LECTURE NOTE 2025 - PHYSICS [SECOND YEAR]

RAY OPTICS
(REFLECTION OF LIGHT)

* Introduction
* Light is represented by ray of light. A ray is a light path along which optical energy flows; the direction of
energy flow is represented by the arrow sign

* Ray paths are straight line in a homogenous medium i.e. light has rectilinear propagation
Validity of Ray Optics
Rectilinear propagation can be applied only when the size of the obstacle is very large compared to the
wave length of light. Because diffraction (bending of light) can be neglected at this condition
Validity of ray optics can be explained by wave theory of light. Since diffraction is explained by wave
theory and rectilinear propagation is possible only in the absence of diffraction.
* Beam of light : Collection of rays. Light from a source can be represented by beam of light
Real Images and Virtual Images
Real images are formed when the light rays actually converge to a point after reflection or refraction.
They can be obtained on a screen.

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Virtual images are formed when the light rays appear to diverge from a point after reflection or refraction.
They cannot be obtained on a screen but observable. Virtual rays are represented by doted lines.
Principle of reversibility of ray : When a light, after suffering a number of reflections and refractions,
has its final path reversed, it retraces it’s own path

Mutual Independency of ray : Path of the light rays are mutually independent, i.e. they do not disturb
each other.
Reflection of light : Bouncing back of light to the same medium. Change in direction of light, without
any change in medium
Laws of Reflection

1) angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection (i = r)

2) incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane
Deviation in Reflection
Angle between directions of incident ray and reflected ray is called angle of deviation (d)

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d = 2a = 2 90 - i

d = 180 - 2i , direction of deviation is from incident ray to reflected ray

Phase difference due to reflection

When light is reflected from a denser medium phase difference between reflected light and incident
light is p rad or 180o
When light is reflected from a rarer medium phase difference between reflected light and incident light
is zero.
Reflection by Plane mirror
For a real object image formed by plane mirror
® Virtual, erect and laterally inverted
® image distance = object distance, v = –u
® image size = object size
® image and object are formed in the same plane normal to the mirror

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® When a parallel beam of light is incident on a plane mirror, the reflected rays are also parallel. Thus
plane mirror never produces convergence or divergence i.e. focal length of plane mirror is infinity and
power is zero.

When the incident ray rotates through an angle q , with an angular speed w towards or away from the
mirror, the reflected ray rotates through an angle q with an angular speed w .
Since angle of incidence = angle of reflection

If the mirror rotates through an angle q , with an angular speed w , the reflected ray rotates through an
angle 2q , with an angular speed 2w , with same direction is that of rotation of mirror for a fixed incident
ray.
Velocity of image in plane mirror
Image distance = object distance \ when the object moves towards or away from the mirror with a
r r
velocity v , then the velocity of the image is – v

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Velocity of object and image are equal, when velocity of object is parallel to the plane of mirror.
r r
® Thus generally V0 P
and V0
^
are the velocity of object parallel and normal to the mirror, then object
velocity
r r r
V0 = V0 + V0 and velocity of image
P ^

r r r
VI = V0 - V0
P ^

® If the mirror moves parallel to its mirror, the velocity of image is zero.
r r
® If VM is the velocity of mirror normal to the mirror, then the velocity of image is Z VM
^ ^

Example :
Thick plane mirror forms a number of images of a point source of light. Which image is brightest ?
A. First B. Second C. Third D. Fourth

Answer
In the case of a thick plane mirror, reflection takes place at the two surfaces, (top and bottom surfaces)
and images are formed due to both. The second surface is silvered and therefore the second image is
the brightest. Further images are formed due to multiple reflections and due to absorption of light by
medium the images becom fainter.
Images formed by the two plane mirrors : Two plane mirrors subtends an angle q , and an object is
360
placed as shown. Calculate
q

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360 360
Case 1 : When is even, number of images N = -1
q q
360
Case 2 : When is odd
q
360
a) Object is placed symmetrical between the mirrors N = -1
q
360
b) Object is placed asymmetrically, N =
q
360
Case 3 : When is a fractional value
q
360
N = greatest integer value of
q

eg.
360 ü
= 3.4 ï
q ï
ýN = 3
360
= 3.9 ï
q ïþ
Spherical Mirrors
Focal Plane : A plane passing through focus and perpendicular to principal axis is called focal plane

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Sign Conventions in Mirror :

® Pole of the mirror is taken as the origin, i.e. all the distances are measured from the pole
® All the measurements in the direction of incident light are +ve and measurements opposite to the
direction of incident light are –ve
® Distances upward from the principal axis are positive and vice versa
® Do not give sign to unknown quantities
® Anticlockwise angle is taken as +ve and clockwise angle is negative

® Focal length of a concave or converging mirror is negative

® Focal length of a convex of diverging mirror is positive
® Real images are formed in front of the mirror \ image distance is negative. Virtual images are behind
the mirror and image distance is positive
Relation between f and R
For convex mirror R is positive and for concave mirror R is negative. Focal length of mirror is
independent of intervening medium.
Mirror equations and lens equations can be applied only to paraxial rays, but laws of reflection and
refraction can be applied to all the rays.
Mirror equation

1 1 1 uv
\ = + or f =
f v u u+v
For plane mirror R = ¥

f = ¥, so u = v
® The above derived formula can be used for convex mirror also
® In using these formulas, the signs are given only to known values
Focal length of concave mirror from graph

