40) (6,56) ]

Circular Linked List

Circular linked list is a linked list where all nodes are connected to form a circle. There is
no NULL at the end. A circular linked list can be a singly circular linked list or doubly
circular linked list.

Advantages of Circular Linked Lists:

1 . Any node can be a starting point. We can traverse the whole list by starting from
any point. We just need to stop when the first visited node is visited again.
2 . Useful for implementation of queue. Unlike this implementation, we don’t need to
maintain two pointers for front and rear if we use circular linked list. We can
maintain a pointer to the last inserted node and front can always be obtained as next
of last.
3 . Circular lists are useful in applications to repeatedly go around the list. For
example, when multiple applications are running on a PC, it is common for the
operating system to put the running applications on a list and then to cycle through
them, giving each of them a slice of time to execute, and then making them wait
while the CPU is given to another application. It is convenient for the operating
system to use a circular list so that when it reaches the end of the list it can cycle
around to the front of the list.
4 . Circular Doubly Linked Lists are used for implementation of advanced data
structures like Fibonacci Heap.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 59

 Insertion in an empty List

Initially when the list is empty, last pointer will be NULL. After inserting a node T,
After insertion, T is the last node so pointer last points to node T. And Node T is first and
last node, so T is pointing to itself.
Function to insert node in an empty List,
struct Node *addToEmpty(struct Node *last, int data)
{
// This function is
only for empty list if
(last != NULL)
return last;
// Creating a
node
dynamically.
struct Node
*last =
(struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
//
Assig
ning
the
data.
last -
>
data
=
data;
// Note : list was empty. We link single node
// to itself.
last -> next = last;

return last;
}
Run on IDE

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 60

 Insertion at the beginning of the list
To Insert a node at the beginning of the list, follow these step:
Create a node, say T.
Make T -> next = last -> next.
last -> next = T. After insertion,
Function to insert node in the beginning of the List, struct Node *addBegin(struct Node
*last, int data)
{
if (last == NULL)
return addToEmpty(last, data);

// Creating a node dynamically. struct Node *temp

= (struct Node *)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));

// Assigning the data. temp -> data = data;

// Adjusting the links.

temp -> next = last -> next; last -> next = temp;
return last;
}
Insertion at the end of the list
To Insert a node at the end of the list, follow these step:
Create a node, say T.
Make T -> next = last -> next;
last -> next = T.
last = T.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 61

 After insertion,
Function to insert node in the end of the List,
struct Node *addEnd(struct Node *last, int data)
{
if (last == NULL)
return addToEmpty(last, data);
// Creating a node dynamically.

struct Node *temp =

(struct Node *)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
// Assigning the data. temp -> data = data;
// Adjusting the links.
temp -> next = last -> next; last -> next = temp;
last = temp;
return last;
}

Insertion in between the nodes

To Insert a node at the end of the list, follow these step:
1 . Create a node, say T.
2 . Search the node after which T need to be insert, say that node be P.
3 . Make T -> next = P -> next;
4 . P -> next = T.
Suppose 12 need to be insert after node having value 10,

After searching and insertion,

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 62

 Function to insert node in the end of the List,
struct Node *addAfter(struct Node *last, int data, int item)
{
if (last == NULL) return NULL;
struct Node *temp, *p; p = last -> next;
// Searching the item. do
{
if (p ->data == item)
{
temp = (struct Node *)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
// Assigning the data. temp -> data = data;
// Adjusting the links. temp -> next = p -> next;
// Adding newly allocated node after p. p -> next = temp;
// Checking for the last node. if (p == last)
last = temp; return last;
}
p = p -> next;
} while (p != last -> next);
cout << item << " not present in the list." << endl; return last;
}
Memory Allocation-
Whenever a new node is created, memory is allocated by the system. This memory is taken
from list of those memory locations which are free i.e. not allocated. This list is called
AVAIL List. Similarly, whenever a node is deleted, the deleted space becomes reusable
and is added to the list of unused space i.e. to AVAIL List. This unused space can be used
in future for memory allocation.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 63

