PREPARED BY:

BRYAN QUINCENA RUEDAS

SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER III
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Motion in One Dimension

The Spectrum of Mechanics 1
Describing and Measuring Motion 2
Distance and Displacement 3
Velocity 4
Calculating Distance and Time 5
Acceleration 7
Problem Solving 10
CHAPTER 2 Forces and Newton’s Law
Force 12
Types of Forces 12
Free Body Diagram 14
Newton’s Law of Motion 14
Inertia: The First Law 14
Mass and Acceleration: The Second Law 15
Weight 16
Normal Forces 17
Frictional Forces 18
Action and Reaction: The Third Law 19
Problem Solving 20
CHAPTER 3 Work and Energy
Work 22
Power 23
Energy 24
Potential Energy 24
Kinetic Energy 25
Heat and Temperature 26
The Gas Phase 27
Boyle’s Law 27
Charles’s Law 29
Gay-Lussac’s Law 30
Combined Gas Law 31
The Laws of Thermodynamics 32
Problem Solving 33

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CHAPTER 4 Electricity and Magnetism
Electric Charges 35
Electric Current 36
Resistance 37
Electric Circuit 38
Ohm’s Law 39
Magnetism 40
Electromagnetism 41
Electric Motors 42
Generators 43
Transformers 44
Electromagnetic Waves 47
Problem Solving 48
CHAPTER 5 Wave, Sounds and Light
Waves 50
Properties of Waves 51
Types of Waves 52
Doppler Effect 55
Light 55
Polarization 56
Speed of Light 56
Reflection 57
Mirrors 58
Refraction 63
Lenses 64
Problem Solving 70

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 Chapter
One MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

I. Introduction

The spectrum of mechanics

The general study of the relationships between motion, forces, and energy is called mechanics. It
is a large field and its study is essential to the understanding of physics, which is why these chapters
appear first. Mechanics can be divided into sub-disciplines by combining and recombining its different
aspects. Three of these are given special names.
Motion is the action of changing location or position. The study of motion without regard to the
forces or energies that may be involved is called kinematics. It is the simplest branch of mechanics. The
branch of mechanics that deals with both motion and forces together is called dynamics and the study of
forces in the absence of changes in motion or energy is called statics.
The term energy refers an abstract physical quantity that is not easily perceived by humans. It can
exist in many forms simultaneously and only acquires meaning through calculation. A system possess-
es energy if it has the ability to do work. The energy of motion is called kinetic energy
Whenever a system is affected by an outside agent, its total energy changes. In general, a force is
anything that causes a change (like a change in energy or motion or shape). When a force causes a
change in the energy of a system, physicists say that work has been done. The mathematical statement
that relates forces to changes in energy is called the work-energy theorem.
When the total of all the different forms of energy is determined, we find that it remains constant
in systems that are isolated from their surroundings. This statement is known as the law
of conservation of energy and is one of the really big concepts in all of physics, not just mechanics.
All motions are relative to some frame of reference. Saying that a body is at rest, which means
that it is not in motion, merely means that it is being described with respect to a frame of reference that
is moving together with the body. For example, a body on the surface of the Earth may appear to be at
rest, but that is only because the observer is also on the surface of the Earth.
The Earth itself, together with both the body and the observer, is moving in its orbit around
the Sun and rotating on its own axis at all times. As a rule, the motions of bodies obey Newton’s laws
of motion. However, motion at speeds close to the speed of light must be treated by using the theory
of relativity, and the motion of very small bodies (such as electrons) must be treated by using quantum
mechanics.

4 1
 Describing and Measuring Motion

An object is in motion when its distance from another object is changing. Whether an object is
moving or not depends on your point of view. For example, a woman riding on a bus is not moving in
relation to the seat she is sitting on, but she is moving in relation to the buildings the bus passes.
A reference point is a place or object used for comparison to determine if something is in motion.
An object is in motion if it changes position relative to a reference point. You assume that the refer-
ence point is stationary, or not moving.
Units of measurement are used to describe an object’s motion. The system of measurement used
by scientists all over the world is called the International System of Units, or in French, Système Inter-
national (SI). The SI system is based on the number 10.
The basic SI unit of length is the meter (m). A meter is a little longer than a yard. To measure the
length of an object smaller than a meter, scientists use the metric unit called the centimeter (cm). There
are 100 centimeters in a meter. Meters and centimeters can be used to describe the distance an object
travels.
Rate is the amount of something that occurs or changes in one unit of time. Speed is a type of rate.
If you know the distance an object travels in a certain amount of time, you can calculate the speed
of the object. The speed of an object is the distance the object travels in one unit of time. To calculate
the speed of an object, divide the distance the object travels by the amount of time it takes to travel that
distance.
When an object travels at a constant speed, its speed at any moment during its motion is the same
as it is at every other moment. Most objects do not move at constant speeds. To find the average speed
of an object, divide the total distance traveled by the total time. An object’s instantaneous speed is the
rate it is moving at a given instant. An object’s speed tells how fast it is moving, but not the direction of
the motion. When you know both the speed and direction of an object’s motion, you know the ve-
locity of the object. Speed in a given direction is called velocity.
You can show the motion of an object on a line graph in which you plot distance versus time.
A straight line represents motion at a constant speed. The steepness of the line’s slope depends on the
speed of the object. A horizontal line represents an object that is not moving at all.

Key Ideas
Motion is the change of position in time.
Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to "how fast an object is moving." Speed can be thought of
as the rate at which an object covers distance.
Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate at which an object changes its position.
Rate is the amount of something that occurs or changes in one unit of time.
Displacement is the directed change of an object’s position.
Average speed of an object, divide the total distance traveled by the total time.

2 5
DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
Distance and displacement are two quantities that may seem to mean the same thing yet have
distinctly different definitions and meanings.
Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an object has covered" during its
motion. Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place an object is"; it is the
object's overall change in position.
To test your understanding of this distinction, consider the motion depicted in the diagram be-
low. A physics teacher walks 4 meters East, 2 meters South, 4 meters West, and finally 2 meters
North.

Even though the physics teacher has walked a total distance of 12 meters, her displacement is 0
meters. During the course of her motion, she has "covered 12 meters of ground" (distance = 12 m).
Yet when she is finished walking, she is not "out of place" - i.e., there is no displacement for her mo-
tion (displacement = 0 m). Displacement, being a vector quantity, must give attention to direction.
The 4 meters east cancels the 4 meters west; and the 2 meters south cancels the 2 meters north. Vector
quantities such as displacement are direction aware. Scalar quantities such as distance are ignorant of
direction. In determining the overall distance traveled by the physics teachers, the various directions
of motion can be ignored.
Now consider another example. The diagram below shows the position of a cross-country skier
at various times. At each of the indicated times, the skier turns around and reverses the direction of
travel. In other words, the skier moves from A to B to C to D.

Some examples
Use the diagram to determine the resulting displacement and the distance traveled by the skier
during these three minutes.

The skier covers a distance of

(180 m + 140 m + 100 m) = 420 m
and has a displacement of 140 m, rightward.

To understand the distinction between distance and displacement, you must know the defini-
tions. You must also know that a vector quantity such as displacement is direction-aware and a scalar
quantity such as distance is ignorant of direction. When an object changes its direction of motion, dis-
placement takes this direction change into account; heading the opposite direction effectively begins
to cancel whatever displacement there once was.

6 3
 VELOCITY
Could an average runner win the Olympic Cup? Who would win a race between a sea turtle, a dol-
phin and an Olympic swimmer? You can answer these questions only if you know the average speed of
each competitor during the race. Speed is a measure of the rate at which an object moves over a distance.
In other words, it tells you how quickly distance is covered. Average speed can be calculated by dividing
the distance travelled by the time taken.
That is: In symbols, this formula is usually expressed as:
Where:
v = speed or velocity
d = distance travelled by an object
t = time taken

Which unit?
The speed of vehicles is usually expressed in kilometres per hour (km/h). However, sometimes it is
more convenient to express speed in units of metres per second (m/s). The speed at which grass grows
could sensibly be expressed in units of millimetres per week. Speed must, however, always be expressed
as a unit of distance divided by a unit of time.

Some examples
(a). The average speed of an airplane that travels from Manila to Cebu, a distance of 2730 km by air, in 3
hours is:

Step 1. Analyze the question and write the given.

Given:
d = 2730 km
t = 3 hours
v=?
Step 2. Apply the given formula to find the solution to the
word problem.
Solution: The formula can also be used to express the speed
in m/s.

(converting kilometers to meters and hours to seconds)

Note: Beware of the units. Always remember that the units are the most important thing in
your final answer.
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(b). The average speed of a snail that takes 10 minutes to cross an 80 cm concrete paving stone in a
straight line is:
Given:
d = 80 cm
t = 10 min
v=?
Solution:

Calculating Distance and Time

The formula used to calculate average speed can also be used to work out the distance travelled or
the time taken.
Since d

v t

Where:
v = speed or velocity
d = distance travelled by an object
t = time taken

More examples
(a). The distance covered in hours by a train travelling at an average speed of 70 km/h is:
Given:
v = 70 km/h
t = 2.5 hours
d=?
Solution:

8 5
 (b). The time taken for a giant tortoise to cross a 6-metrewide deserted highway at an average speed of
5.5 cm/s is:
Given:
d = 6 meter
v = 5.5 cm/s
t=?
Solution:

(converting 5.5 cm/s to 0.055m/s)

(to the nearest second)

When the direction matters

The term velocity is often used instead of speed when talking about how fast things move. How-
ever, velocity and speed are different quantities. Velocity is a measure of the rate of change in posi-
tion, whereas speed is a measure of the rate at which distance is covered. To describe a change in posi-
tion, the direction must be stated. Velocity has a direction as well as a magnitude (size). When deter-
mining speed, the direction of movement does not matter.