1 1
a) Graph between vs :
u v

1 1 1 1 1 1
We have = + or = -
f v u v f u

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1 1
Comparing this equation with y = mx + c, y = ,c = ,
v f

1
x= and m = –1
u

1 1
\ graph between and is a straight line
u v

1
From graph OA = OB = ;
f

1 1
f= =
OB OA

Magnification : The relative size of the image with object can be understood by magnification (m)

size of the image

i.e. m =
size of the object
Depending on the height, length and area of the object, there are three types of magnification

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1) Lateral magnification (m) : It is the ratio of the size of the image and object perpendicular to the
principal axis.

height of the image h i

m= =
height of the object h 0

hi v
m= =-
h0 u

‘m’ is negative for inverted images

‘m’ is positive for erect images

v < u , m <1, image is diminished

v > u , m > 1, image is enlarged

v = u , m = 1, same size image

‘m’ in terms of focal length

f -v
m=
f
Longitudinal Magnification (mL) : It is the ratio of the size of the image and object along the principal
axis.

Length of the image Li

mL = =
Length of the object L 0

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v A - v B Dv
From the diagram mL = =
u A - u B Du

1 1 1 1 1 1
= - = -
vA f uA vB f u B

dv
For small objects m L =
du

1 1 1
From mirror equation = +
f v u

1 dv 1
On differentiating w.r.t ‘u’ 0 = - -
v 2 du u 2

dv - v 2 dv v2
= So m L = = - 2 = -m2
du u 2 du u
–ve sign shows that imae is inverted
Areal Magnification (mA) : It is the ratio of the area of the image to the area of the object.

area of the image A i

mA = =
area of the object A 0

Area of the object is perpendicular to the principal axis : h 0 and w0 are the height and width of the
object perpendicular to the principal axis.

height of the image h i = mh 0

width of the image Wi = mW0

So area of the image A i = h i Wi = m 2 h 0 W0

Ai
Ai = m2 A0 or mA = = m2
A0

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Here image formed is undistorted i.e. shape of the image = shape of the object.

NOTE :
Sign convention of object distance
For diverging incident rays or for real objects
object distance is negative
For converging incident rays or for virtual objects
object distance is positive
Virtual Object
When a converging beam of light is incident on a mirror or a lens the position of the object is taken at
the point, where the incident rays converge in the absence of the mirror or lens. This assumed object
is called virtual object.

Uses of Spherical mirror

Convex mirrors : Used as rear view mirrors, diverging reflectors in street lights. Convex mirrors have
large field of view.
Concave mirrors : used as shaving mirrors, used by dentists
Power of mirror : Power measures the degree of convergence or divergence produced by a mirror.

1
Power, P = - f = focal length. When focal length is in meter, unit of power is dioptre (D).
f

-100
\ P= D
f cm

· Power of concave or converging mirror is positive and that of convex or diverging mirror is negative

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SPHERICAL ABERRATION IN MIRRORS

In practice spherical mirrors are capapble of forming reasonably sharp images if their apertures are
small in comparison to the focal length. In case of large mirror, the rays reflected from the outer edges
cross the axis at different distances as shown in figure. This inability to focus all the incident rays at a
single point is called spherical aberration. a parabolic mirror, however, brings all rays to a focus at one
point. A small source of light located at the focal point of a parabolic reflector becomes a parallel beam
after reflection, which is used in automobiles headlights and in search lights

a) Spherical aberration in concave mirror b) No spherical aberration

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
· The phenomenon of bending away of light from the normal is known as refraction. The bending of the
light depends on the two medium that the light is traversing
· Cause of refraction : This happens because when a light travels from one medium to another, then
the speed of light also changes
· Refractive index : This difference in the deflecting property of light in different substances is due to
the refractive inded of a material. The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed
of the light in vacuum to the speed in the medium. It is denoted by m or n. Mathematically

speed of light in vacuum c

n= =
speed of light in the medium n

c c
· For two mediums n1 = and n 2 =
n1 n1

n1 n 2
Relative RI of the mediums =
n 2 n1

· The medium with higher refractive index is called optically denser medium and medium with lower
refractive index is called optically rarer medium

· If f is the frequency of light, l is the wavelength and ‘v’ the speed of light in a medium, then the v = fl
· Frequency of light is independent of the medium. So for a light in two mediums

n1 l1 n 2
n a l, = =
n 2 l 2 n1

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· Colour of light depends on frequency, thus colour of light is independent of the medium

1
c=
· Speed of light in vacuum Î0 m 0 , where Î0 = permittivity of free space and

m 0 = permeability of free space

1 1 c
Thus in a medium speed of light v = = =
mÎ m 0m r Î0Îr m r Îr

But v = c/n, thus n = m r Îr . So refractive index or optical density depends on both electric and
magnetic properties of the medium.

l vac
l med = n med > 1 \l med < l vac
l med

· Optical density is independent of mass density.

· It is possible that mass density of an optically denser medium may be less than or greater than that of
an optically rarer medium. For example, mass density of turpentine is less than that of water but its
optical density is higher
Cauchy’s Dispersion Formula
Refractive index ‘n’ of a medium depends on wavelength of light ‘ l ’ as

B C
n =A+ + + .....
l2 l4
where A,B,C,.... are constants for a medium usually it is sufficient to use a two term form of the

B
equation, n = A +
l2
Equation shows that the refractive index of a medium is different for different colours of light.