 Memory allocation is of two types-

a. Static Memory Allocation

b. Dynamic Memory Allocation
1 . Static Memory Allocation:
When memory is allocated during compilation time, it is called ‘Static Memory
Allocation’. This memory is fixed and cannot be increased or decreased after allocation.
If more memory is allocated than requirement, then memory is wasted. If less memory is
allocated than requirement, then program will not run successfully. So exact memory
requirements must be known in advance.
2 . Dynamic Memory Allocation:
When memory is allocated during run/execution time, it is called ‘Dynamic Memory
Allocation’. This memory is not fixed and is allocated according to our requirements.
Thus in it there is no wastage of memory. So there is no need to know exact memory
requirements in advance.
Garbage Collection-
Whenever a node is deleted, some memory space becomes reusable. This memory space
should be available for future use. One way to do this is to immediately insert the free
space into availability list. But this method may be time consuming for the operating
system. So another method is used which is called ‘Garbage Collection’. This method is
described below: In this method the OS collects the deleted space time to time onto the
availability list. This process happens in two steps. In first step, the OS goes through all the
lists and tags all those cells which are currently being used. In the second step, the

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 64

 OS goes through all the lists again and collects untagged space and adds this collected
space to availability list. The garbage collection may occur when small amount of free
space is left in the system or no free space is left in the system or when CPU is idle and has
time to do the garbage collection.
Compaction
One preferable solution to garbage collection is compaction. The
process of moving all marked nodes to one end of memory and all available memory to
other end is called compaction. Algorithm which performs compaction is called
compacting algorithm.

Infix to Postfix Conversion

#include<stdio.h> char stack[20]; int top = -1;
void push(char x)
{
stack[++top] = x;
}
char pop()
{
if(top == -1)
return -1; else
return stack[top--];
}
int priority(char x)
{
if(x == '(') return 0;
if(x == '+' || x == '-') return 1;
if(x == '*' || x == '/') return 2;
}
main()
{
char exp[20]; char *e, x;
printf("Enter the expression :: "); scanf("%s",exp);
e = exp; while(*e != '\0')

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 65

 {
if(isalnum(*e)) printf("%c",*e);
else if(*e == '(') push(*e);
else if(*e == ')')
{

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 66

 while((x = pop()) != '(') printf("%c", x);
}
else
{
while(priority(stack[top]) >= priority(*e))
printf("%c",pop());
push(*e);
} e++;
}
while(top != -1)
{
printf("%c",pop());
}
}

OUTPUT:

Enter the expression :: a+b*c abc*+

Enter the expression :: (a+b)*c+(d-a) ab+c*da-+

Evaluate POSTFIX Expression Using Stack

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 67
 #include<stdio.h> int stack[20];
int top = -1; void push(int x)
{
stack[++top] = x;
}
int pop()
{
return stack[top--];
}
int main()
{
char exp[20]; char *e;
int n1,n2,n3,num;

printf("Enter the expression :: ");

scanf("%s",exp);
e = exp; while(*e != '\0')
{
if(isdigit(*{
num = *e - 48; push(num);
}
else
{
n1 = pop();
n2 = pop(); switch(*e)
{
case '+':
{
n3 = n1 + n2;
break;
}
case '-':
{
n3 = n2 - n1; break;
}
case '*':
{
n3 = n1 * n2; break;}e))

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 68

 case '/':
{
n3 = n2 / n1; break;
}
}
push(n3);
} e++;
}
printf("\nThe result of expression %s = %d\n\n",exp,pop()); return 0;
}
Output:

Enter the expression :: 245+*

The result of expression 245+* = 18

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 69

Unit V
Binary Tree

A binary tree consists of a finite set of nodes that is either empty, or consists of one
specially designated node called the root of the binary tree, and the elements of two
disjoint binary trees called the left subtree and right subtree of the root.
Note that the definition above is recursive: we have defined a binary tree in terms of binary
trees. This is appropriate since recursion is an innate characteristic of tree structures.
Diagram 1: A binary tree

Binary Tree Terminology

Tree terminology is generally derived from the terminology of family trees (specifically,
the type of family tree called a lineal chart).
 Each root is said to be the parent of the roots of its subtrees.
 Two nodes with the same parent are said to be siblings; they are the children of
their parent.
 The root node has no parent.
 A great deal of tree processing takes advantage of the relationship between a parent
and its children, and we commonly say a directed edge (or simply an edge)
extends from a parent to its children. Thus edges connect a root with the roots of
each subtree. An undirected edge extends in both directions between a parent and a
child.