At a snail’s pace
Imagine a race between two snails, Bo and Jo, between the points P and R shown in the diagram
on the right. Bo, being slower but smarter, takes the direct route. Jo, faster but not as clever, takes an
indirect route via Q and travels a greater distance. The race is a dead heat — both snails finish in 1 mi-
nute.
The table below describes the motion of the two
snails and shows the difference between their speed
and velocity.
The race between Bo and Jo

Bo Jo

Average speed
Notice that when there is no
change in direction, the magnitude of
the velocity is the same as the speed.
If R Q direction changes, velocity
Average velocity
and speed will be different.

6 9
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Find the solution to the given problems.
1. During a race on level ground, Kim covers 785 m in 135 s. Find Kim’s average speed.
2. Edna and Ike take 5 minutes to walk westward along a straight road to a store 500 m away.
What is their average velocity in m/s?
3. Dino drives his bike with an average velocity of 24 m/s going to school. How long will it take
to drive 50 km on a perfect straight way?
4. A bus traveled toward Agdangan to Unisan along a straight path for 0.5 hour with an average
velocity of 80 km/h, stopped for 20.0 min, then traveled the same direction for 0.25 h with an
average speed of 75 km/h.
a. What is the average velocity for the total trip?
b. What is the displacement for the total trip?
5. If you find that you have traveled from home to school in 25 km in 8 min. find the average
speed of the travel?

ACCELERATION
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. Any change in the velocity of an ob-
ject results in an acceleration: increasing speed (what people usually mean when they say accelera-
tion), decreasing speed (also called deceleration or retardation), or changing direction
(called centripetal acceleration).
A change in the direction of motion results in an acceleration even if the moving object neither
sped up nor slowed down. That's because acceleration depends on the change in velocity and veloci-
ty is a vector quantity — one with both magnitude and direction. Thus, a falling apple accelerates, a
car stopping at a traffic light accelerates, and an orbiting planet accelerates. Acceleration occurs any-
time an object's speed increases or decreases, or it changes direction.
Much like velocity, there are two kinds of acceleration: average and instantane-
ous. Average acceleration is determined over a "long" time interval. The word long in this context
means finite — something with a beginning and an end. The velocity at the beginning of this interval
is called the initial velocity, represented by the symbol (v1), and the velocity at the end is called
the final velocity, represented by the symbol (v2). Average acceleration is a quantity calculated from
two velocity measurements.

Where:
a = acceleration
t = time
v2 = final velocity
v1 = initial velocity

10 7
 Acceleration is also a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and direction. A positive
acceleration means that the velocity of an object is becoming more positive with time; a negative ac-
celeration, that the velocity of the object is becoming negative time.
Calculating acceleration involves dividing velocity by time — or in terms of units, dividing
meters per second [m/s] by second [s]. Dividing distance by time twice is the same as dividing dis-
tance by the square of time. Thus the SI unit of acceleration is the meter per second squared.

Sample Problems
(a). The velocity of an object is 47 meters per second at 3.0 seconds and is 65 meters per sec-
ond at 12.0 seconds. Calculate the acceleration of the object.
Given: Solution:
t2 = 12.0 sec.
t1 = 3.0 sec.
v2 = 65 m/s
v1 = 47 m/s
a =?

(b). The car is gaining an extra 2 m/s of velocity every second. So in 4 seconds it gains an extra
of 8 m/s of velocity on top of its original velocity of 10 m/s.
Given: Solution:
a = 2 m/s2
t =4s
v1 = 10 m/s
v2 = ?

Key Ideas

Acceleration involves a change in any of the following:

Increasing Speed any time of the speed of an object increases, the object experiences acceler
ation. A softball accelerates when the pitcher throws it, and again when the bat hits it.
Decreasing Speed just as objects can speed up, they can also slow down. A softball rolling to a
stop, or car coming to a stop at a red light and a plane landing on an airport are all decelerating.
Changing Direction an object can be accelerating even if its speed is constant if it changes
direction, such as rounding a curve or changing lanes.

11
8
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Find the solution to the given problems.
1. As a school bus comes to a normal stop, it slows from 8.50 m/s to 0.00 m/s in 5.00 s. find the ac-
celeration of the bus.
2. When the jeepney comes to a sudden stop to avoid hitting a dog, it slows from 9.00 m/s to
0.00 m/s in 1.5s. Find the acceleration of the jeepney.
3. A treadmill starts with a velocity of 1.2 m/s and speeds up at regular intervals during a 30 minute
workout. After 25 minutes, the treadmill has a velocity of 65 m/s. what is the acceleration of the
treadmill during this period?
4. How long will it take a cyclist to bring a bicycle from 13.5 m/s to a complete stop if the accelera-
tion is –0.50 m/s2?
5. In 2.5 s, a car increases its speed from 60 km/h to 65km/h while a bicycle goes from rest to 5 km/
h. Which undergoes the greater acceleration? What is the acceleration of each vehicle?

Kinematic
Equations

Velocity of an object and is measured in units such as meters per second (m/s) or miles per hour
(mph). Mathematically, the average velocity of the object is defined by the equation:
If the unknown is time (t) the formula for velocity will derived:

The same derivation if the unknown is distance (d).

The slope of the velocity-time graph is given by relationship ∆v/t and indicates the rate at which
the velocity of the object (∆v) has changed over the time interval (t). This quantity is known as
acceleration (a) of the object and measured in units such as meters per second 2 (m/s2). Mathematically,
the uniform acceleration of the object is defined by the equation:

12 9
 PROBLEM SOLVING
Level 1

Solve the following completely.

1. Nelson travelling from Ibabang Kinagunan to Poblacion II with a distance of 50 m in 25 s.
Find the velocity traveled by Nelson.
2. Andrew riding in a bike from home to school with the speed of 75m/s at a distance of 205 m.
Calculate the time cover by Andrew to reach his destination.
3. A remote controlled car can travel 125 m/s in 25 seconds. How far did the car can travel with
the given speed.
4. Find the velocity of the car travelling from 75 meters in 25 seconds.
5. A cyclist moving at the speed of 80 m/s and accelerates to 95 m/s in 5 seconds when he saw
the finish line. Calculate the acceleration done by the cyclist to win the race.
6. Nora swims from one end of a 50.0 m pool in 25.0 s and makes the return trip to the starting
position. What is the average speed of the swimmer?
7. A tricycle travelling at a speed of 45 m/s from Sildora at a distance of 560 m going to
Salvacion. Calculate the time travelled by the tricycle.
8. A car initially moving at a speed of 45 m/s and suddenly accelerates to 80 m/s for 50 s. De-
termine the acceleration of the car.
9. During the intramurals an athlete runs at a speed of 45 m/s at a distance of 100 m. How long it
takes to finish the track?
10. Krystal take a 10 minutes to walk along a straight road to a 500 m away. What is the average
velocity in m/s?
11. Mark drives his car with an average speed of 70 m/s to the north expressway. How long will it
take to drive 560 km on a perfectly straight highway?
12. The average speed of a plane was 600 kilometers per hour. How long did it take the plane to
travel 120 kilometers?
13. An objects travels for 8.00 seconds with an average of 160 meters per second. Find the dis-
tance traveled by the object.
14. Starting from rest, an object rolls freely down an incline that is 10 m/s in 2 seconds. Calculate
the acceleration of the object.
15. The average speed of a moving skateboard is 25 m/s, if it travels in 50 m pathway, how long it
travels to cover the distance.

10 13
Level 2
Solve the following completely.
1. Find the average speed of a car with the distance of 50 meters in 15 seconds. Express your an-
swer in km/h.
2. The velocity of an object is 65 meters per second at 5.0 seconds and 95 meters per second at 15.0
seconds. Calculate the acceleration of the object.
3. A block starting from rest slides down the length of an 18 meter plank with a uniform accelera-
tion of 4.0 m/s2. How does the block take to reach the bottom?
4. A bus travelled towards northern Luzon along a straight path for 0.5 hour with an average veloci-
ty of 88 km/h, stopped for 20.0 min, then traveled the same direction for 0.25 hour with an aver-
age velocity of 75 km/h.
a. What is the average velocity for the total trip?
b. What is the displacement for the total trip?
5. Starting from rest, an object rolls freely down an incline that is 10 meters long in 2 seconds. Cal-
culate the acceleration of the object.
6. An object starting from rest moves down an incline with an acceleration of 2 m/s2 for 2 seconds.
How far does the object move during the 2 seconds?
7. The final speed of the object after 2 seconds if an object starting from rest moves down an in-
cline with an acceleration of 2 m/s2 for 2 seconds.
8. An object initially travelling in a straight line with a speed of 5.0 meters per second is accelerat-
ed at 2.0 m/s2 for 4.0 seconds. Find the total distance travelled by the object in the 4.0 seconds.
9. An object initially at rest accelerates at 5 m/s 2 until it attains a speed of 30 meters per second.
What distance does the object move while accelerating?
10. A car accelerated at 4.0 m/s2 from rest. The car will reach a speed of 28 meters per second. Find
the time cover by the car.

Level 3
Solve the following completely.
1. A car accelerates uniformly from rest at 3.2 m/s 2 . When the car has traveled a distance of 40 m,
its speed will be?
2. Heide initially travelling in a straight line with her bike with a speed of 20.0 meters per second is
accelerated at 5.0 m/s2 for 8.0 seconds. Find the total distance travelled by the object in the 8.0
seconds.
3. A ping pong ball accelerated at 6.0 m/s2 from rest. The ball will reach a speed of 12 meters per
second. Find the time cover by the ping pong ball.
4. Find the acceleration of a car if it travels at a distance of 50 km in 0.5 hours.
5. An object suddenly accelerate from rest to 25 m/s 2 at a speed of 15 m/s. Calculate the distance
travelled by the object.

