Module 3

Problem Solving and

Reasoning

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 MODULE 3

The Nature of Mathematics: Problem Solving and Reasoning

3.1 Introduction

Central to the study of mathematics is its ability to solve problems even

outside the field. Different professions deal with different problems. Most
professionals are required to have good problem solving skills. In the previous
module, you built a clear understanding of mathematics as a language and
improved your skills in translating mathematical sentences to symbols. This skill
is so important for you to become a better problem solver.

In this module, our main focus is on how you solve a problem in a systematic
manner.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

After finishing this module, you are expected to

1. discuss ways to solve a problem;

2. solve problems using inductive and deductive reasoning; and
3. solve problems using Polya’s strategy.

3.3 What You Need to Know

A mathematical problem is a situation that you may confront for which the
method and solution is not immediately known to you. There are different ways
to come up with the solution of a problem. Good comprehension and reasoning
are necessary.

3.3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

We start by describing two processes of reaching a conclusion: inductive and

deductive reasoning.

3.3.1.1 Inductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning that comes up to a conclusion by examining specific
examples is called inductive reasoning. A conclusion that is made by applying
inductive reasoning is called a conjecture. Conjectures may or may not be correct.

An example of this type of reasoning is applied when we want to find the next
number in a list of numbers which follows a pattern.

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Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the lists.

1, 3, 6, 8, 11, ?

Solution.
The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the third
and fourth by 2 again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2, the next
difference would be 3, followed again by 2, then by 3. Since the difference between
8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next to 11 to be a number 2 more than 11,
which is 13.

We used inductive reasoning when we predicted the number next to 11.

Example 2. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture.

Perform the following steps:

Pick a number. Multiply it by 4. Add 6 to the product. Divide the sum by

2. Subtract 3.

Use this procedure in different numbers and conjecture on the resulting

number.

Solution.

We may construct a table to examine the results.

Original number Result
5 10
6 12
7 14
10 20
100 200

If you pick the number 5, the procedure will give a result of 10. For 6, it will
give 12; for 7, 14; for 10, 20; and for 100, 200. We observe that the resulting
numbers are twice the original number. Thus, we conjecture that the process will
produce a number which is twice the original.

We used inductive reasoning in making a conjecture in the previous example.

We must take note that though it can be helpful to use inductive reasoning to
arrive at a conclusion, extra care must be observed when performing procedure.
Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not be correct. The following
example illustrates this instance.

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Example 3. Consider the polynomial 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19 where 𝑛 is a counting
number.

If we conjecture on the results for 𝑛 ≥ 2, we first check on several values

of 𝑛.
𝑛 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
2 23
3 47
4 73
5 101
6 131
7 163
We notice that the results are prime numbers. Thus, we conjecture that for
𝑛 ≥ 2, then 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19 is a prime number. To test our conjecture, we need to
check results for other values. We have
𝑛 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
8 197
9 233
10 271
11 311
12 353
13 397
We see that the results are consistent and that our conjecture seems
correct.
𝑛 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
14 443
15 491
16 541
17 593
18 647
19 703

If we continue checking on the next results, we get 397, 443, 491, 541,
593, and 647. All these numbers are prime. However, if 𝑛 = 19, we get 703
which is the product of 19 and 37. This makes us conclude that our conjecture
is incorrect.
Example 4. Consider a circle and dots on the circle. What we do is connect
each dot to all other dots so that we draw all possible line segments. After
this, we count the number of regions formed inside the circle. The first five
results are given in Figure 3.1.

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 Figure 3.1
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting dots on a circle

Results may be summarized in the following table.

Number of dots 1 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum number of regions 1 2 4 8 16 ?

Using the information in the table, we see that as the number of dots
increase, the number of regions inside the circle is doubled. Thus, we expect
that for 6 dots, there will be 16 ∙ 2 = 32 regions. However, if we perform the
procedure, we find out the only 31 regions are formed as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting 6 dots on a circle

In itself, inductive reasoning is not a valid method of proof. Observing

that a pattern exists in a number of situations does not mean that the pattern
is true for all situations. However, the inductive way is still valuable because

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it allows us to form ideas on what we observed which leads us to come up
with a hypothesis.

Learning Activity 1

Direction. Use inductive reasoning to figure out the next number in

the list.

3 5 7 9 11 13
, , , ,
5 7 9 11 13 15
,

Start Here:

1. 4, 8, 12, 16,20, 24, ____

2. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ___
3. 80, 70, 61,53, 46, 40, ____
4. ,____

5. 2, 7, −3,2,−8, −3, −13, −8, −18, ____

Observed patterns and formed ideas are better understood when one
knows how to communicate these ideas into meaningful statements. The
ability to analyze and convey the ideas formed is an essential part of the
problem solving process. In the succeeding discussion, we recall concepts on
truth of statements and familiarize with how we can justify the truth or falsity
of a statement.