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  Grandparent and grandchild relations can be defined in a similar manner; we could
also extend this terminology further if we wished (designating nodes as cousins, as
an uncle or aunt, etc.).
Other Tree Terms
 The number of subtrees of a node is called the degree of the node. In a binary tree,
all nodes have degree 0, 1, or 2.
 A node of degree zero is called a terminal node or leaf node.
 A non-leaf node is often called a branch node.
 The degree of a tree is the maximum degree of a node in the tree. A binary tree is
degree 2.
 A directed path from node n1 to nk is defined as a sequence of nodes n1, n2,
 ..., nk such that ni is the parent of ni+1 for 1 <= i < k. An undirected path is a
similar sequence of undirected edges. The length of this path is the number of
edges on the path, namely k – 1 (i.e., the number of nodes – 1). There is a path of
length zero from every node to itself. Notice that in a binary tree there is exactly
one path from the root to each node.
 The level or depth of a node with respect to a tree is defined recursively: the level
of the root is zero; and the level of any other node is one higher than that of its
parent. Or to put it another way, the level or depth of a node ni is the length of the
unique path from the root to ni.
 The height of ni is the length of the longest path from ni to a leaf. Thus all leaves in
the tree are at height 0.
 The height of a tree is equal to the height of the root. The depth of a tree is equal to
the level or depth of the deepest leaf; this is always equal to the height of the tree.
 If there is a directed path from n1 to n2, then n1 is an ancestor of n2 and n2 is a
descendant of n1.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 71

 Special Forms of Binary Trees

There are a few special forms of binary tree worth mentioning.

If every non-leaf node in a binary tree has nonempty left and right subtrees, the tree is
termed a strictly binary tree. Or, to put it another way, all of the nodes in a strictly binary
tree are of degree zero or two, never degree one. A strictly binary tree with N leaves
always contains 2N – 1 nodes.
Some texts call this a "full" binary tree.
A complete binary tree of depth d is the strictly binary tree all of whose leaves are at level
d.
The total number of nodes in a complete binary tree of depth d equals 2d+1 – 1. Since all
leaves in such a tree are at level d, the tree contains 2d leaves and, therefore, 2d - 1 internal
nodes.
Diagram 2: A complete binary tree

A binary tree of depth d is an almost complete binary tree if:

 Each leaf in the tree is either at level d or at level d – 1.
 For any node nd in the tree with a right descendant at level d, all the left
descendants of nd that are leaves are also at level d.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 72

 Diagram 3: An almost complete binary tree

An almost complete strictly binary tree with N leaves has 2N – 1 nodes (as does any other
strictly binary tree). An almost complete binary tree with N leaves that is not strictly
binary has 2N nodes. There are two distinct almost complete binary trees with N
leaves, one of which is strictly binary and one of which is not.
There is only a single almost complete binary tree with N nodes. This tree is strictly binary
if and only if N is odd.
Representing Binary Trees in Memory
Array Representation
For a complete or almost complete binary tree, storing the binary tree as an array may be a
good choice.One way to do this is to store the root of the tree in the first element of the
array. Then, for each node in the tree that is stored at subscript k, the node's left child can
be stored at subscript 2k+1 and the right child can be stored at subscript 2k+2. For
example, the almost complete binary tree shown in Diagram 2 can be stored in an array
like so:

However, if this scheme is used to store a binary tree that is not complete or almost
complete, we can end up with a great deal of wasted space in the array.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 73

 For example, the following binary tree would be stored using this technique like so:

Linked Representation
If a binary tree is not complete or almost complete, a better choice for storing it is to use a
linked representation similar to the linked list structures covered earlier in the semester:

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 74

 Each tree node has two pointers (usually named left and right). The tree class has a pointer
to the root node of the tree (labeled root in the diagram above).Any pointer in the tree
structure that does not point to a node will normally contain the value NULL. A linked tree
with N nodes will always contain N + 1 null links.
Tree Traversal:
Traversal is a process to visit all the nodes of a tree and may print their values too.
Because, all nodes are connected via edges (links) we always start from the root (head)
node. That is, we cannot randomly access a node in a tree. There are three ways which we
use to traverse a tree −
 In-order Traversal
 Pre-order Traversal
 Post-order Traversal
Generally, we traverse a tree to search or locate a given item or key in the tree or to
print all the values it contains.
In-order Traversal
In this traversal method, the left subtree is visited first, then the root and later the right
sub-tree. We should always remember that every node may represent a subtree itself. If a
binary tree is traversed in-order, the output will produce sorted key values in an
ascending order.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 75

 We start from A, and following in-order traversal, we move to its left subtree B. B is also
traversed in-order. The process goes on until all the nodes are visited. The output of
inorder traversal of this tree will be −
D→B→E→A→F→C→G
Algorithm

Until all nodes are traversed –

Step 1 − Recursively traverse left subtree.
Step 2 − Visit root node.
Step 3 − Recursively traverse right subtree.

Pre-order Traversal
In this traversal method, the root node is visited first, then the left subtree and finally the
right subtree.