· If l R and l V are the wavelengths of red and violet colours of light in a medium, then l R > l V and
refractive index n V > n R . So speed of light VR > VV

Laws of refraction :
1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane
2) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction for two mediums
is a constant

sin i
i.e. = constant
sin r

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where,
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction

sin i n 2 v1 l1
= = =
sin r n1 v2 l 2

Where
n1 = refractive index of the first medium
n2 = refractive index of the second medium
· When light travels from denser to rarer medium, refracted ray bends away from the normal. From
Snell’s Law n1 sin i = n 2 sin r

Here n1 > n 2 \ sin r > sin i and r > i

Deviation in Refraction

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The angle between the incident ray and refracted ray is called angle of deviation (d).

From the diagram d = r - i

· When light travels from rarer to denser medium refracted ray bends towards the normal

Here deviation

d =i-r
· Phase differe between incident light and refracted light is always zero.
Critical Angle (C) :
The angle of incidence in a denser medium at which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium becomes
90o or when the refracted ray passes along the interface is called critical angle (C).

From Snell’s Law

n d sin C = n r sin 90

n r Vd l d
sin C = = =
n d Vr l r

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Where nr and nd are the refractive indices of rarer and denser medium respectively.

· sin C a n r \ when n r ­ C­

1
· sin C a \ when n d ­ C¯
nd

1 1
If rarer medium is vacuum or air nr = 1, then sin C = = , n V > n R \ C V < CR
nd n
CV and CR are the critical angles of violet and red colours

sin i
· = cons tan t \ sin r a sin i
sin r
Thus angle of refraction always increases with increase in angle of incidence
· When light is incident along the interface angle of incidence is maximum imax = 90o. In this case light
refracted to the denser medium with maximum angle of refraction rmax = critical angle (C)
NOTE : Maximum value of angle of refraction in a denser medium is critical angle (C)

i max rarer
= 90o , rmax denser
=C
Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
When light travels from denser to rarer medium with an angle of incidence greater than the critical
angle, the entire light is reflected back to the same medium without any refraction. This is called total
internal reflection. For TIR, i > C , sin i > sin C

nr
\ sin i >
nd

1
· TIR obeys laws of reflection i = r
· deviation in reflection
d = 180 – 2i
NOTE : Maximum angle of incidence in a denser medium for refraction is critical angle.

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· Optical Fibres : Used for transmitting audio and video signals through long distances, by using total
internal reflection. Each fibres consists of a core and a cladding.
The refractive index of the material of the core is higher than that of the cladding. Light undergoes
repeated TIR at the core cladding interface and advances through the optical fibre

For TIR reflection at core-cladding interface angle of incidence i > C

n2
\ sin i > sin C, sin i >
n1

n2
From the diagram i + r = 90o or i = 90 - r , sin 90 - r = cos r >
n1

n2 n2
1 - sin 2 r > or 1 - sin 2 r > 22
n1 n1

2
sin 2 r < 1 - n 2
n12 .................(1)
For refraction at air core interface,

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sin q
1´ sin q = n1 ´ sin r, sin r =
n1
Put this in eqn. (1)

sin 2 q n12 - n 22
<
n12 n12

sin q < n12 - n 22

\ sin q max
= n12 - n 22 or qmax = sin -1 n12 - n 22 condition of TIR at core-cladding interface

qmax = maximum angle of incidence from air to core for TIR at core cladding interface, which is called
acceptance angle.
· Light from a source in a denser medium enters into a rarer medium only through a circular
region due to TIR
Consider a source of light at a depth ‘d’ from the interface as shown

Light incident at critical angle (C) at the point A and B. Thus light from the source undergoes TIR to the
left of A and to the right of B. So the light from the source undergoes refraction through a circular region
of radius ‘r’ as shown

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r
From the diagram, tan C =
d

\ r = d tan C

nr 1
But sin C = = Þ n2 -1
nd n

1
\ tan C =
n 2 -1

d
So, r = Area of the circular region A = pr 2
n2 -1
® The angular width of the circular region (2C) is independent of the depth of the source
® radius ‘r’ increases with increase in depth ‘d’
· Similarly an observer in a denser medium receives light from a rarer medium only through the above
mentioned circular region.
Refraction at Parallel Plane Surfaces

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Image Formation by Refraction

(i) object in denser medium and observer in rarer medium.
Consider an object ‘O’ placed in an optically denser medium. Ray diagram shows that the refracted
rays appear to diverge from the point ‘I’. Therefore a virtual image is formed at I.

The distance ‘AO’ is called real depth or actual depth. ‘AI’ is called apparent depth. nr and nd are the
refractive indices of rarer and denser medium respectively.