14 11
 Chapter
Two FORCES AND NEWTON’S LAW

I. Introduction
The first chapter of this book dealt with the topic of kinematics — the mathematical description
of motion. With the exception of falling bodies and projectiles (which involve some mysterious thing
called gravity) the factors affecting this motion were never discussed. It is now time to expand our stud-
ies to include the quantities that affect motion — mass and force. The mathematical description of mo-
tion that includes these quantities is called dynamics.
Many introductory textbooks often define a force as "a push or a pull". This is a reasonable infor-
mal definition to help you conceptualize a force, but it is a terrible operational definition. What is "a
push or a pull"? How would you measure such a thing? Most importantly, how does "a push or a pull"
relate to the other quantities already defined in this book?
Physics, like mathematics, is axiomatic. Each new topic begins with elemental concepts,
called axioms, that are so simple that they cannot be made any simpler or are so generally well under-
stood that an explanation would not help people to understand them any better. The two quantities that
play this role in kinematics are distance and time. No real attempt was made to define either of these
quantities formally in this book (so far) and none was needed. Nearly everyone on the planet knows
what distance and time mean.

What is a FORCE?
A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another ob-
ject. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects.
When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force. Forces only exist as a re-
sult of an interaction.

Types of Forces
Forces that act on all objects.
Weight (W, Fg) The force of gravity acting on an object due to its mass. An object's weight is
directed down, toward the center of the gravitating body; like the Earth or moon.
Forces associated with solids.
Normal (N, Fn) The force between two solids in contact that prevents them from occupying the
same space. The normal force is directed perpendicular to the surface. A "normal" in mathematics is a
line perpendicular to a planar curve or surface; thus the name "normal force".
Friction (ƒ, Fƒ) The force between solids in contact that resists their sliding across one another.
Friction is directed opposite the direction of relative motion or the intended direction of motion of ei-
ther of the surfaces.
Tension (T, Ft) The force exerted by an object being pulled upon from opposite ends like a
string, rope, cable, chain, etc. Tension is directed along the axis of the object. (Although normally asso-
ciated with solids, liquids and gases can also be said exert tension in some circumstances.)

15
12
 Elasticity (Fe, Fs) The force exerted by an object under deformation (typically tension or com-
pression) that will return to its original shape when released like a spring or rubber band. Elasticity,
like tension, is directed along an axis (although there are exceptions to this rule).
Forces associated with fluids. Fluids include liquids (like water) and gases (like air).
Buoyancy (B, Fb) The force exerted on an object immersed in a fluid. Buoyancy is usually di-
rected up (although there are exceptions to this rule).
Drag (R, D, Fd) The force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid. Drag is directed
opposite the direction of motion of the object relative to the fluid.
Lift (L, Fℓ)The force that a moving fluid exerts as it flows around an object; typically a wing or
wing-like structure, but also golf balls and baseballs. Lift is generally directed perpendicular to the
direction of fluid flow (although there are exceptions to this rule).
Thrust (T, Ft) The force that a fluid exerts when expelled by a propeller, turbine, rocket, squid,
clam, etc. Thrust is directed opposite the direction the fluid is expelled.
Forces associated with physical phenomena.
Electrostatic Force (FE) The attraction or repulsion between charged bodies. Experienced in
everyday life through static cling and in school as the explanation behind much of elementary chem-
istry.
Magnetic Force (FB) The attraction or repulsion between charged bodies in motion. Experi-
enced in everyday life through magnets and in school as the explanation behind why a compass nee-
dle points north.
Fundamental forces. All the forces in the universe can be explained in terms of the follow-
ing four fundamental interactions.
Gravity The interaction between objects due to their mass. Weight is a synonym for the force
of gravity.
Electromagnetism The interaction between objects due to their charge. All the forces dis-
cussed above are electromagnetic in origin except weight.
Strong Nuclear Interaction The interaction between subatomic particles with "color" (an ab-
stract quantity that has nothing to do with human vision). This is the force that holds protons and neu-
trons together in the nucleus and holds quarks together in the protons and neutrons. It cannot be felt
outside of the nucleus.
Weak Nuclear Interaction The interaction between subatomic particles with "flavor" (an ab-
stract quantity that has nothing to do with human taste). This force, which is many times weaker than
the strong nuclear interaction, is involved in certain forms of radioactive decay.
Fictitious forces. These are apparent forces that objects experience in an accelerating co-
ordinate system like an accelerating car, airplane, spaceship, elevator, or amusement park ride.
Centrifugal Force The force experienced by all objects in a rotating coordinate system that
seems to pull them away from the center of rotation.
Coriolis Force The force experienced by moving objects in a rotating coordinate system that seems
to deflect them at right angles to their direction of motion.
"G Force" Not really a force (or even a fictitious force) but rather an apparent gravity-like sensation
experienced by objects in an accelerating coordinate system.
16 13
 Free Body Diagram
Free-body diagrams are diagrams used to show the relative magnitude and direction of all forces
acting upon an object in a given situation. A free-body diagram is a special example of the vector dia-
grams.
These diagrams will be used throughout our study of physics. The size of the arrow in a free-
body diagram reflects the magnitude of the force. The direction of the arrow shows the direction that
the force is acting. Each force arrow in the diagram is labeled to indicate the exact type of force. It is
generally customary in a free-body diagram to represent the object by a box and to draw the force ar-
row from the center of the box outward in the direction that the force is acting.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

When forces act on something , they can change its shape, or its direction. Forces may act such
as a manner as to cause motion or prevent motion. In the design of bridges, large or small, the overall
effect of forces to prevent motion must be considered. In the construction of buildings, trusses, beams,
and cables must be in equilibrium. The resultant force acting at any point on the entire structure must
be balanced.

INERTIA: The First Law

Originally, it was believed that forces were necessary to keep all objects in motion. The Italian
astronomer Galileo Galilei, however, reasoned out that a force changed the motion of an object as
long as the force was not balanced by the other forces.
If an object is at rest and no unbalanced forces acts on it, its motion will not change; it will
simply remain at rest. Also, if an object is travelling at constant velocity (constant speed in a straight
line) and no unbalanced force acts on it, its motion will not change; it will continue to with constant
velocity. The English physicist Isaac Newton summarized this findings in a statement we now call
Newton’s first law of motion which states that: A body at rest will remain at rest, a body in motion
will continue in moving unless it acted by the unbalanced force.
Newton’s first law means that all material objects resist change in motion . The quality of matter
that is responsible for this property is known as inertia. The more inertia an object has, the more re-
sists such changes. The (inertial) mass of an object is a measure of quantity of inertia it contains.

17
14
MASS AND ACCELERATION: The Second Law
Newton's first law of motion predicts the behavior of objects for which all existing forces are
balanced. The first law - sometimes referred to as the law of inertia - states that if the forces acting
upon an object are balanced, then the acceleration of that object will be 0 m/s/s. Objects
at equilibrium (the condition in which all forces balance) will not accelerate. According to Newton,
an object will only accelerate if there is a net or unbalanced force acting upon it. The presence of an
unbalanced force will accelerate an object - changing its speed, its direction, or both its speed and
direction.
Although the unbalanced force will give an object an acceleration, the magnitude of the accel-
eration is determined by two quantities: the magnitude of the force and the mass of the object. It has
been verified countless times that acceleration is directly proportional to the magnitude of the force
and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. If we choose our units carefully, we can write
this relationship, which we call Newton’s second law of motion, as follows:
Or

Where:
a = acceleration
m = mass
Fnet = unbalanced force
We measure the mass (m) in kilograms, and the acceleration (a) in meter per second2 . The un-
balanced force (Fnet) is measured in newtons. The equivalent basic SI units for the newton express as:

Some examples
(a). A 5.5 kg basket of fruits is pushed across a table. If the acceleration of the basket is 4.2 m/s 2 ,
find net external force exerted on the basket.
Given:
m = 5.5 kg
a = 4.2 m/s2
F=?
Solution:
= (5.5 kg)(4.2 m/s2)
= 23 kg ∙ m/s2
= 23 N

18 15
 (b). Complete the following table by applying Newton’s second law of motion:

Fnet (N) m (kg) a (m/s2)

3.0 6.0 ?

? 4.5 2.0

12 ? 1.2

Solution:
We substitute the values for each row into the equation Fnet = m ∙ a.
Row 1: 3.0 N = 6.0 kg ∙ a; a = 0.50 m/s2
Row 2: Fnet = 4.5 kg ∙ 2.0 m/s2 Fnet = 9.0 N
Row 3: 12 N = m ∙ 1.2 m/s2 m = 10 kg

Weight
When we hold on object, we feel its heaviness as it pushes into our hand. When the object
drops to the ground, it falls with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s 2 (if we ignore air resistance). These two
observations lead us to conclude that a force is present on the object. We call this force weight, and
its origin is the gravitational attraction between the object and the Earth.
How can we calculate the weight of an object? When an object falls freely, the force on it (its
weight!) is unbalanced. We can apply Newton’s second law to calculate this force:

Or

Where:
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)
m = mass
Fg = force due to gravity

We use Fg to represent the force due to gravity (the weight of the object) and g to represent
the gravitational acceleration of the object experiences in free fall.

