Computer Science with Python for Grade 12

Academic Year : 2024-2025

Teacher : Mr. Rajat Gupta

Chapter 8
Computer Network - 1
A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and other devices which are
able to communicate with each other. Also defined as - collection of hardware components and
computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and
information.
Advantages of Network
● Resource Sharing
● Cost Saving
● Collaborative user interaction
● Time savings
● Increased storage
Disadvantages of Network
● If networks are badly managed, services can become unusable and productivity fails.
● If software and files are held centrally, it may be impossible to carry out any work if the
central server fails.
● File security is more important especially if connected to WAN e.g. protection from
viruses.
● To handle network of organization you may need specialist staff to run the network
Components of Network
1. Node : Nodes in a computer network refer to any device that is connected to the
network and can communicate with other devices. They are the fundamental building
blocks of a network.
2. Server : Server is a computer or device that provides services to other computers or
devices on a network. It acts as a central hub, handling requests from clients and
providing the requested resources or services.
3. Client : Client to a computer or device that requests services or resources from a server.
4. Network Hardware : Network hardware refers to the physical components that make
up a computer network. These components are essential for transmitting and receiving
data between devices.
a. Network interface cards (NICs): Hardware components that enable devices to
connect to a network.
b. Hub, Switches,Router etc.

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 5. Communication Channel : Communication channel is medium through which data is
exchanged. It can be wired or wireless
6. Software : These are the basic software needed to govern and data transmission over
the network like protocols, Network operating System.
7. Network Service : It refers to the different functionalities of network like DNS, File
Sharing, VoIP.
Types of Network based on Geographical spread
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
● Network of computing/communication devices in a room, building or campus
● Cover area of upto 1 kilometer radius
● Can be setup using wired or wireless media
● Managed by single person or organization
● Ethernet cable or Wi-Fi is used to establish LAN
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
● Network of computing/communication devices crossing the limits of city, country,
or continent.
● Cover area of over hundreds of kilometer radius
● Network of ATMs, BANKs, National or International organization offices spread
over a country, continent are example of WAN.
● It is usually formed by interconnecting LANs, MANs or may be other WANs.
● Best example of WAN is internet
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
● Network of computing/communicating devices within a city.
● Cover an area of few kilometers to few kilometers (30-50 KM) radius
● Network of schools, banks, government offices within a city are example of
MAN.
● It is typically formed by interconnected number of LANs
● Owned by organization.
4. Personal Area Network
● Network of communicating devices(computer, phone, MP3 etc.)
● Cover area of few meters radius
● When we transfer songs from one cell phone to another we setup a PAN of two
phones
● Can be setup using guided or unguided media
Types of Network by Component Role:
1. Peer-to-Peer Network: A decentralized network where computers are connected and
can share resources without a central server. Each computer, or peer, is both a user and
a provider of resources.
2. The Client Server Network : A client-server network is a distributed computing model
where a central server provides services to multiple clients. In this architecture, clients

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 initiate requests for services or data, and the server processes these requests and sends
back responses.
Evolution of Network
● ARPANET (1969): A pioneering computer network developed by the U.S. Department
of Defense, which laid the groundwork for the internet.
● NSFNET stands for National Science Foundation Network. It was a high-speed
computer network funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) in the United
States.
The Internet
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate using a
standardized set of protocols. It provides a vast platform for accessing information,
communicating, and conducting various activities.
Functioning of Internet
Internet Protocol (IP): This is the fundamental protocol that governs how data is addressed
and routed on the internet for the destination.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): This protocol ensures that data is divided into small
packets and transmitted reliably and in the correct order. At destination end, it re-assembles
the data to generate the data in its original form.
The Interspace
Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real time audio, video and text chat in a dynamic 3D environment. It is referred to
as the future of the Internet.
Switching Techniques
Switching techniques are used for transferring data across networks.
In a large network, there might be multiple paths linking the sender and receiver. Information
may be switched as it travels through various communication channels.
Three types of Switching techniques
● Circuit Switching
■ First he complete physical connection between two computers is established
and then the data are transmitted from the source computer to the destination
■ When a call is placed the switching equipment within the system seeks out a
physical copper path all the way from the sender to the receiver.
■ It is necessary to set up an end-to-end connection between computers before
any data can be sent.
■ The circuit is terminated when the connection is closed.
■ In circuit switching, resources remain allocated during the full length of a
communication, after a circuit is established and until the circuit is terminated
and the allocated resources are freezed.
● Message Switching