AO n real depth (RD)

n= i.e. n = d =
AI n r apparent depth AO

x x
n= AD =
AD n

The normal shift produced to the object is, S = real depth – apparent depth

RD x é 1ù
= RD - =x- , S = x ê1 - ú
n n ë nû

Separation between observer and image is,

x
Z = EA + AI or Z = y +
n
On differentiating w.r.t time

dz dy 1 dx Vobject
= + éë Vimage ùû = Voberver +
dt dt n dt observer n

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For example, if a bird observes a fish

Vfish
Vfish = Vbird +
bird
n
NOTE : Shift produced by a denser medium is in the direction of incident light
Sign Conventions of Velocity
Velocities of object and observer are taken as positive, when they move away from the interface.
Velocities are taken as negative, when they move towards the interface
Object is situated inside two or more optical mediums

Shift due to number of mediums is the sum of the shifts due to each medium.
In the example two mediums are present,

\ Shift, S = S1 + S2

é 1ù é 1ù
S = t1 ê1 - ú + t 2 ê1 - ú
ë n1 û ë n2 û

t1 t 2
\ apparent depth AD = t1 + t2 – S AD = +
n1 n 2
NOTE : For n mediums of thicknesses; t1, t2, ...., tn of refractive indexes n1, n2,....nn

real depth = t1 + t 2 + ....t n

t1 t 2 t
Apparent depth = + + .... + n
n1 n 2 nn

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real depth
If n is the effective value of refractive indexes, then n =
apparent depth

t1 + t 2 + .... + t n
n=
t1 t 2 t
+ + .... + n
n1 n 2 nn

(ii) Object in rarer medium and observer in denser medium

AI Apparent depth AD n
n= ; n= = d AI = n(AO), AI = nx
AO Re al depth RD nr

Normal shift due to refraction

S = AD – RD = nx – x

S = x n -1 (Shift is opposite to the direction of incident light)

Separation between observer and image

Z = EA + AI Z = y + nx

dz dy dx
On differentiating, = +n
dt dt dt

Vimage observer
= Vobserver + nVobject

For example, when a fish observes a bird

Vbird fish
= Vfish + nVbird

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Sign conventions mentioned earlier must be applied in this equation.

NOTE : The above equations are used when i and r are very small or in normal observation.
· Shift produced is independent of normal separation of observer from the interface, but shift changes
when the observer moves parallel to the interface.
(iii) Shift produced by a glass slab

Conser an object at a distance ‘x’ from the left face of the glass slab. Thickness of the glass slab is ‘t’
and refractive index ‘n’. Actual distance of object from B is (x + t). But for an observer in air apparent
t t
thickness of glass slab is . Thus the apparent position of the object from B is BI = x +
n n
\ Normal shift produced by the glass slab is
æ tö
S = BO - BI = x + t - ç x + ÷
è nø

é 1ù
S = t ê1 - ú
ë nû
NOTE : Shift produced by the glass slab is in the direction of propagation of light through glass slab
and independent of the distance ‘x’
Because of multiple reflections and refractions, there will form infinite images; second of them will be
brightest, which is formed by the reflection from the silvered face.

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t
Suppose M1 is the apparent position of the mirror at a distance from the unsilvered face of the
n
mirror.

1 t
The object position from M = x +
n

1 t
Thus image position from M = x +
n
(behind the mirror)

t
Thus final image distance from the silvered surface M, V = x + - MM1
n

t æ tö
= x+ -çt - ÷
n è nø

2t
V = x-t+
n
Second image is formed behind the mirror, thus it is virtual.
Lateral shift produced by a glass slab

The shortest (perpendicular) distance between the direction of incident ray and emergent ray is called
lateral shift (SL)
SL = OI = CD

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t sin i - r
SL =
cos r
When i and r are very small, then cos r = 1 and sin(i – r) = i – r

\ SL = t i - r

sin i i i
From Snell’s law = = n or r =
sin r r n

é iù é 1ù
SL = t êi - ú SL = ti ê1 - ú
ë nû ë nû

Refraction through a Triangular Prism

A monochromatic light is incident at an angle ‘i’ and emerges with an angle ‘e’ as shown. r1 is the angle
of refraction at the face AB and r2 is the angle of incidence at the face AC. np and ns are the refractive
indices of the prism and the surrounding medium respectively. From Snell’s law at the two faces,

sin i sin e n p
= = = n ................. (1)
sin r1 sin r2 n s

A = r1 + r2

Angle of deviation : The angle between directions of incident ray and emergent ray is called the angle
of deviation (d)
Total deviation d = deviation at face AB + deviation at face AC

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d = d AB + d AC = i - r1 + e - r2

d = i + e - r1 + r2

d =i+e-A
Variation of deviation : It first decreases with increase in angle of incidence, reaches a minimum and
then increases. Deviation has same value at two angles of incidence, except at angle of minimum
deviation (D)

In the graph deviation (d) is same at angles of incidence i1 and i2. If ‘i’ and ‘e’ are interchanged then we
get the same value of deviation because of the reversibility principle of light.
Conditions of minimum deviation
At minimum deviation r1 = r2 = r and i = e

A
Thus A = r1 + r2 = 2r or r =
2

minimum deviation D = 2i - A

A+D
or i =
2

éA + Dù
sin ê
n=
sin i
= ë 2 úû
From Snell’s law sin r éAù
sin ê ú
ë2û

This equation is known as equation of prism

· When a prism is in minimum deviation position, the refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to the

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base and passes symmetrically through the prism provided base angles are equal (in the equilateral
or isosceles prism)
· At minimum deviation, deviation at both the faces are equal i.e. dAB = dAC

\ D = 2d AB = 2d AC = 2 i - r

A
· At minimum deviation r = is independent of refractive index.
2
Grazing Incidence, (Maximum deviation)
When i = 90o, r1 = C, critical angle

A = r1 + r2

\ r2 = A - C
r2 = A – C

From Snell’s law

sin e = n sin r2
sin e = n sin(A – C)
Here deviation is maximum

d max = i max + e - A

d max = 90 + e - A

Grazing emergence (maximum deviation)