19
16
Sample Problems
(a). What is the weight of an object with a mass of 15 kilograms?
Given:
m = 15 kg
g = 9.8 m/s2
Fg = ?
Solution:

= (15 kg) (9.8 m/s2)

= 149 N
(b). Find the mass of an object with the weight of 18 N after it release in an inclined plane.
Given:
Fg = 18 N
g = 9.8 m/s2
m=?
Solution:

= 1.83 kg

Normal Forces
When an object is at rest on horizontal surface, such as table, it has weight but is not accelerat-
ing. In this situation, the weight of the object is not an unbalanced force. In fact, the net force on the
object is zero! Therefore, another force, which serves to balance the effects of gravity, must be pre-
sent on the object. The origin of this supporting force is the surface itself, and this force is responsi-
ble for the contact between the object and surface.
Since this second force is perpendicular to both the object and the surface, it is called a normal
force . (In mathematics, the word normal is use to describe lines that are perpendicular) . We repre-
sent the normal force by the symbol FN. The diagram represents the relationship
between the weight of an object and the normal force on it.

20 17
 Frictional Forces
Consider the following situation: A 5.0 kilogram object is pulled across a floor with an applied
force of 20 newtons. The acceleration of the object is measured to be 3.0 meters per second 2 . This
situation is illustrated in the diagram below:
3.0 m/s2

5.0 kg 20 N

In this situation, Fnet is equal to 15 newtons (5.0 kg ∙ 3.0 m/s2), not to the applied force of 20
newtons. Where has 5. 0 newtons gone?
There is another force represent that we have not considered; friction. Frictional forces are al-
ways present when two surfaces are in contact. The direction of a frictional force on an object is al-
ways opposite to the direction of the object’s motion. We will represent a frictional force by the sym-
bol Ff . 15 N (Fnet)
3.0 m/s2

5.0 N (Ff) 5.0 kg (m) 20 N (Fapplied)

Sample Problems
(a). A force of 50 N is used to drag a 10 kg object across a horizontal table. If a frictional force of
15 N is present on the object, calculate (a) the unbalanced force on the object and (b) the acceleration
of the object.
Solution:
We begin the solution by drawing a diagram of the situation presented in the problem:
Fnet
a

5.0 N (Ff) 10 kg (m) 50 N (Fapplied)

(a). We find the unbalanced force (Fnet) by subtracting the frictional force (Ff) from the applied force
(Fapplied). We subtract because the force are in opposite directions:
Fnet = Fapplied - Ff
= 50 N - 15 N
= 35 N
(b). We calculate the acceleration of the object by applying Newton’s second law:

21
18
(b). A student drags an object across a laboratory table at a constant velocity using an applied force of
12 newtons. Calculate the frictional force present on the object.
Solution:
0 N = Fnet
Fnet = Fapplied - Ff
= 12 N - Ff
Ff = 12 N

ACTION AND REACTION: The Third Law

The third law has also been stated equivalently in two other ways: (1) “Forces occurs in pairs”
and (2) “To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction” (where the terms action and reac-
tion refer to the two forces).
According to Newton’s third law, two objects must always be present and only one force of the
pair is present on each object. The two forces are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direc-
tion.
We can apply third law to many situations:
• The recoil of all the objects when they collide (e.g., a ball bouncing off a wall) is a consequence
of this law.
• When we step on a scale, the scale exerts an upward force which supports us (the normal
force). We, in turn, place a downward force on the scale. It is the force that registers our weight.
• We can walk because of Newton’s third law! When we take a step, we push background on the
Earth. The Earth, in turn, pushes forward on us.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Find the solution to the given problems.
1. The net external force on a cart is 350 N north. If the cart has a total mass of 220 kg, where are
the magnitude and direction of its acceleration?
2. A car has a mass of 1,500 kg. what force is required to accelerate the car 4.5 m/s2 to the east?
3. A rubber ball pushed with a force of 13.5 N accelerates at 6.5 m/s2 to the right. What is the mass
of the rubber ball?
4. A 6 kg pail of water is raised from a well by a rope. If the upward acceleration of the pail is 3
m/s2 , find the force exerted by the rope on the pail of the water?
5. A net force of 15 N is exerted on an encyclopedia to cause it to accelerate at a rate of 5 m/s2
to the left. Determine the mass of the encyclopedia.

22 19
 PROBLEM SOLVING
Level 1

Solve the following completely.

1. An object with a mass of 2 kilograms is accelerated at 5 m/s2 . Find net force acting on the mass.
2. Find the acceleration of the bike with a net force of 45 N and a mass of 55 kg.
3. A cart is uniformly accelerating from rest to 70 m/s2 and a net force acting on it is 450 N. calcu-
late for the mass of the car.
4. What is the acceleration of the object with 50 kg mass and a net force acting on it is equivalent
to 65 N.
5. When an unbalanced force of 10 newtons is applied to an object whose mass is 4.0 kilograms,
find the acceleration of the object.
6. What is the gravitational acceleration on a planet where a 2 kg mass has a weight of 16 newtons
on the planet’s surface?
7. On planet Gamma, a 4.0 kg mass experiences a gravitational force of 24 newtons. What is the
acceleration due to gravity on planet Gamma?
8. What is the weight of a 5.0 kg object at the surface of the Earth?
9. A box sliding in an inclined plane with at frictional force of 75 N and the applied force acting
on the box is 105 N. Calculate the net force acting on the body?
10. If a 35 kg cart is moving across the bridge with an acceleration of 50 m/s2, find the force acting
on the cart.
11. A 1 kg bird stands on a limb. Calculate the force that the limb exerts on the bird.
12. A test booklet is sitting at rest on a desk and suddenly pull using an applied force of 45 N. Find
the frictional force acting on the book.
13. A 4.00 kg mass is place over the pile of box. Calculate the force exerted by the mass.
14. When an unbalanced force of 25 N is applied to an object whose mass is 5. 0 kg. Find the accel-
eration of the object.
15. A bus with a mass of 500 kg is accelerated at 65 m/s2 . Determine the force exerted by the bus.

23
20
Level 2
Solve the following completely.
1. Determine the accelerations that result when a 12-N net force is applied to a 3-kg object and
then to a 6-kg object.
2. Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of 2 m/s 2. If the net force is tripled and the mass is
doubled, then what is the new acceleration of the sled?
3. Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of 2 m/s 2. If the net force is tripled and the mass is
halved, then what is the new acceleration of the sled?
4. A net force of 7.5 kN, west acts on a 1208 kg race car. At what rate will the car accelerate?
5. A car, mass 1485 kg, travelling south at 116 km/h, slows to a stop in 10.25 seconds. What is
the magnitude and direction of the net force that acted on the truck?
6. Find the net force acting on a fridge if the applied forces are 378.4 N, west and 401.3 N, west
while the force of friction is 67 N.
7. A large box moving across a floor at constant speed has two people moving it. One is pushing
236.1 N from behind while the other is pulling 89.3 N from the front. What is the force of fric-
tion?
8. Find the acceleration of a 20.0 kg curling stone if the applied force is 88.7 N, west and the
force of friction is 29.73 N.
9. A person of mass 81 kg throws a 2.15 kg ball with a force of 20.8 N, west. Find the accelera-
tion of both ball and person ignoring friction.
10. Find the weight (force of gravity) of an exactly thirty kilogram mass.

Level 3
Solve the following completely.
1. A broken down car, mass 1418 kg, is accelerated at 1.65 m/s 2, south when pulled by a tow
truck. What is the force of friction if the tow truck exerts 2.63 N, south on the car?
2. A 4850 kg helicopter accelerates downward at 1.58 m/s2. What force is exerted by the air on
the propellers?
3. An object with a mass of 0.5 kilogram starts from rest and achieves a maximum speed of 20
meters per second in 0.01 second. What average unbalanced force accelerates this object?
4. A 55.0 kg woman climbs at a constant velocity up a rope.
a) What force does the rope exert on the woman?
b) What force does the woman exert on the rope?
5. A horizontal force of 15 N pulls a 5 kg block along a horizontal surface. If the force produces
an acceleration of 2 m/s2 , find the frictional force acting on it.

24 21
 Chapter
Three WORK AND ENERGY

I. Introduction

Work is the product of force and the component of displacement in the direction of the force;
work is a scalar quantity. Without motion there can be no work.
Power is the rate at which work is done, and it is also a scalar quantity. If work is done on an
object, the work may be used change the object’s kinetic energy (the energy associated with its mo-
tion), its potential energy (the energy associated with its position), or its internal energy (the energy
associated with its atoms and molecules).
An elastic collision in one in which momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. When gas
molecules collide with the walls of an container, these collisions are very nearly elastic.
Simple machines provide examples of how work can be used to a person’s advantage in per-
forming such chores as lifting heavy objects and exerting large forces that can accomplish a task such
as cutting through steel.

WORK
Work occurs when a force causes an object to move in the direction of the force. It is done
when the object moves when a force is applied and the direction of the object’s motion is the same as
the direction of the force applied.
Work is calculated by multiplying an applied force by the displacement over which the force is
applied. Mathematically it express as:
W=Fxd
Where:
W = work
F = force
d = displacement
If your force is other than horizontal, only the horizontal component of your applied force caus-
es a displacement and does work. If angle between the force and the direction of the displacement is
ϴ as work can be written as :
W = F (cosӨ) d
Even though force and displacement are vector quantities, work is a scalar quantity. The unit of
work is newton ∙ meter, which is called a joule (J) in honor of English scientist James Prescott Joule.