A statement is true if it is true for all cases. If you can find one case
where the statement is not true, then it is considered a false statement. The
instance for which the statement becomes false is called a counter-example.
One can verify that a statement is false by using a counter-example. This is
illustrated in the next example.

Example 5. If 𝑛 is an integer, then the absolute value of 𝑛 is greater than 0.

Solution.

Since 0 is an integer, we let 𝑛 = 0. Now, |𝑛| = |0| = 0 ≯ 0. We have found a

counter-example. Thus, the statement “If 𝑛 is an integer, then the absolute
value of 𝑛 is greater than 0.” is a false statement.

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3.3.1.2 Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form used in

proving observations and arriving at conclusions. It is a process by which one
makes conclusions based on previously accepted general assumptions,
procedures, and principles.

To illustrate how deductive reasoning works, we will use the same

procedure we had in Example 2 and this time we use a deductive process.

Example 6. Use deductive reasoning to make a conclusion.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 4. Add 6 to the

product. Divide the sum by 2 then subtract 3.

Solution.

Procedure Symbolic representation

Pick a number 𝑛

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 Multiply by 4 4𝑛

Add 6 to the product 4𝑛 + 6

4𝑛 + 6
Divide the sum by 2 = 2𝑛 + 3
2
Subtract 3 2𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 2𝑛

If we let 𝑛 be the number, the procedure will give a result of 2𝑛. Thus, we
conclude that the procedure produces a number which is twice the original
number.

Some problems make use of the deductive process to arrive at a solution.

Logic puzzles, for example, are best solved by deductive reasoning using a
chart to display the given information.

Example 7. Solve this puzzle using deductive reasoning.

John, Jenny, Sheila, and Jason were recently elected as new class officers
(president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) in a National High School.
From the following clues, determine which position each holds.

1. Jason is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.

2. John and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.

3. Sheila and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

Solution.

From clue 1, Jason is neither the president nor the treasurer. We put a
mark “X” on positions Jason do not hold.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X X
Jenny
Sheila
John

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 From clue 2, John is not the secretary. And since he is one of the youngest
in the group, he cannot be the president. From here, we also conclude that
Jason is not the secretary since he is older than the treasurer. Thus, Jason
must be the vice president and John must be the treasurer.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X  X X
Jenny X X
Sheila X X
John X X X 

From clue 3, Sheila is not the secretary which leads us to conclude that
Jenny is the secretary. Since there are no other options, we conclude that
Sheila is the president.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X  X X
Jenny X X  X
Sheila  X X X
John X X X 

Therefore, Sheila is the president, Jason is vice president, Jenny is the

secretary, and John is the treasurer.

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3.3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns 3.3.2.1

Terms of a Sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as

5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …

is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are separated by
commas are the terms of the sequence. In the given sequence, 5 is the first
term, 14 is the second, and so on. The three dots indicate that the sequence
continues beyond 65, which is the last term written. The use of subscript
notation is a convention to designate the nth term of a sequence. That is,

𝑎1 represents the first term of a sequence.

𝑎2 represents the second term of a sequence.

𝑎3 represents the third term of a sequence.

𝑎𝑛 represents the nth term of a sequence.

When we examine a sequence, the following questions are often asked:

• What is the next term?

• What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
Before we proceed to the types of sequences, we will study the basic
sequences and find the next term of a sequence using a difference table.

A difference table is often used to show differences between successive

terms of the sequence. The following table is the difference table for the
sequence

2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14
First difference 3 3 3 3

Looking at the sequence, we see that the difference between 5 and 2 is 3;

8 and 5 is also 3; and so on.

In this case, the first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use the
difference table above to predict the next number in the sequence, we shall be
working upward by adding 3 to 14. Thus, 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the
sequence. The following table shows how this is done.
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14 17
First difference 3 3 3 3 3

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Consider the sequence below with its difference table.

5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …

Sequence 5 14 27 44 65
First difference 9 13 17 21
Second difference 4 4 4

From the table, we see that the first differences are not the same since 14
− 5 = 9, 27 − 14 = 13, 44 − 27 = 17, and 65 − 44 = 21. Thus, we check on the
second differences and observe if we see a pattern. In this case, the second
differences are all the same. We have 13 − 9 = 4, 17 − 13 = 4, and 21 − 17 = 4.
The common second difference is 4.

Since we have found a common second difference, we shall be working

upward to get 4 + 21 = 25 and then 25 + 65 = 90. The following table provides
the illustration on how we get the next term of the sequence. Thus, in this
example, the next term is 90.

Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 90
First difference 9 13 17 21 25
Second difference 4 4 4 4

Example 8. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.