In grazing emergence

e = 90o, \ r2 = C

r1 = A - r2

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r1 = A – C

From Snell’s law

sin i = n sin r1
sin i = n sin(A – C)
dmax = i + emax – A
dmax = i + 90 – A
Condition of no emergence of light
A ray of light is incident on a prism of angle A and refractive index n, will not emerge out of the second
face of the prism, if A > 2C, whatever may be the angle of incidence. Where C is the critical angle.
Proof: For no emergence, light must undergo total internal reflection from the second face of the
prism. Thus minimum angle of incidence at second face must be greater than critical angle.

r2 min
> C, r2 = A - r1 \ r2 min
= A - r1 max

r1 is maximum, when i is maximum.

i max = 90o , \ r1 max

= C, r2 min
= A-C

Thus r2 min
= A - C > C \A > 2C

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So, A min = 2C

A 1
From above condition > C and sin (A/2) > sin C. But sin C =
2 n

1
sin A / 2 >
n
Thin Prism or Small Angled Prism

éA + Dù
sin ê
From equation n = ë 2 úû
sin A / 2

A æA+Dö A+D
When A is very small sin A / 2 = and sin ç ÷=
2 è 2 ø 2

A+D
\n = D = A n -1
2 A/2

deviation produced by a thin prism is independent of angle of incidence, thus at any angle of incidence
deviation,

nP
d = A n - 1 , where n = n
S

¬ deviation produced by a thin prism depends on the angle of the prism, material of the prism and
surrounding medium.
Dispersion of Light
Splitting up of a light into its composite colours is called dispersion of light.
Cause of Dispersion
Different colours, different frequencies, different wavelengths of light have different speeds and refractive
indices in the same medium. When white light is incident on a prism, angle of incidence is same for all
the colours.
From Snell's Law

sin i 1
sin r = \ sin r µ
n n
So, different colours refract along diff. paths.
nV > nr (From Cauchy’s dispersion formula)

\ rV < rr

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We know; deviation, d = n - 1 A

Since nv > nr

d v > dr

Angular Dispersion q :

It measures the amount of dispersion produced in angle. It is defined as the angle between extreme
rays violet and red.

q = dv - dr

dv = nv -1 A dR = nR - 1 A

Therefore,
q = d v - dR
q = nv - nR A

Dispersive Power w

If measures the ability of material of prism of produce dispersion.

q dv - dR
w= =
dy dy

dy = deviation of (mean colour) = yellow

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æ d + dR ö A nv - nR
dy = ç v ÷, w =
è 2 ø A n y -1

n v - nR æ n + nR ö
\ w= Þ ny = ç v ÷
n y -1 è 2 ø

Dispersive power is also defined with blue and red colours.

dB - dR n B - n R dB + dR
w= = d = mean deviation =
d n -1 2

nB + nR
n = mean R.I. =
2
® Dispersive power depends on material of the prism
® But it is independent of the angle of the prism.
Condition for Deviation without Dispersion:
Two thin prisms made of different materials and different angles are used.

A ¹ A¢
n ¹ n¢

To produce zero dispersion, angular dispersion produced by first prism must be equal and opposite to
that of 2nd prism.

q = -q¢ but n V - n R = w n y - 1

d V - d R = - d v¢ - d R¢ \ condition becomes

n V - n R A = - n V¢ - n R¢ A¢ w A n y - 1 = - w¢A ¢ n y¢ - 1

negative sing indicates one prism is inverted to the other.

Condition for Dispersion without Deviation:
Deviation is zero for mean colour yellow.

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To produce zero deviation, deviation produced by one prism must be equal and opposite to that of
other one.
Two thin prisms made of different materials and different angles are used.

Therefore; d y = - d y¢

n y - 1 A = - n y¢ - 1 A ¢

- n y¢ - 1 A ¢
A=
ny -1

¬ Two identical thin prisms in the inverted positions produces no dispersion and deviation. Eg: A thin
glass slab.
Note: When the refractive index of the prism is doubled deviation produced by a thin prism becomes more
than twice the initial value.

Proof: deviation d = A n - 1 , An = d + A

when R.I. n ¢ = 2n , deviation d¢ = A 2n - 1

d¢ = 2An - A = 2 d + A - A

d¢ = 2d + A \d¢ > 2d
Refraction at Spherical Surface

n 2 n1 n 2 - n 1
- = u = object distance; v = image distance; R = radius of curvature
v u R
¬ This equation can be used for both convex and concave surfaces by applying sign conventions
¬ When light incident on convex surface R is positive
¬ When light incident on concave surface R is negative
¬ Here pole of the surface is the origin
¬ Sign conventions must be applied in the above equations

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n 2 n1
For a plane surface R = ¥\ - =0
V u

n
or V = n u
2

Magnification:
¬ Lateral Magnification: It is the ratio of the size of the image and object perpendicular to the principal
axis. Thus lateral magnification,

height of the image h i

m= =
height of the object h 0

sin i tan i OA IB h 0 V
For small angle of incidence = = = ´
sin r tan r PO PI - u -h i

sin i n 2
From Snell’s law, =
sin r n1

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h0 v n2 h v n1
= , \ m= i =
h i u n1 h0 u n2

m is positive for erect images

m is negative for inverted images

n1
¬ When v = u , m = ¹ 1 , ie, image size is not equal to object size.
n2
Thin Lenses

Sign Conventions in lens:

¬ Optical centre of the lens is the origin
¬ All the measurements in the direction of incident light are positive.
¬ All the measurements opposite to the direction of incident light are positive.
¬ Upward measurements from principal axis are negative.
¬ Downward measurements from the principal axis are negative
¬ Do not give sign to unknown quantities
¬ Focal length of converging lens is positive
¬ Focal length of diverging lens is negative

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¬ Real image distance is positive

¬ Virtual image distance is negative
Thin lens Formula

1 1 1 uv
= - or f =
f v u u-v
Sign conventions and Lens Maker’s Formula

1 æ n 2 öæ 1 1 ö
= ç - 1÷ç - ÷
f è n1 øè R 1 R 2 ø

® This equation can be used to all the thin lenses

® Sign conventions must be applied to this equations.
n1 = refractive index of surrounding medium
n2 = refractive index of lens
R1, R2 = Radius of curvature

For a convex lens; R1 = +ve, R2 = -ve

Incident light

1 é 1 1 ù
i.e., For a convex lens; = 1 n2 -1 ê - ú
f ë R1 R 2 û

1 æ 1 1 ö n2
= 1 n2 -1 ç + ÷ 1 n2 =
f è R1 R 2 ø n1

¬ For an equiconvex lens or symmetric lens, R1 = R2 = R.

1 æ2ö R
Then, = n2 -1 ç ÷ \f =
f
1
èRø 2 1 n2 -1

¬ Þ For a concave lens, R1 = -ve, R2 = +ve.

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i.e., For a concave lens,

1 æ -1 1 ö
= 1n2 -1 ç - ÷
f è R1 R 2 ø

1 æ -2 ö
¬ For an equiconcave lens; = 1 n2 -1 ç ÷
f èR ø

-R
\ f=
2 1 n 2 -1

¬ For a plano convex lens;

+R
f=
1 n 2 -1

¬ For a plano concave lens;

-R
\ f=
1n2 -1

¬ Convexo-concave lens

R1 and R 2 are positive

1 é 1 1 ù
\ =n 2 -1 ê -
1 ú
f ë R1 R 2 û
when R1 = R 2 = R
1
= 0 or f = ¥
f
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Variation of ‘f’ with refractive index of the surrounding medium:

In air; n1 = 1

1 æ 1 1 ö
Therefore; = n2 -1 ç - ÷ ® (1)
fa è R1 R 2 ø

1 æ n 2 - n1 ö æ 1 1 ö
In medium; =ç ÷ç - ÷ ® (2)
f m è n1 ø è R 1 R 2 ø

fm n - 1 n1
Eq. (1)/(2) Þ = 2
fa n 2 - n1

fm n - 1 n1
= 2 fa = focal length in air; fm = focal length in a medium of R.I. n1
fa n 2 - n1

When a lens is transferred from air to a medium, with refractive index less than that of the lens, then
focal length of the lens, ­ ses.

When n1 < n2

n1 > 1
æ n -n ö
n2 -1 > ç 2 1 ÷
è n1 ø
1 1
<
f m fa
Þ f m > fa

When n1 = n2, focal length is maximum

1
=0 f = ¥ (No refraction).
f

If the refractive index of the surrounding medium is greater than that of the lens (n1 > n2), then,

n 2 - n1 = - ve

And f reverses it sign

i.e., A converging lens in air becomes a diverging lens in the medium and vice-versa.

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Note: Convex and concave lenses can produce both divergence and convergence.
¬ When a lens is cut perpendicular to the principal axis radius of curvature changes, thus focal length
changes.
For example, an equiconvex lens is cut as shown, one of the divided parts is a plano convex lens and
focal length f ¢ = 2f

¬ When a lens is cut parallel to the principal axis, focal length does not change, complete image is
formed, but brightness or intensity of the image decreases.

¬ Intensity of the image formed by the lens I a cross sectional area of the lens. If ‘d’ is the diameter of

pd 2
the lens, then area A = \I a d 2
4

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Two lenses are made up of different materials as shown in figure. In these two situations lens has
three foci and three images are formed.

Lateral/Transverse Magnification (m)

It is the ratio of the size of the image and object normal to the principal axis.

height of theimage h i
m=
height of the object h 0

hi v
m= =
h0 u

Sign convention: ‘m’ is positive for erect images and ‘m’ is negative for inverted images.

When v < u , m < 1 and diminished image

When v > u , m > 1 and enlarged image

when v = u , m = 1 and same size image

‘m’ interms of focal length ‘f’

v f -v
m = 1- =
f f

v f
\m= =
u f +u
Longitudinal Magnification (mL)
When the object is placed parallel to the principal axis, longitudinal magnification,

Length of the image L i Dv

mL = = =
Length of the object L 0 Du

dv
For small objects, m L =
du

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1 1 1
We have, = -
f v u

-1 dv æ -1 ö
On differentiating with respect ‘u’, 0 = -ç ÷
v 2 du è u 2 ø

dv v 2 dv v 2
\ = mL = = = m2
du u 2 du u 2

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¬ Convex lens cannot product virtual image of a virtual object. But concave lens can produce both real
and virtual images of a virtual object.
Velocity of the image in lenses
a) Velocity of the object is parallel to the principal axis

1 1 1
= - , on differentiating with respect to ‘t’
f v u

- 1 dv 1 du dv v 2 du
0= + =
v 2 dt u 2 dt dt u 2 dt

dV
= velocity of image w.r.t. lens = VIL
dt

du
= velocity of object w.r.t lens = V0L
dt

v2
\ VIL = V0 L = m 2 V0 L
P
u2 P P

Velocity of object and image are in the same direction.