25
22
Sample Problems
(a). How much work does a father do in lifting his daughter 2.0 m in the air if he exerts an average
force of 190 N?
Given:
F = 190 N
d=2m
W=?
Solution:
W = Fd
= (190 N) ( 2 m)
= 380 Nm
= 380 J
(b). How much work is done on a floor polisher pulled 4.0 m by a force of 70. 0 N at an angle of 30˚
above the horizontal?
Given:
F = 70 N
Ө = 30˚
d = 4.0 m
W=?
Solution:
W = F (cos Ө) d
= (70 N) ( cos 30˚) (4.0 m)
= 240 J

POWER
Power is a term that is frequently misused. We define power as the rate at which work is done:
Where:
P = power
W = work
t = time
Power is also a scalar quantity, and its unit is joules per second (J/s), also known as the watt
(W).

26 23
 Sample Problems
(a). What is the average power of an elevator if it takes 100, 000 J to lift it 24 m in 25s?
Given:
W = 100,000 J
t = 25 s
P =?
Solution:

(b). If 3000 joules of work is performed on an object in 1.0 minute, what is the power expended on
the object?
Given:
W = 3000 J
t = 1.0 minute = 60 seconds
P =?
Solution:

ENERGY
When work is done on an object, the energy of the object is changed. Energy is a very broad
term related to work, and it has a variety of forms. In this chapter we will consider two of these
forms, kinetic and potential energy. Together the kinetic and the potential (gravitational and elastic)
energies are called the mechanical energy of the object.

Potential Energy
Potential energy is the stored energy resulting from the relative positions of objects in a sys-
tem. Gravitational potential energy is the energy an object has because of its relative position from
the center of the Earth. The further a body is from the ground, the more the energy it has.

27
24
 Gravitational potential energy (PE) can be determined using the following equation:
PE = mgh
Where:
PE = potential energy
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = vertical displacement above the Earth

Sample Problems
(a). A 50 kg boy runs up a flight of 4.25 m high. How much gravitational energy is gained by the
boy?
Given:
m = 50 kg
h = 4.25 m
g = 9.8 m/s2
PE = ?
Solution:
PE = mgh
= (50 kg) (9.8 m/s2 ) (4.25 m)
= 2100 J
(b). A 2.00 kg mass is lifted to a height of 10.0 meters above the surface of the Earth. Calculate the
change in the gravitational potential energy of the object.
Given:
m = 2.00 kg
h = 10.0 m
g = 9.8 m/s2
PE = ?
Solution:
PE = mgh
= (2.00 kg) (9.8 m/s2 ) (10.0 m)
= 196 J

28 24
 Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy an object has due to its motion. The faster an object moves, the
more kinetic energy it has. For objects that move at the same speed, the one with the greater mass
will have greater kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy of an object with mass (m) and speed (v), when treated as a particle, can be
determined using the following equation:

Where:
KE = kinetic energy
m = mass
v2 = square of the velocity

Sample Problems
(a). What is the kinetic energy of a 35 kg tiger running at 25 m/s?
Given:
m = 35 kg
v = 25 m/s
KE = ?
Solution:

(b). A 10 kg object moves across a horizontal, frictionless surface in the direction of the force. Be-
fore the force is applied, the speed f the object is 2.0 m/s. Find the kinetic energy of the object.
Given:
m = 10 kg
v = 2.0 m/s
KE = ?
Solution:

29
25
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Find the solution to the given problems.
1. How much is the potential energy of a 100 kg water stored in 12 m from the ground?
2. What is the kinetic energy of a 2500 kg car moving at 65 km/h?
3. A 0.50 kg ball is projected vertically and rises to the height of 2.0 meters above the ground.
Calculate the increase in the ball’s potential energy.
4. How much work is done on an object if a force of 30 newtons displaces the object 200 meters?
5. A 200 newton force is applied to an object that moves in the direction of the force. If the object
travels with a constant velocity of 10 meters per second, calculate the power expended on the
object.

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the quantity used to measure the hotness of a body. A thermometer and an ap-
propriate scale are needed to make this measurement.
Heat energy is the energy associated with changes in internal energy. If no phase change occur,
the transfer of the heat energy is accompanied by the change in temperature. The specific heat of a
substance indicates how much heat energy is needed to cause a given change in the substance’s tem-
perature. When two objects are brought into contact, heat energy will be exchanged until the tempera-
tures of the objects are equal.

Temperature and Temperature Scales

Temperature is the measure of the “hotness” of an object will respect to some predefined
standard. It is scalar quantity. To measure temperature, we need a property that changes regularly
with changes in temperature. One such property is the volume of the liquid such as mercury. When
mercury is placed in a thin tube (whose diameter is uniform), the length of the mercury column in-
creases with rising temperature. Such a device is called thermometer.
The table show below illustrates the conversion of Celcius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin

From To Fahrenheit To Celsius To Kelvin

Fahrenheit (F) F (F - 32) * 5/9 (F - 32) * 5/9 + 273.15

Celsius (C or o) (C * 9/5) + 32 C C + 273.15

Kelvin (K) (K - 273.15) * 9/5 + 32 K - 273.15 K

30 26
 THE GAS PHASE
Matter commonly exist in the solid, liquid, or gas phase. The phase of substance is usually rec-
ognized by the characteristics of the substance’s shape and volume. What phase a particular sample of
matter is in depends on the nature of the sample, its temperature, and the pressure exerted on it.
Gases have neither definite shape nor definite volume. To describe the behaviour of sample of
an ideal gas, we need to know the four characteristics of the sample: the pressure it exerts, its volume,
its temperature, and the number of particles it contains.
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area of surface. Mathematically it will express as:

Where:
P = pressure
A = area of the surface
F = force
Pressure gives as a means of describing how a force is distributed over an entire surface. In the
SI metric system, the unit of pressure is the newton per square meter (N/m 2), also known as pascal
(Pa). The pascal is very small unit, and under normal atmospheric conditions air exerts a pressure of
approximately 1.01 x 105 pascals. This value is known as standard pressure.

Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s law states the relationship between the volume of a gas and its pressure at constant tem-
perature. Gas particles have a very weak intermolecular force of attraction, hence they move as far as
possible from each other. They have the tendency to occupy all the spaces they are contained in. if the
pressure is increased, the volume will be decreased forcing the gas particles to move closer to one an-
other. Mathematically it can be express as:
P1V1 = P2V2
Where:
P = pressure
V = volume

Sample Problems
(a). The inflated balloon that slipped from the hand of Jovelle has a volume of 0.50L at sea level (1.0
atm) and it reach a height of approximately 8 km where the atmospheric pressure is approximately
0.33 atm. Assuming that the temperature is constant, compute for the final volume of the balloon.

31
27
 Given:
V1 = 0.50 L
P1 = 1.0 atm
P2 = 0.33 atm
V2 = ?
Solution:
P1V1 = P2V2

(b). A scuba diver needs a diving tank in order to provide breathing gas while he is underwater. How
much pressure s needed for 6.00 liters of gas at 1.01 atmospheric pressure to be compressed in a 3.00
liter cylinder?
Given:
V1 = 6.00 L
V2 = 3.00L
P1 = 1.01 atm
P2 = ?
Solution:
P1V1 = P2V2

The alternative form for expressing Boyle’s Law is very useful for solving pressure and volume
at constant temperature and mass.

32 28
 Charles’s Law
The relationship between the temperature and the volume of an ideally behaving gas, it must
hold the pressure and the mass is constant. The volume of the gas at constant pressure and mass is di-
rectly proportional to the temperature.
Mathematically, Charles’ Law can be expressed as:

Where:
T = temperature
V = volume

Sample Problems
(a). The volume of an ideally behaving gas is 0.030 meter3 at 500 K. what volume will be the gas oc-
cupy at 200 K, pressure and mass remaining constant?
Given: Solution:
V1 = 0.030 m3
T1 = 500 K
T2 = 200 K
V2 = ?

(b). An inflated balloon with a volume of 0.75L at 30˚C was place inside the freezer where the tem-
perature is –10˚C. find out what will happen to the volume of the balloon if the pressure remains con-
stant. Support your answer with computation.
Given: Solution:
V1 = 0.75 L
T1 = 30˚C
T2 = - 10˚C
V2 = ?

In solving the problem do not forget to convert ˚C to K. Kelvin is the basic unit for measuring
temperature in the International System (SI).

33
29
Gay - Lussac’s Law
The relationship between pressure and temperature at constant volume. This means that when
the temperature of gases increases its pressure also increases or vice versa. Hence, we can state the
Gay-Lussac Law as: At constant volume, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature.
Gay-Lussac’s Law can be expressed mathematically as:

Where:
T = temperature
P = pressure

Sample Problems
(a). The pressure of a nitrogen gas inside a rigid tank is 1.5 atmosphere at 30˚C. What will be the re-
sulting pressure if the tank is cooled to 0˚C?
Given: Solution:
P1 = 1.5 atm
T1 = 30˚C = 303 K
T2 = 0˚C = 273 K
P2 = ?

(b). A certain light bulb containing argon has a pressure of 1.20 atm at 18˚C. If it will be heated to
85˚C at constant volume, what is the resulting pressure?
Given: Solution:
P1 = 1.20 atm
T1 = 18˚C = 291 K
T2 = 85˚C = 358 K
P2 = ?

34 30
 Combined Gas Law
It is possible to combine Boyle’s and Charles’s laws into a single relationship that holds as long
as the mass is constant. The pressure and volume of gas are inversely proportional to each other, but
are both directly proportional to the temperature of that gas.
Translating it to mathematical equation will give us:

Where:
T = temperature
V = volume
P = pressure

Sample Problems
(a). The oxygen tank manufacturer used to produce 5.0 L oxygen tanks at 2000 psi and 25˚C. Statis-
tics suggests that the 3.0 L oxygen tank at 1500 psi more marketable. What temperature requirement
is needed to produce the oxygen tank.
Given: Solution:
V1 = 5.0 L
V2 = 3.0 L
P1 = 2000 psi
P2 = 1500 psi
T1 = 25˚C = 298 K
T2 = ?
(b). Helium gas has a volume of 250 mL at 0˚C at 1.0 atm. What will be the final pressure if the vol-
ume is reduced to 100 mL at 45˚C?
Given: Solution:
V1 = 250 mL
V2 = 100 mL
T1 = 0˚C = 273 K
T2 = 45˚C = 318 K
P1 = 1.0 atm
P2 = ?