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 ■ In message Switching, data is first stored by one node then forward to another
node to transfer the data to another system.
■ In message Switching, data is first stored, then forwarded to the next node
■ In Message Switching there is no upper bound on size of packet whereas in
Packet Switching each packet is of fixed size.
■ In Packet Switching data packets are stored in main memory whereas in
Message Switching Message is stored in Hard disk which makes it reducing the
access time
● Packet Switching
■ Packet switching introduces the idea of cutting data i.e. at the source entire
message is broken in smaller pieces called packets which are transmitted over a
network without any resource being allocated.
■ Then each packet is transmitted and each packet may follow any rout available
and at destination packets may reach in random order.
■ At the destination when all packets are received they are merged to form the
original message.
■ In packet switching all the packets of fixed size are
stored in main memory.
Data Communication Terminologies
1. Data Channel : In a network, Path over which data is sent or received is called data
channel. This data channel may be a tangible medium like copper wire cables or a
broadcast medium like radio waves.
2. Baud : Baud is a unit of measure for signal modulation rate, which is an important
factor in determining the maximum data transmission rate of a communication channel.
3. Bits per Second : Number of bits per second that a channel, link, or network can
transmit. It is measured as bps, Kbps, Mbps, etc.
4. Bandwidth : Bandwidth is a measure of the maximum amount of data that can be
transmitted over a communication channel in a given amount of time. It's often
expressed in bits per second (bps).
5. Data Transfer Rates : It defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1 second.
The unit is bps (bits per second). Measured in Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, Tbps.
Transmission Media
Guided Transmission Media
1. Twisted pair Cable
● Used for creating small computer networks. It contains four twisted pair covered
in an outer shield. These pairs are color coded. An RJ-45 is used to connect this
cable to a computer. It is available in various forms such as CAT1, CAT2, to
CAT6. Maximum data rate is 1Mbps.
● It is of 2 types:
○ UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
○ STP(Shielded Twisted Pair)

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 Advantages
● Simple, easy to install, flexible, low weight.
● Easily connected and very inexpensive.
Disadvantages
● Shorter Range due to high attenuation.
● Low bandwidth so not suitable for broadband applications.
2. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable specially built with a metal shield and other
components engineered to block signal interference. It is primarily used by cable TV
companies to connect their satellite antenna facilities to customer homes and
businesses.
Advantages
● Data transmission characteristics are better than twisted pair cable.
● Used for shared cable network, can be used for broadband transmission.
● Offer higher bandwidth upto 400Mbps.
Disadvantages
● Expensive compared to TPC and are not compatible with TPC.
3. Optical Fibres
Optical Fibre are long, thin strands of glass about thickness of human hair. It is used to
transmit data through light signals over long distances. It is capable of transmitting
messages modulated onto light waves.
Advantages
● Less noise, suitable for a harsh industrial environment.
● Secure and high transmission capacity.
Disadvantages
● Installation is difficult, and needs special care.
● Connecting two fiber optics cable is difficult.
● Connection losses are common problems.
● Very expensive.

Comparison Between Wired Media

Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Optical fiber cable
Data Transfer Rate 10Mbps-10Gbps 100Mbps >100Gbps
Data Transfer Range 100 m 185-500m -
Interference Susceptibility More Less than Ethernet cable NIL
Cost Least cost More than Ethernet Very Expensive

Unguided Media
Electromagnetic waves are used for wireless communication over computer networks. Based
on their frequencies, electromagnetic waves are categorized into various categories.
These categories are in increasing order of their frequencies

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Radio Waves < Microwaves < Infra radiation < visible light < ultraviolet radiation < x-rays <
gamma rays
1. Microwaves
● Are high frequency waves that can be used to transmit data wirelessly over long
distance
● Travels in straight lines and cannot penetrate any solid object, therefore for long
distance microwave communication high towers are built and microwave antennas are
put on their top.
● It consists of transmitter, receiver and atmosphere
● Used to transmit signals such as mobile phone calls
2. Radio Waves
● Radio waves are used to transmit television and radio programs. Wi-Fi / Bluetooth has
become a common word today also used radio wave to transmit data among connected
device.
● It is Omni-directional and can penetrate solid objects.
3. Satellite Microwaves
● Used for very long distance wireless communication.
● Transmission from earth to a satellite is uplink (frequency range 1.6GHz to 30.0 GHz)
and transmission from satellite to earth is known as downlink(frequency range 1.5GHz
to 20.0GHz)
● It covers large area of earth
● Expensive
● Require legal permissions.
4. Infrared
● Used for short range communication approx. 5-10m
● Used in cordless mouse, remote controlled devices
● They do not pass through solid object
● One advantage of this is that the infrared system in one room of the building will not
interfere with a similar system in the adjacent room.
● It is a line of sight transmission, so information passed to one device is not leaked to
another device.
5. Laser : Laser transmission is the process of using a laser beam to transmit information or
energy over a distance. It requires direct line-of-sight. It is unidirectional like microwaves,
but has a very high speed. It requires a photo-sensitive receiver at each end.
6. Bluetooth : Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology that allows
devices to connect and exchange data. It's commonly used for connecting smartphones,
tablets, laptops, headphones, speakers, and other electronic devices.
Network Topology
The way in which the computers/devices are physically interconnected to form a network is
called a Topology. It can be defined as the arrangement or structure of a network.
Factor to be considered while making choice for topology:

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 1. Cost : Installation cost should be minimized.
2. Flexibility : Can be extended. Future growth
3. Reliability : In case of failure, fault can be detected easily.
4. Cruciality of work : Importance of work.
5. Communication Media : Geographical location must be considered while choosing
media
Types of Topologies:
Bus Topology :
● In bus topology all the nodes are connected to a main cable called backbone.
● If any node has to send some information to any other node, it sends the signal to the
backbone. The signal travels through the entire length of the backbone and is received by
the node for which it is intended.
● A small device called terminator is attached at each end of the backbone. When the signal
reaches the end of the backbone, it is absorbed by the terminator and the backbone gets
free to carry another signal.
Characteristics of Bus Topology :
● It is easy to install.
● It requires less cable length and hence it is cost effective.
● Failure of a node does not affect the network
● In case of cable (backbone) or terminator fault, the entire network breaks down.
● Fault diagnosis is difficult.
● At a time only one node can transmit data.
Star Topology :
● In star topology each node is directly connected to a hub/switch.
● If any node has to send some information to any other node, it sends the signal to the
hub/switch. This signal is then broadcast (in case of a hub) to all the nodes but is accepted
by the intended node(s).
Characteristics of Star Topology :
● It is easy to install
● It is easy to diagnose the fault in Star topology.
● It is easy to expand depending on the specifications of central hub/switch
● Failure of hub/switch leads to failure of entire network
● It requires more cable length as compared to bus topology.
Tree Topology:
● Tree topology is a combination of bus and star topologies.
● It is used to combine multiple star topology networks.
● All the stars are connected together like a bus.
Characteristics of Tree Topology :
● It offers easy way of network expansion
● Even if one network (star) fails, the other networks remain connected and working.

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Other topologies:
Ring Topology : Ring Topology is a network topology where all devices are connected in a
circular fashion, forming a ring. Each device is connected to its two adjacent devices, creating a
closed loop.
Mesh Topology : In Mesh Topology, each node is connected to more than one node to provide
an alternative route in the case the host is either down or too busy.
Fully Connected : In a Fully Connected network topology each device is connected to every
other device in the network. This creates a highly interconnected structure with multiple paths
between any two nodes.
Communication modes
1. Simplex Communication : Simplex is a communication mode where information can
only be transmitted in one direction. It is a one-way communication system. Example :
radio, TV etc.
2. Half-Duplex : Half-duplex is a communication mode where information can be
transmitted in both directions, but only one direction at a time. It is like a one-way street
where traffic can flow in either direction, but not simultaneously. Example :
Walkie-talkie.
3. Full-Duplex : Full-duplex is a communication mode where information can be
transmitted in both directions simultaneously. It is like a two-way street where traffic
can flow in both directions at the same time. Example : Telephone, Internet Connection.
Identifying Nodes on a Computer Network
● IP Address : IP Address (Internet Protocol Address) is a unique numerical label
assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet
Protocol for communication. It serves as a network address for identifying and locating
devices on the network.
Types of IP Address :
1. IPv4 : IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) is the older version of the Internet
Protocol, which is the fundamental protocol used for communication on the
internet. It uses 32 bits to represent an IP address, providing a total of 232
(4,294,967,296) possible addresses.
Example : 123.101.16.90
2. IPv6 : IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the newer version of the Internet
Protocol, which is the fundamental protocol used for communication on the
internet. It was introduced to address the limitations of IPv4, which was running
out of available addresses. It uses 128 bits to represent an IP address, providing
a total of 2128 possible addresses.
Example : 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
● MAC Address : MAC Address (Media Access Control address) is a unique identifier
assigned to a network interface card (NIC) in a computer or other networking device. It
is a hardware address, meaning it is physically burned into the NIC and cannot be
changed. It consist of 6 bytes i.e., 48 bits

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 Example : 10 : B5 : 03 : 63 : 2E : FC
In the above mentioned MAC address first 3 Bytes are manufacturer-id or
Organizational Unique identifier and rest 3 bytes are card number.