The above relation is for the instantaneous velocity

displacement of the image Vf - Vi

average velocity VaV = =
time t
Vf & Vi are final and initial image positions.

v2
From the above relation dV = 2
du = m 2 du
u
Where du = small change in object position and dv = small change in image position.
b) Velocity of object is perpendicular to the principal axis.
When object moves perpendicular to principal axis height of the object and image from the principal
hi
axis changes. We have m =
h 0 or hi = mh0

dh i dh
\ =m 0 VIL = m V0L
dt dt ^ ^

VIL ^
and V0L ^
are the velocities of image and object perpendicular to the principal axis.

¬ For a convex lens, the minimum separation between object and its real image is 4f. Where f is the
focal length of the lens.
Displacement Method:
In displacement method, object and screen are fixed but position of the lens is displaced to produce 2
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images, in which one is enlarged and other is diminished.

On solving, v2 = u1 and u 2 = v1

From diagram, u1 + d + v2 = D
2u1 + d = D

D-d
u1 = Þ object distance.
2
v1 = D - u1

D+d
v1 = Þ image distance.
2

1 1 1 1 1 2 2D
= - = - = 2
f v1 u1 D + d æ D - d ö D - d2
-ç ÷
2 è 2 ø

D2 - d2
f=
4D

v1 D + d
m1 = =
u1 D - d
v 2 D - d magnifications
m2 = =
u2 D + d

h1h 2 = m1h 0 ´ m 2 h 0

h1h 2 = h 02

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h 0 = h1h 2 (Relation between height of the object and heights of the images). If the area of the object
is perpendicular to the principal axis, then the area of the images,
2
A1 = m12 A 0 and A 2 = m 22 A 0 \A1A 2 = m1m2 A 02 = A 02 \ A 0 = A1A 2

d
Also focal length f =
m1 - m 2

DEVIATION PRODUCED BY A LENS

Consider a ray OB coming from the object and incident at a height h on the lens of focal length f. The
ray intersect the principal axis at I. So the deviation d produced by the lens.

d = ÐBOP + ÐBIP
=a +b

h h
For small angles a ; tan a = and b ; tan b =
-u v

h h é1 1ù h
\ d= + or d = h ê - ú or d =
-u v ëv uû f
The above formula holds for the rays, for which h is small.
Power of a Lens
When light ray is incident on a lens, it bends either towards the principal axis (in convex lens) or away
from the principal axis (in concave lens). The ability of a lens to bend the ray towards the principal axis
is called power of the lens.
The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a beam
of light falling at unit distant from the optical centre

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h 1 1
tan d = ; if h = 1 tan d = or d = for small value of d . Thus,
f f f

1
P=
f

The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D): ID = 1m-1. The power of a lens of focal length of 1 metre
is one dioptre. Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens. Thus,
when an optician prescribes a corrective lens of power +2.5D, the required lens is a convex lens of
focal length +40 cm. A lens of power of -4.0 D means a concave lens of focal length -25 cm.
Power of a lens in a medium

n med
P=
f med

where, nmed = R.I. of surrounding medium f med = focal length in the medium
Combined Focal Length
i) Two lenses are placed in contact

Also equivalent power; P = P1 + P2

The above formulas are applicable to any type and any number of thin lenses in contact.

1 1 1 1
For ‘n’ thin lenses in contact, = + + .... +
f e f1 f 2 f n and equivalent power P = P1 + P2 + .... + Pn
Note: Proper sign conventions must be applied in this equations.
¬ f1, f2, ... are the focal lengths of each lens, when they are separately placed in the medium.
ii) Total Magnification
M= m1m2. m1 and m2 are the magnifications produced by each lens

For n-thin lenses, we can write M = m1 ´ m 2 ´ ...... ´ m n

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iii) Two lenses separated by a finite distance

Let two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are placed on the same optic axis at a separation d.

1 1 1 d
= + -
f e f1 f 2 f1 f 2

Equivalent power; P = P1 + P2 - d P1P2

Special case: If parallel incident ray on first lens emerges parallel from the second lens, then f e = ¥ .

1 1 1 d
\ = + -
¥ f 1 f 2 f1 f 2

or d = f1 + f 2

i) If both the lenses are convex, then d = f 1 + f 2

ii) If second lens is concave, then d = f1 + - f 2 = f1 - f 2

Note: To find out the position and nature of final image formed by combination of lenses, image formed
by each lens is considered as the virtual object of each lens in the next stage.
Spherical Abberration:
When light rays incident parallel to the principal axis of a lens or a mirror, the marginal rays do not
coverage or diverge to a single point on the principal axis; therefore, the image formed is blurred. This
is called spherical abberration.

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Corrective Methods:
1. By the use of ‘stops’ which cut off the marginal rays

2. By the use of two Planoconvex lenses separated by a distance, d = f1 - f 2

3. For mirrors, parabolic reflectors an be used.

Chromatic Abberation:
When different colours of light incident parallel to the principal axis of a lens, different colours focused
at different points on the principal axis due to the dispersion of light. Therefore, the image formed is
blurred. This is called chromatic abberation.
Corrective Methods:
1. By the use of Achromatic Doublet (It is the combination of a convex and concave lens placed in contact)

Condition of achromatism:

w1 w2
+ = 0 or w P + w P = 0
f1 f 2 1 1 2 2

w1 - f1 - P2
= =
w2 f2 P1

Lens with One Silvered Surface

If the back surface of a lens is silvered and an object is placed in front of it then:
1. First, light will pass through the lens and it will form the image I1.
2. The image I1 will act as an object for silvered surface which acts as curved mirror and forms an image
I2 of object I1.
3. The light after reflection from silvered surface will again pass through the lens and will form final image
I3 of object I2.