35
31
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Find the solution to the given problems.
1. Convert 37˚C to K and 77˚F to ˚C and K.
2. Oxygen gas inside a 1.5 L gas tank has a pressure of 0.95 atm. Provided that the temperature
remains constant, how much pressure is needed to reduce its volume by 1/2?
3. A cylinder with a movable piston contains 250 cm3 air at 10˚C. if the pressure kept constant, at
what temperature would you expect the volume to be 150 cm3
4. At 20˚C a confined ammonia gas has a pressure of 2.50 atm. At what temperature would be its
pressure be equal to 760 mmHg?
5. The volume of a gas at 27˚C and 700.0 mmHg is 600.0 mL. What is the volume of the gas at
–20.0˚C and 500.0 mmHg?

THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships among heat, work, and energy in the uni-
verse. The law of thermodynamics are based on our experiences in observing nature. Thermodynam-
ics has many applications in disciplines ranging from physics and engineering to biology and medi-
cine.

The First Law

The first law of thermodynamics is a restatement of the law of conservation of energy. It states
that the change in the internal energy of a system (∆U) is equal to the heat (Q) that the system absorbs
(or releases) minus the work (W) it does (or has done on it). In symbolic form the first law is written
as follows:
∆U = Q - W
Where:
∆U = internal energy of the system
Q = heat
W = work

The Second Law

The second law is a result of the work of the French physicist Nicolas Carnot with heat en-
gines . This states that heat cannot flow from a colder object to a warmer one without work being
done on the system. For example, refrigerators must be run from the motors in order to withdraw heat
from the objects placed inside them.
Another consequence of the second law is that heat can be never be converted completely into
work. In other words, no heat engine can be 100 percent efficient. Some of the heat absorbed by the
engine must lost in the random motions of its molecules. The quantity known as entropy is a measure
of this disorder.

36 32
 The Third Law
The third law is tied to the second law in the following way: the efficiency of the heat engine
depends on its operating temperatures; the engine would reach 100 percent of efficiency only if its
cold temperature were absolute zero (0K). Since such an engine cannot be completely efficient, it fol-
lows that a temperature of absolute zero cannot be reached. Although temperatures extremely close to
absolute zero have been achieved, the remaining gap will never be bridged.

PROBLEM SOLVING
Level 1
Solve the following completely.
1. A 2.0 kg mass is pushed along horizontal, frictionless surface by a 3.0 N force that is parallel to
the surface. How much work is done in moving the mass 1.5 meters horizontally?
2. How much gravitational potential energy would be gained by the mass if a 2.0 kg mass is
pushed along horizontal, frictionless surface by a 3.0 N force that is parallel to the surface is
moved 2 meters horizontally.
3. An object has a mass of 8.0 kg. A 2.0 N force displaces the object a distance of 3.0 meters to
the east and then 4.0 meters to the north what is the total work done on the object?
4. What is the maximum distance that a 60 watt motor may vertically lift a 90 N weight in 7.5s.
5. What is the kinetic energy of a 0.15 kg baseball if its speed is 10 meters per second?
6. Oxygen gas inside a 3.5 L gas tank has a pressure of 1.25 atm. Provided that the temperature
remains constant, how much pressure is needed to reduce its volume by 1/4?
7. A cylinder with a movable piston contains 450 cm3 air at 25˚C. if the pressure kept constant, at
what temperature would you expect the volume to be 650 cm3?
8. At 50˚C a confined ammonia gas has a pressure of 4.00 atm. At what temperature would be its
pressure be equal to 760 mmHg?
9. A gas has a volume of 800.0 mL at - 23.00 °C and 300.0 torr. What would the volume of the
gas be at 227.0 °C and 600.0 torr of pressure?
10. The volume of a gas at 77˚C and 760.0 mmHg is 400.0 mL. What is the volume of the gas at
20.0˚C and 300.0 mmHg?
11. If the kinetic energy of a 10 kg object is 2000 joules, find its velocity.
12. A gas occupies 12.3 liters at a pressure of 40.0 mmHg. What is the volume when the pressure is
increased to 60.0 mmHg?
13. Calculate the decrease in temperature when 2.00 L at 20.0 °C is compressed to 1.00 L.
14. A gas has a volume of 800.0 mL at - 23.00 °C and 300.0 torr. What would the volume of the
gas be at 227.0 °C and 600.0 torr of pressure?
15. 2.00 liters of hydrogen, originally at 25.0 °C and 750.0 mm of mercury, are heated until a vol-
ume of 20.0 liters and a pressure of 3.50 atmospheres is reached. What is the new temperature?

37
33
Level 2
Solve the following completely.
1. The pressure of a gas is reduced from 1200.0 mm Hg to 850.0 mm Hg as the volume of its con-
tainer is increased by moving a piston from 85.0 mL to 350.0 mL. What would the final temper-
ature be if the original temperature was 90.0 °C?
2. A gas syringe contains 56.05 milliliters of a gas at 315.1 K. Determine the volume that the gas
will occupy if the temperature is increased to 380.5 K.
3. A gas occupies 25.3 mL at a pressure of 790.5 mmHg. Determine the volume if the pressure is
reduced to 0.804 atm.
4. 500.0 liters of a gas are prepared at 700.0 mm Hg and 200.0 °C. The gas is placed into a tank
under high pressure. When the tank cools to 20.0 °C, the pressure of the gas is 30.0 atm. What is
the volume of the gas?
5. An electric motor lifts a 10 kg mass 100 meters in 10 seconds. Find the power developed by the
motor.
6. A horizontal force of 40 N pushes a block along a level table at a constant speed of 2 meters per
second. How much work is done on the block in 6 seconds?
7. Ten joules of work are done accelerating a 2.0 kilogram mass from rest across a horizontal, fric-
tionless table. Find the total kinetic energy gained by the mass.
8. A 2 kilogram mass is thrown vertically upward from the Earth’s surface with an initial kinetic
energy of 400 newton-meters. Find the distance traveled by the thrown object.
9. A basketball player who weighs 600 newtons jumps 0.5 meter vertically off the floor. What is
the kinetic energy just before hitting the floor?
10. What is the final volume of a 400.0 mL gas sample that is subjected to a temperature change
from 22.0 °C to 30.0 °C and a pressure change from 760.0 mm Hg to 360.0 mm Hg?

Level 3
Solve the following completely.
1. An object gains 10 joules of potential energy as it is lifted vertically 2.0 meters. If a second ob-
ject with one half the mass is lifted vertically 2.0 meters, find the potential energy gained by the
second object.
2. What is the final volume of a 400.0 mL gas sample that is subjected to a temperature change
from 22.0 °C to 30.0 °C and a pressure change from 760.0 mm Hg to 360.0 mm Hg?
3. The volume of a gas originally at standard temperature and pressure was recorded as 488.8 mL.
What volume would the same gas occupy when subjected to a pressure of 100.0 atm and tem-
perature of minus 245.0 °C?
4. A sample of gas has a volume of 12.0 L and a pressure of 1.00 atm. If the pressure of gas is in-
creased to 2.00 atm, what is the new volume of the gas?
5. A sample of gas has a volume of 12.0 L and a pressure of 1.00 atm. If the pressure of gas is in-
creased to 2.00 atm, what is the new volume of the gas?

38 34
 Chapter
Four
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

I. Introduction
Electricity is a fundamental property of all matter. There are two types of electric charges: posi-
tive and negative. The proton and the electron are, respectively, the fundamental positive and negative
charges. If an object has the same number of protons and electrons, it is electrically neutral. General-
ly, charge is transferred by the gain or loss of electrons.
Electrically charged objects attract or repel each other with the force that is directly proportional
to the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The relationship is known as Coulomb’s law. Substances that allow charges to move freely through
them are called conductors; substances that severely restrict this moment are insulators.
The region of space in which an electric charge is subject to an electric force is known as an
electric field. The electric-field concept is an alternative way of explaining how charged objects at-
tract or repel each other. Constructions called field lines are an aid of visualizing the electric fields
around various charge configurations.
The work done in moving a unit charge between two points in an electric field is known as the
potential difference between these points. Potential difference describes the electric field in terms of
energy and work.
The charge that a conductor acquires is proportional to the potential difference across the con-
ductor. The ratio of charge to potential difference is called capacitance. Devices that make use of this
property are known as capacitors; they are used to store electric charge for a variety of applications.

Electric Charges
The fundamental positive charge is the proton, which is found in the nucleus of the atom along
with uncharged neutrons. The fundamental negative charge is the electron, which is located outside
the nucleus. The properties of these three particles are compare in the table below:
Relative
Particle Charge ( C ) Mass (kg)
Charge

Proton +1 +1.6 x 10 –19 1.66 x 10 –27

Electron -1 -1.6 x 10 –19 9.11 x 10 –31

Neutron 0 0.00 1.67 x 10 –27

As we can see, proton and electron have equal, but opposite charges. Therefore, a neutral object
has the same number of protons and electrons. The proton is nearly 2,000 times more massive than
the electron and is tightly bound in the nucleus (along with the neutrons). If an object gains electrons,
the excess of electrons gives the object a negative charge. If an object loses electrons. The deficiency
of electrons give the object a positive charge.