2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …

Solution.
Sequence 2 7 24 59 118 207 332
First differences 5 17 35 59 89 125
Second differences 12 18 24 30 36
Third differences 6 6 6 6

In this case, we found common third difference of 6. Working upward,

we have 6 + 30 + 89 + 207 = 332. This is the next in the given sequence.

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 Learning Activity 4

Direction. Figure out the next number in the sequence using a difference
table as your guide.

Start Here:

1. 1, 7, 17, 31,49,71, …
2. 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30,…
3. −1, 4, 21, 56, 115,204, …
4. 9, 4, 3,12,37, 84, …
5. 17, 15, 25, 53, 105,187, …

3.3.2.2 nth-Term Formula for a Sequence

Consider the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛. This formula defines a sequence and

provides a method for finding any term of the sequence. In particular, if we
want to find the first, second, and third terms, we only need to substitute the
values 1,2, and 3 to 𝑛. So,

𝑎1 = 3(1)2 + 1 = 4,

𝑎2 = 3(2)2 + 2 = 14,

𝑎3 = 3(3)2 + 3 = 30,

which means that the first term is 4; second term is 14; and third term is 30.

The next example illustrates how the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula can be

determined.

Example 9. Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following
figure continues.

a. What is the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the number of tiles in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ figure of
the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist exactly 320 tiles?

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Solution.

a. If we count the tiles in each term, we get the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, … which
has a common difference of 3. Thus, we may consider 3𝑛 such that 𝑛 = 1,
2, …. However, using this would give 3 as the first term.

From 3, we subtract 1 to get 2. Hence, we may consider the formula 3𝑛

− 1, where 𝑛 = 1,2, …. Evaluating this formula for the first 4 terms will
give us 2, 5, 8, and 11, which are the terms of the sequence based on the
figure.

Thus, the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for this sequence is 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1.

b. Using the formula we derived from (a), we can get the number of tiles in
the eighth term of the sequence. In this case, 𝑛 = 8 and 𝑎8 = 3(8) − 1 =
24 − 1 = 23 tiles.

c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we will
use the formula we derived in (a) and solve for 𝑛. Here, we expect the
𝑛𝑡ℎ-term to have 320 tiles. Thus, we solve 3𝑛 − 1 = 320.

3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321
𝑛 = 107

Therefore, the 107th figure has 320 tiles.

Do you have your own way of solving this problem? It will help if you
write your own solution and compare the results.

3.3.2.3 Types of Sequences

There are different types of sequences in mathematics. The succeeding

discussion will illustrate some of these sequences.

Arithmetic Sequence

An arithmetic sequence is made by adding the same value each time. This
value is referred to as the ‘’common difference’’. A sequence with this property
is also called arithmetic progression.

The general form is given by

𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑, 𝑎 + 4𝑑, …

where 𝑎 is the first term and 𝑑 is the common difference.

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 Here are some examples of arithmetic progressions with their common
difference.
Example Common difference
1, 5, 9, 13,17, 21, 25, 29, 33, . .. 4
4, 7, 10, 13,16,19, 22, 25, . .. 3
29, 27, 25, 23, 21, 19,. .. −2

The sequences used in the previous examples are arithmetic

progressions.

Geometric Sequence

We shall now move on to the other type of sequence we want to explore.

Consider the sequence

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …

Here, each term in the sequence is 2 times the previous term. A sequence
such as this is called a geometric sequence.

There is a general notation for geometric sequences. The first term we

shall denote by 𝑎. But here, there is no common difference. Instead there is
a common ratio, as the ratio of successive terms is always constant. So we
shall let 𝑟 be this common ratio.

With this notation, the general geometric sequence can be expressed as

𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟2 , 𝑎𝑟3 , …

The 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term can be calculated using 𝑎𝑟𝑛−1 , where the power (𝑛 − 1) is always
one less than the position 𝑛 of the term in the sequence.

Thus, the sequence

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …

can be expressed as

Triangular Number Sequence

1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ...

The Triangular Number Sequence is generated from a pattern of dots

which form a triangle:

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 By adding another row of dots and counting all the dots we can find the
next number of the sequence. Thus, the 5th term in this sequence is:

Learning Activity 5

Direction. Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the sequence with the given
representation below.

How many squares will there be in the fifteenth figure?

3.3.3 Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy

A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may
be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means,
you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.
George Polya

For a mathematician, the answer to a mathematical problem is

important. Equally important is the study of methods and rules for discovery
and invention. This is called heuristics.

One highly acceptable method to problem solving is designed by George

Polya (1887-1985). The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated
consisted of four steps: understand the problem; devise a plan; carry out the
plan; and review the solution.
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 We will discuss each step by giving some guide on how we can complete
the problem solving process devised by George Polya.