In such a situation, power of the silvered lens will be P = PL + PM + PL P = 2PL + PM with

1 1
PL = , PM = -
fL fM

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1 1 2
Therefore, the silvered lens finally behaves as a mirror with an effective focal length of f = f - f
e m L

Here, fm is the focal length of the mirror and fL is the focal length of the lens.
Thus in solving the problems of silvered lens, first find the focal length by using the above formula and
1 1 1
then use mirror formula; + =
u v fe
If Fe is -ve, then equivalent mirror is converging and if F is +ve, then equivalent mirror is diverging.
Silverd plano-convex lens
Case (I): Plane surface silvered:

1 æ1ö
= m -1 ç ÷
fL èRø

R
fm = =¥
2

1 1 2 2
= - =0-
F f m fL fL

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- FL R
F= or F = - 2 m - 1
2

Case (II): Curve surface silvered:

1 æ1ö
= m -1 ç ÷
fL èRø

R
fm = -
2

1 1 2
= -
F fm fL

1 -2 n -1 R
= -2 F=-
F R R 2m

Microscope:
Simple Microscope:
A converging lens is used for magnification.

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Angular Magnification:
It is the angle made by the image at the eye/lens divided by angle made by object at eye/lens

b
M=
a

h h b D
From the figure; tan b = »b similarly; tan a = »a \ M=a = u
u D
1) Near Point Adjustment:
In near point adjustment, image formed at least distance of distinct vision on near point (25 cm).

h v
We have, Linear Magnification, m = h = u
i

D
And Angular Magnification M =
u
Therefore, Angular magnification = Linear magnification only when v = D (ie, in near point adjustment)

f +v
\ Here m = M (near point adjustment) Hence, M = putting v = -D,
f

f +D D
M= = 1+ (maximum)
f f
Image formed is virtual, erect and enlarged
2) Far point Adjustment/Normal Adjustment:
Image is formed at infinity, therefore, object is at focus.
Here, u = F

D D D
So, M = = M=
u f f
Magnification depends on both u and f
¬ Image formed is virtual, erect and enlarged.

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Compound Microscope:
Two converging lenses are used for magnification. Focal length of the eye piece is slightly greater than
that object lens.
1) Near Point Adjustment:
Final image formed by the eyepiece is at near point of the normal eye (25 cm).

Separation between 2nd focus of the objective and 1st focus of the eyepiece is called Tube length (L) of
the microscope.

h¢ v
Linear Magnification of the objective lens: M 0 = h = u
0

u 0 f0 - v0
M0 = =
v0 f0

Total magnification; M = M0 Me
M0 = linear magnification of objective and

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Me = angular magnification of the eye piece

u0 é Dù
M= ê1 + ú (Eye piece is equivalent to simple microscope)
v0 ë fe û

Separation between objective and eye piece:

S = f0 + L + fe

or S = v 0 + u e

Image formed by the objective is Real, inverted and enlarged. Final image formed (by eye piece) is
virtual, inverted and enlarged.
2) Normal setting/far point Adjustment
Final image formed by the eye piece is at infinity.

From the diagram Final image at infinity

h h¢ h¢ L
= \ M0 = =
f0 L h f0

Magnification, M = M0Me

LæDö v0 æ D ö
M= ç ÷ M= ç ÷
f0 è fe ø u0 è fe ø

Separation between the lenses,

S = f0 + L + fe

S = v0 + f e

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Note: Separation between objective and eye piece is also considered as the length of the microscope.
Telescope:
There are two types of Telescopes - Refractive and Reflective
¬ In reflective type, objective is a mirror
¬ In refractive type, objective is a lens
¬ Reflective is better than refractive
Reasons:
Advantages of Reflective Telescope:
1) It is free from chromatic abberration
2) Spherical abberration can be solved easily, (using parabolic reflectors)
3) Mechanical support required is less because mirror is lighter than lens
4) Easy to make a mirror of large aperture
Eg. for Reflective:
1) Newtonian Telescope
2) Cassegrain Telescope
Eg. for Refractive:
1) Astronomical
2) Terrestrial
3) Galilean telescope
Astronomical Telescope
Two converging lenses are used for magnification.
Focal length and aperture of objective lens > that of eye pieces
In telescope; f0 >>>fe
1) Normal Adjustment/Far Point Adjustment
Final image is formed by the eye piece is at infinity, therefore object of the eye piece is at its focus.

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b Angular size of image

Angular Magnification, M = =
a Angular size of object

h h f0
From the diagram; tan a = a = tan b = b = \ M=
f0 ’ fe fe

¬ Separation between objective and eye piece is called length of the telescope.

L = f0 + fe

¬ If the object is not at infinity;

Then; L = v0 + f e

Image formed by the objective is Real, inverted and diminished

Final image formed is; virtual, inverted and enlarged
When final image is formed at near point
Ve = D

f0 æ fe ö
\ M=- ç1 + ÷
fe è D ø

Length of the telescope is equal to the distance between the lenses and so L = f 0 + u e

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