39
35
Electric Current
The word current means “flow” and electric current means “flow of charge.” when we use the
term electric current, we are referring, not to the speed of the charged particles, but to the quantity of
charge that passes a single point in time. The SI unit of current is ampere (A) which is equivalent to 1
coulomb per second. The symbol used to represent current is I, and we can write:

Where:
I = electric current
∆q = electric charge
t = time

Sample Problem
What is the electric current in a conductor if 240 coulombs of charge pass through it in 1.0 mi-
nute?
Given:
∆q = 240 C
t = 60 s
I =?
Solution:

Key Ideas

Conductors materials permit charged particles such as electrons or ions to move freely through them.
Conductors cannot hold a charge if they are in contact with other materials since the
charged particles move easily through them.
Insulators materials that do not readily permit the free movement of charges. When an insulator is
given an electric charge, the charge remains confined to the area where the charge was
placed.
Electric field exist in the region of space if an electric force is exerted on a charged particle.
Potential difference is a scalar quantity, as is work. The unit of potential difference is the joule per
coulomb (J/C) called the volt (V) in honor of Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist.

40 36
 Resistance
An effect of electrical resistance is the almost total conversion of the lost energy into heat. Re-
sistance is the reason that wires become hot as they conduct a current. We measure the resistance of a
material by placing a potential difference across it and then measuring the amount of current that
passes through the material. Resistance is defined as the ratio of potential difference in current:

Where:
I = electric current
V = voltage
R = resistance
The SI unit of resistance is the volt per ampere (V/A), which is called the ohm (Ω) in honor of
German physicist Georg Ohm.

Sample Problem
When a conductor has a potential difference of 110 volts place across it, the current through it
is 0.50 ampere. What is the resistance of the conductor?
Given:
V = 110 volts
I = 0.50 A
R=?
Solution:

The resistance of a material defends on (1) the nature of the material, (2) the geometry of the
conductor, and (3) the temperature at which the resistance is measured.

41
37
Electric Circuits
The word circuit means “closed path.” By an electric circuit we mean an arrangement where
electric charges can flow in a closed path. The simplest electric circuit consist of a source of potential
difference. (a battery or a power source), a single resistance and connecting wires. A device that pro-
vides resistance to a circuit is called a resistor.
Most circuits contains more than one load. The load in a circuit can be connected in two differ-
ent ways—in series or in parallel.

Series Circuits
A series circuit has only one current path and if that path is interrupted, the entire circuit ceases
to operate.

Mathematically, the relationship for any series connection may be express as:
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = . . .
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . .
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . .
The first equation deals with the current through each of the component is the same. The sec-
ond one pertains to the total voltages across all the components is the sum of the voltages across each
of them. The last equation shows the total resistance is the sum of individual resistance.

Parallel Circuits
A parallel circuit is a circuit in which different loads are located on separate branches. Because
there are separate branches, the charges travel through more than one path.

When resistors or other components are in parallel:

• The voltage across each of the component is the same.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . .
• The total current in the main circuit is the sum of the currents in the branches.
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = . . .
• The total resistance in the sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistance.

42 38
 Ohm’s Law
The relationship among voltage, current, and resistance is given by George Simon Ohm. He de-
termined the relationship between current (I), voltage (V), and resistance (R) could be expressed with
the equation known as Ohm’s law.

Where:
I = electric current
V = voltage
R = resistance

Sample Problem
How much current flows across a 3 V battery connected to resistor of 30Ω?
Given: Solution:
V = 3V
R = 30Ω
I=?

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Find the solution to the given problems.
1. How much current would a 12.0Ω resistor draw when connected to a 220V outlet?
2. An ammeter registers 1.5 A of current in a wire that is connected to a 12.0 V battery. What is the
wire’s resistance?
3. The current in a circuit is 6.50 A. if the resistance circuit is 15.7Ω, what is the voltage across the
oven?
4. Find the current in and voltage across each of the resistor in the following circuits:
a. a 15Ω and a 18Ω resistor connected in series with a 12V source.
b. a 15Ω and a 18Ω resistor connected in parallel with a 12V source.
5. A string of 50V identical miniature decorative lights is wired in series. If it draws 0.75A of cur-
rent when it is connected to a 220V emf source, what is the resistance of each miniature bulb
when they are lighted?

43
39
MAGNETISM
The phenomenon of magnetism is known in ancient times, when it was observed that certain
rocks (called lodestones) attracted iron. It was also observe that, when pieces of iron were rubbed to
the lodestones, the iron become magnetized and that, if a very thin magnet was floated on water, one
end of the magnet always pointed in the northern direction. As a result of these discoveries, the Chi-
nese used magnets to create compasses with which to navigate their waters.

Magnets
A magnet, is any substance that possesses the characteristic to attract iron. Magnets have polari-
ty. The end that points northward is the north pole of the magnet, and the end that points southward
is the south pole. Also, when two magnets are both near one another, it is observed that “like poles
repel and unlike poles attract” . For these reason we can conclude that the Earth itself behaves like a
giant magnet. If a piece of metal is place in the vicinity of a magnet, the metal itself become magnet-
ized. If the metal retains its magnetism after the original magnet is removed, it is called permanent
magnet; otherwise it is temporary magnet.

Magnetic Fields
In the same way that electrostatic and gravitational forces can be explained by electric and grav-
itational fields, the existence of magnetic forces can be explained by the presence of magnetic fields.
Also, just as field lines are used to visualize electric and gravitational fields, magnetic field lines
(called flux lines) are used to visualize a magnetic field.
The magnetic fields between various poles of two adjacent magnets. By agreement the field
lines point away from the north and toward the south.

44 40
 ELECTROMAGNETISM
In 1820, the Danish physicist Hans Oersted discovered that a wire carrying produced a mag-
netic field.

We note that the magnetic field is circular and that its plane is perpendicular to the direction of
the wire carrying the current. We can determine the direction of the magnetic field by using what we
call right hand rule:

The thumb of the right hand is pointed in the direction of the convection current. The fingers of
the right hand (from wrist to fingertips) will curl in the direction of the magnetic field. (Note: if you
use electron flow instead of conventional current, use your left hand instead of your right hand.)

Forces on a current Carrier in a Magnetic Field

If a wire carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field, so that the direction of the current is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, the magnetic field of the wire will interact with
the magnetic field of the magnet to produce a force on the wire.
If the current is parallel to the magnetic field, no force will be present to the wire. When the
direction of the current is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the magnitude of the force on the wire
can be found from this relationship:

F = IℓB
Where:
F = force on the wire
B = magnetic field
ℓ = length of the wire
I = current in the wire

45
41
 The equation tells us that the magnitude of the force of the wire is proportional to the current in
the wire, the length of the wire in the magnetic field and the magnetic induction. If we solve for the

equation for B we find that the unit of magnetic induction, the tesla (T), is equivalent to
the newton per ampere∙meter N/A∙m.

Sample Problem
Calculate the force on the wire if the current in the wire is 100 amperes and the length of the
wire in a magnetic field whose induction is 3.0 x 10-3 teslas is 2.0 meters.
Given:
B = 3.0 x 10-3 teslas
ℓ = 2.0 meters
I = 100 amperes
F=?
Solution:
F = IℓB
= (100 A) (2.0 m) (3.0 x 10-3 N/A∙m)
= 6.0 x 10-1 N

Electric Motors
Another application of current-carrying loop in a magnetic field is the electric motor. The elec-
trical energy supplied by the circuit is converted by means of magnetic field into the mechanical ener-
gy of rotation. In a motor a motor is coil around a soft-iron core that concentrates the magnetic field
and increases the magnitude of the torque.
To continue the rotation past 90˚, the current in the coil must be reversed each and after each
half rotation. In a direct current (dc) motor, this reversal is accomplished by means of a deice called a
split-ring commutator.

46 42
 Electromagnetic Induction
A motor use a magnetic field to convert electrical energy into a mechanical energy. It is also
possible to accomplish the reverse process, that is to use a magnetic field to convert mechanical en-
ergy into electrical energy. Devices that accomplish this purpose are known as generators. Electrons
passing through the moving segment of the wire constitute an electric current.
Since work has been done in moving the electrons through the wire, a potential difference has
been induced across the ends of the wire. This potential difference depends on the strength of the
magnetic field, the length of the wire in the magnetic field, and the speed with which the wire is
moved. The induced potential energy is represented by this relationship:

V = Bℓv
Where:
V = potential difference
B = magnetic field
ℓ = length of the wire
v = speed/velocity

Sample Problem
Calculate potential difference induced across the ends of the conductor that is 0.20 meter long
and is moved perpendicularly through the magnetic field of 4.0 x 10-1 tesla, with a speed of 8.0 me-
ters per second.
Given:
B = 4.0 x 10-1 tesla
ℓ = 0.20 meter
v = 8.0 meters per second
V =?
Solution:
V = Bℓv
= (4.0 x 10-1 T) (0.20m) (8.0 m/s)
= 6.4 x 10-1 V
Induced potential difference is also known as electromotive force (emf), symbolized as ɛ.
To induced a potential difference across a conductor, the only requirement is the magnetic
field be interrupted. The interruption is accomplished when the conductor cuts through the magnetic
field lines. However, physical motion need not to be present, only a charge in the magnetic field is
required.

47
43
 Our equation V = Bℓv is completely equivalent to the following equation:
This equation shows that it is the change in the magnetic flux with time that produces the potential
difference. The Greek letter ϕ (phi) represents the magnetic flux, which is measured in webers.

Generators
A generator is a commercial device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. In
a very simple electric generator, a coil of wire is wrapped around an iron core. This arrangement is
placed in a magnetic field and rotated in the field.