3.3.3.1 Understand the Problem

We must have a clear understanding of the problem. In this part, we may
list the given information. Essential to this part is the ability to identify what
is asked and have a clear understanding of the properties of the final answer.
3.3.3.2 Devise a Plan

Different problems can be solved using a variety of solutions. Some of

these procedures include making a list of the known information, making a
list of information that is needed, sketching a diagram, making an organized
list that shows all possibilities, making a table or a chart, working backwards,
trying to solve a similar but simpler problem, looking for a pattern, writing an
equation, performing an experiment, guessing at a solution and then check
our result.

3.3.3.3 Carry Out the Plan

Once we devised a plan, we must carry it out. Careful execution of the
plan is important and a record of the process and results obtained shall be in
place. If the first plan is not successful, we can always use another plan and
start all over.

3.3.3.4 Review the Solution

Once we have found a solution, we check the solution and make sure
that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem. We must interpret
the solution in the context of the problem and figure out whether there are
generalizations of the solution that could apply to other problems.

Example 10. Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

Determine the digit places to the right of the decimal point in the
decimal representation .

Solution.
Understand What are the given
the Problem information? • The number
• places to the right of the decimal point

What is asked? number to the right of the decimal point in the decimal

representation of .
What is/are the
property/ies of the
final answer? One of the numbers in the set

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 Devise a Plan What steps are
needed to solve the 1. Express in decimal form.
problem? 2. Make a list of the digits to the right of the decimal
notation.
3. Look for a pattern.

Carry Out the What are the

1. The number in decimal notation is given by
Plan results after we
take the steps in . which has a repeating and nonterminating
solving the pattern.
problem? 2.
Location Digit Location Digit Location Digit

3. Since the decimal representation 0.148… repeats over

and over, we know that the digit located 100 places to
the right of the decimal point is either 1, 4, or 8.

Only in column 3 is each of the decimal digit locations

evenly divisible by 3. From this pattern, we can tell that
the 99th decimal digit must be 8. Since a 1 always
follows an 8 in the pattern, the 100th decimal digit must
be a 1.

Review the Are we sure that As an alternative solution, we see that the above table
Solution our answer is illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if each of the
correct? location numbers in column 1 is divided by 3, a remainder 1
is produced. If each of the location numbers in column 2 is
divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is produced. Thus, we can
find the decimal digit in any location by dividing the location
number by 3 and examining the remainder. Thus, to find
4
the digit in the 100th decimal place of , we merely divide
27
100 by 3 and examine the remainder, which is 1. Thus, the
digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point is a 1.

Example 11. Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

A paper fan and a visor together cost ₱100.00. The visor costs ₱ 90.00
more than the paper fan. What are the individual costs of the visor and the
fan?

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Solution.
Understand What are the given The price of a paper fan and a visor together is ₱100.00.
the Problem information? The visor costs ₱90.00 more than the paper fan.

What is asked? Cost of the visor

Cost of the fan

What is/are the Visor’s price must be higher than the price of the paper
property/ies of the fan.
final answer? Both prices must be less than ₱100.00.
Unit of cost is in ₱.

Devise a Plan What steps are 1. Represent the cost of visor and paper fan using a variable.
needed to solve the 2. Translate the statement to mathematical equation.
problem? 3. Solve for the cost of the visor and the paper fan.
Carry Out What are the 1. We let ℎ be the cost of the paper fan. Since the visor costs
the Plan results after we ₱90.00 more than the visor, we represent its cost by ℎ +
take the steps in 90.
solving the 2. The cost of paper fan and visor altogether is ₱100.00. This
problem? can be expressed ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100.
3. Solving this equation, we have

ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ = 100 − 90
2ℎ = 10
ℎ=5
The cost of the paper fan is ₱5.00 and the cost of the visor
is
₱ 5.00 + ₱ 90.00 = ₱ 95.00.

Review the Are we sure that • Checking the sum of the costs we get ₱ 5.00 + ₱ 95.00 = ₱
Solution our answer is 100.00
correct? • The difference of the costs of the visor and the paper fan
is ₱95.00 − ₱5.00 = ₱90.00.

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 Learning Activity 6

Direction. Use Polya’s four steps to problem solving in solving the

following problems.

A true or false quiz contains 10 questions. In how many ways can a

student answer the questions if the student answers two of the
questions with false and the rest with true?

Understand the
problem

Devise a plan

Carry out the

plan

Review the
solution

Determine the units digit of 4320.

Understand the
problem

Devise a plan

Carry out the

plan

Review the
solution

3.7 References

Books:

Aufmann, et. al. 2013. Mathematical Excursions. Third Edition. Cengage

Learning, USA
Hammack, Richard. 2013 Book of Proof. Department of Mathematics and
Applied Mathematics. Virginia Commonwealth University
Stewart, I. 2008. Professor Stewarts’s Cabinet of Mathematical Curiosities.
Basic Books. USA

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