We start from A, and following pre-order traversal, we first visit A itself and then move
to its left subtree B. B is also traversed pre-order. The process goes on until all the nodes
are visited. The output of pre-order traversal of this tree will be −
A→B→D→E→C→F→G

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 76

 Algorithm

Until all nodes are traversed −

Step 1 − Visit root node.
Step 2 − Recursively traverse left subtree.
Step 3 − Recursively traverse right subtree.

Post-order Traversal
In this traversal method, the root node is visited last, hence the name. First we traverse the
left subtree, then the right subtree and finally the root node.

We start from A, and following Post-order traversal, we first visit the left subtree B. B is
also traversed post-order. The process goes on until all the nodes are visited. The output of
post-order traversal of this tree will be −
D→E→B→F→G→C→A

Algorithm

Until all nodes are traversed −

Step 1 − Recursively traverse left subtree.
Step 2 − Recursively traverse right subtree.
Step 3 − Visit root node.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 77

 Binary Search Tree (BST)
A Binary Search Tree (BST) is a tree in which all the nodes follow the below-mentioned
properties −
 The left sub-tree of a node has a key less than or equal to its parent node's key.
 The right sub-tree of a node has a key greater than to its parent node's key. Thus,
BST divides all its sub-trees into two segments; the left sub-tree and the right sub-
tree and can be defined as −
left_subtree (keys) ≤ node (key) ≤ right_subtree (keys)

Representation
BST is a collection of nodes arranged in a way where they maintain BST properties. Each
node has a key and an associated value. While searching, the desired key is compared to
the keys in BST and if found, the associated value is retrieved.
Following is a pictorial representation of BST −

We observe that the root node key (27) has all less-valued keys on the left sub-tree
and the higher valued keys on the right sub-tree.
Basic Operations

Following are the basic operations of a tree −

 Search − Searches an element in a tree.
 Insert − Inserts an element in a tree.
 Pre-order Traversal − Traverses a tree in a pre-order manner.
 In-order Traversal − Traverses a tree in an in-order manner.
 Post-order Traversal − Traverses a tree in a post-order manner. Node

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 78

 Define a node having some data, references to its left and right child nodes.
struct node
{
int data;
struct node *leftChild;
struct node *rightChild;
};

Search Operation
Whenever an element is to be searched, start searching from the root node. Then if the data
is less than the key value, search for the element in the left subtree. Otherwise, search for
the element in the right subtree. Follow the same algorithm for each node.
Algorithm

struct node* search(int data){ struct node *current = root;

printf("Visiting elements: ");
while(current->data != data){
if(current != NULL) { printf("%d ",current->data);
//go to left tree if(current->data > data){
current = current->leftChild;
} //else go to right tree else {
current = current->rightChild;
}
//not found

if
(
c
u
r
r

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 79

 Insert Operation
Whenever an element is to be inserted, first locate its proper location. Start searching from
the root node, then if the data is less than the key value, search for the empty location in
the left subtree and insert the data. Otherwise, search for the empty location in the right
subtree and insert the data.
Algorithm

void insert(int data) {

struct node *tempNode = (struct node*) malloc(sizeof(struct node)); struct
node *current;
struct node *parent;
tempNode->data = data; tempNode->leftChild = NULL; tempNode-
>rightChild = NULL;
//if tree is empty if(root == NULL) {
root = tempNode;
} else {
current = root; parent = NULL;
while(1) {
parent = current;
//go to left of the tree if(data < parent->data) {
current = current->leftChild;
//insert to the left
if(current == NULL) {
parent->leftChild = tempNode; return;
}
} //go to right of the tree else {
current = current->rightChild;
//insert to the right if(current == NULL) {
parent->rightChild = tempNode; return;
}
}
}

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 80

 Graphs Terminology
A graph consists of:
 A set, V, of vertices (nodes)
 A collection, E, of pairs of vertices from V called edges (arcs)
Edges, also called arcs, are represented by (u, v) and are either:
Directed if the pairs are ordered (u, v)
u the origin ,v the destination ,Undirected if the pairs are unordered
A graph is a pictorial representation of a set of objects where some pairs of objects are
connected by links. The interconnected objects are represented by points termed as
vertices, and the links that connect the vertices are called edges.
Formally, a graph is a pair of sets (V, E), where V is the set of vertices and Eis the set of
edges, connecting the pairs of vertices. Take a look at the following graph −

In the above graph, V = {a, b, c, d, e}

E = {ab, ac, bd, cd, de} Then a graph can be:
Directed graph (di-graph) if all the edges are directed Undirected graph (graph) if all
the edges are undirected Mixed graph if edges are both directed or undirected Illustrate
terms on graphs
End-vertices of an edge are the endpoints of the edge.
Two vertices are adjacent if they are endpoints of the same edge.
An edge is incident on a vertex if the vertex is an endpoint of the edge.
Outgoing edges of a vertex are directed edges that the vertex is the origin.
Incoming edges of a vertex are directed edges that the vertex is the destination.
Degree of a vertex, v, denoted deg(v) is the number of incident edges.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 81

 Out-degree, outdeg(v), is the number of outgoing edges.
In-degree, indeg(v), is the number of incoming edges.
Parallel edges or multiple edges are edges of the same type and end-vertices
Self-loop is an edge with the end vertices the same vertex
Simple graphs have no parallel edges or self-loops
Properties
If graph, G, has m edges then Σv∈G deg(v) = 2m
If a di-graph, G, has m edges then
Σv∈G indeg(v) = m = Σv∈G outdeg(v)
If a simple graph, G, has m edges and n vertices:
If G is also directed then m ≤ n(n-1)
If G is also undirected then m ≤ n(n-1)/2
So a simple graph with n vertices has O(n2) edges at most
More Terminology
Path is a sequence of alternating vetches and edges such that each successive vertex is
connected by the edge. Frequently only the vertices are listed especially if there are no
parallel edges.
Cycle is a path that starts and ends at the same vertex.
Simple path is a path with distinct vertices. Directed path is a path of only directed edges
Directed cycle is a cycle of only directed edges. Sub-graph is a subset of vertices and
edges.
Spanning sub-graph contains all the vertices.
Connected graph has all pairs of vertices connected by at least one path. Connected
component is the maximal connected sub-graph of a unconnected graph. Forest is a graph
without cycles.
Tree is a connected forest (previous type of trees are called rooted trees, these are free
trees)
Spanning tree is a spanning subgraph that is also a tree.
More Properties
If G is an undirected graph with n vertices and m edges:
If G is connected then m ≥ n - 1

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 82

 If G is a tree then m = n - 1
If G is a forest then m ≤ n – 1
Graph Traversal:
Depth First Search
Breadth First Search
Graph representation
You can represent a graph in many ways. The two most common ways of representing a
graph is as follows:
Adjacency matrix
An adjacency matrix is a VxV binary matrix A. Element Ai,j is 1 if there is an edge from
vertex i to vertex j else Ai,jis 0.
Note: A binary matrix is a matrix in which the cells can have only one of two possible
values - either a 0 or 1.
The adjacency matrix can also be modified for the weighted graph in which instead of
storing 0 or 1 in Ai,j, the weight or cost of the edge will be stored.
In an undirected graph, if Ai,j = 1, then Aj,i = 1. In a directed graph, if Ai,j = 1,
then Aj,i may or may not be 1.
Adjacency matrix provides constant time access (O(1) ) to determine if there is an
edge between two nodes. Space complexity of the adjacency matrix is O(V2).
The adjacency matrix of the following graph is:
i/j : 1 2 3 4
1:0101
2:1010
3:0101

4:1010

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 83

 The adjacency matrix of the following graph is:
i/j: 1 2 3 4
1:0100
2:0001
3:1001
4:0100

Adjacency list
The other way to represent a graph is by using an adjacency list. An adjacency list is an
array A of separate lists. Each element of the array Ai is a list, which contains all the
vertices that are adjacent to vertex i.
For a weighted graph, the weight or cost of the edge is stored along with the vertex in the
list using pairs. In an undirected graph, if vertex j is in list Ai then vertex i will be in list
Aj.
The space complexity of adjacency list is O(V + E) because in an adjacency list
information is stored only for those edges that actually exist in the graph. In a lot of cases,
where a matrix is sparse using an adjacency matrix may not be very useful. This is because
using an adjacency matrix will take up a lot of space where most of the elements will be 0,
anyway. In such cases, using an adjacency list is better.
Note: A sparse matrix is a matrix in which most of the elements are zero, whereas a dense
matrix is a matrix in which most of the elements are non-zero.

Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 84

 Consider the same undirected graph from an adjacency matrix. The adjacency
list of the graph is as follows:
A1 → 2 → 4
A2 → 1 → 3
A3 → 2 → 4

A4 → 1 → 3

Consider the same directed graph from an adjacency matrix. The adjacency list
of the graph is as follows:
A1 → 2
A2 → 4
A3 → 1 → 4
A4 → 2

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Data Structure Using ‘C’ - 22317 Page 86