In this arrangement, it is the ends of the coil that interrupt the field and produce the potential
difference across the ends of the coil.

Transformers
When electricity is transmitted across long distances, high voltages are used to reduced losses
due to heat (I2R). At the power plant the electricity is first generated at a lower potential difference,
and it must be stepped up for transmission. When electricity enters a building or home, however, its
potential difference must be reduced or stepped down.
A transformer is a device that allows the potential difference to be increased or decreased. A
diagram of a transformer is shown below:

STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER

STEP-UP TRANSFORMER

48 44
 Based from the diagram, one of the coils known as the primary coil, is attached to the alter-
nating current source, and the other, the secondary coil, to the circuit that requires the stepped-up
or stepped-down voltage. The alternating current in the primary coil produces a changing magnetic
field is carried by the iron core and induces a changing electric field in the secondary coil.
The ratio of the voltages in primary and secondary coils depends on the relative numbers of
turns of wire in these coils, as indicated in this equation:

Where:
Vp = voltage in primary coil
Vs = voltage in secondary coil
Np = number of turns in primary coil
Ns = number of turns in secondary coil

If voltage is increased, that is, if the number of turns is greater in the secondary coil, the
transformer is termed a step-up transformer. If the voltage is decreased (the number of turns in the
secondary coil is less), the transformer is a step-down transformer.

Sample Problem
The primary coil on a transformer has 1200 turns. If it is desired to step down the voltage
from 200 volts to 110 volts. How many turns should the secondary coil have?
Given:
Vp = 200 V
Vs = 110 V
Np = 1200 turns
Ns = ?
Solution:

49
45
 A step-up transformer will produce decreased current at the secondary coil. The ratio of the
power output to the power input is known as the efficiency of the transformer.

Percent efficiency

Where:
Vp = voltage in primary coil
Vs = voltage in secondary coil
Ip = current in primary coil
Is = current in secondary coil

Generally, heat losses produce transformers with efficiencies somewhat less than 100%

Sample Problem
A transformer steps up potential difference from 300 volts to 600 volts. The current in the pri-
mary coil is 6.0 amperes, while the current in the secondary coil is 2.0 amperes. Calculate the effi-
ciency of the transformer.
Given:
Vp = 300 volts
Vs = 600 volts
Ip = 6.0 amperes
Is = 2.0 amperes
Solution:
Percent efficiency

50 46
 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Find the solution to the given problems.
1. Calculate the force on the wire if the current in the wire is 77 amperes and the length of the
wire in a magnetic field whose induction is 4.0 x 10-5 teslas is 5.0 meters.
2. Find the potential difference induced across the ends of a conductor that is 1.5 meter long and
is moved perpendicular through a magnetic field of 5.6 x 10-1 tesla, with the speed of 7.0 meters
per second.
3. A step-up transformer is used on a 220V line to provide a potential difference of 2400V. If the
primary has 75 turns. How many turns must the secondary have?
4. A wire 24 m long carries a current of 25 A from east to west. Find the magnetic force on the
wire if the magnetic field of Earth at this location is directed from south to north and has a mag-
nitude of 3.0 x 10-3 T.
5. A step-down transformer has 625 turns in its secondary coil and 14,000 turns in its primary
coil. If the potential difference across the primary coil is 2500V. What is the potential differ-
ence across the secondary coil?

Electromagnetic Waves
We have seen that a changing electric field produces a changing magnetic field and vice versa.
If the changing electric field is produced by an accelerating change energy will be radiated away
from the charge in the form of electromagnetic waves. In an electromagnetic wave, both the electric
field and the magnetic field vary as a sine wave and the two fields are perpendicular to each other and
to their direction of motion. All electromagnetic waves (collectively known as the electromagnetic
spectrum) travel in space at the speed of light.

51
47
 PROBLEM SOLVING
Level 1
Solve the following completely.
1. Two point charges 1 meter apart repel each other with a force of 9N. What is the force of re-
pulsion when these two charges are 3 meters apart?
2. What force will a proton experience in a uniform electric field whose strength is 2.00 x 105 N
per coulomb?
3. It takes 15 joules of work to bring 3.0 coulombs of positive charge from infinity to a point.
What is the electric potential at this point in an electric field?
4. If the voltage across a 4 ohm resistor is 12 volts. Calculate the current through the resistor.
5. A charge of 5.0 coulombs moves through a circuit in 0.50 second. How much current is flow-
ing through the circuit?
6. What is the current in a conductor if 6.25 x 1018 electrons pass a given point each second?
7. A resistor carries a current of 0.10 ampere when the potential difference across it is 5.0 volts.
Find the resistance of the resistor.
8. If the potential difference across a 12 ohm resistor is 6 volts, calculate the current through the
resistor.
9. What is the potential difference induced in a wire 0.20 long as it moves with a speed of 50 me-
ters per second perpendicularly to a magnetic field that has a magnetic flux density of 0.050
tesla?
10. A transformer has 150 turns of wire in the primary coil and 1200 turns of wire in the second-
ary coil. The potential difference across the primary is 110 volts. What is the potential differ-
ence induced across the secondary coil?
11. When a 12 volt potential difference is applied to the primary coil of a transformer, an 8.0 volt
potential difference is induced in the secondary coil. If the primary coil has 24 turns. How
many turns does the secondary coil have?[Assume 100% efficiency.]
12. An ideal transformer has a current of 2.0 amperes and a potential difference of 120 volts across
its primary coil. If the current in the coil is 0.50 ampere. Calculate for the potential difference
across the secondary coil.
13. The resistivity of copper at room temperature is 1.72 x 10 -6 Ω cm. What is the resistance of a
copper wire 35 m long and 0.025 cm2 in cross section?
14. How much current flows across a 3 volts battery connected to resistors of 30 Ω?
15. How much current would a 12.0 Ω resistor draw when connected to a 220V outlet?

52 48
 Level 2
Solve the following completely.
1. When a hair dryer is plugged into a 220V outlet, it has a 1.36 A current in it. What is the hair
dryer’s power rating?
2. A 3800 watts clothes dryer is connected to a 220V circuit. How much current does the dryer
draw?
3. A flashlight bulb is connected across a 3V power source. If the current through the lamp is
1.75A, what is the power rating of the lamp?
4. The work required to move 2 coulombs of charge through a potential difference of 5 volts.
5. If 8.0 joules of work is required to transfer 4.0 coulombs of charge between two points, deter-
mine the potential difference between the two points.
6. A 10 volt potential difference maintains a 2 ampere current in a resistor. Find the total energy
expended by this resistor in 5 seconds.
7. What is the current in a normally operating 60 watts, 120 volts lamp?
8. An electric heater rated at 4800 watts is operated on 120 volts. What is the resistance of the
heater?
9. An electric heater raises the temperature of a measured quantity of water. The water absorbs
6000 joules of energy from the heater in 30.0 seconds. What is the minimum power supplied to
the heater?
10. A resistor carries a current of 55 amperes when the potential difference across it is 10 volts.
Calculate the resistance.

Level 3
Solve the following completely.
1. A step-down transformer has 6500 turns on its primary coil and 125 turns on its secondary coil.
The voltage across the primary circuit is 6,500bvolts. If the current in the secondary coil is
24A, what is the current in the primary circuit?
2. The magnetic force acting on a wire that is perpendicular to a 2.5 T uniform magnetic field is
6.5 N. if the current in the wire is 9.0 A, what is the length of the wire that is inside the magnet-
ic field?
3. An electric heater is connected across a 220 V outlet. The heater dissipates 4.5 kW of power in
the form of electromagnetic radiation. Calculate the resistance of the heater?
4. A voltmeter connected across resistance reads 220V, and an ammeter connected in series with
the resistance reads 2.60 A. what is the value of the resistance?
5. A 37 ohms resistance is connected in parallel with an unknown resistance in a resistor. If the
total current taken by both of the resistors is 6.3 amperes when the circuit has an emf of 110
volts, calculate the resistance.

49 53
Chapter
Five
WAVES, SOUNDS AND LIGHT

I. Introduction

A wave can be described as a disturbance that travels through a medium from one location to
another location. The wave is defined as the energy transferred through medium with regular vibra-
tion or oscillating motion. The highest point on a wave is called the peak. The lowest point is called
the trough. The peak of a wave and the trough of a wave are always twice the wave's amplitude apart
from each other.
The waves are classified mainly two types that are longitudinal wave and transverse waves.
The sound waves are good example of longitudinal wave which is travelled medium with the use of
force. This force is exerted between molecules of the medium. The electromagnetic radiations are
transverse waves which also include the light waves. These waves show displacement in the perpen-
dicular direction of the field intensity vector.

A wave is produced when a vibrating source periodically disturbs the first particle of a medi-
um. This creates a wave pattern that begins to travel along the medium from particle to particle.
When no particle is transferred from one part of space to other although energy is transferred then
we call it wave or simply wave.
The disturbance can be due to natural reasons like wind, air, storm etc. or it can be caused in-
tentionally. During energy transfer of the wave from one point to another, the wave possesses the
energy. This energy is called wave energy.

Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance between identical points in adjacent cycles of a waveform signal
propagated in space or along a wire. It measures the distance between any two adjacent locations on
the wave. This distance is usually measured in one of three ways: crest to next crest, trough to next
trough, or from the start of a wave cycle to the next starting point. The size of a wave is measured as
its wavelength, which is the distance between any two corresponding points on successive waves,
usually peak-to-peak or trough-to-trough.

54 50
 Amplitude of a Wave
Amplitude of Wave is the distance from the center line to the top of a crest or to the bottom of a
trough. The greater the amplitude of a wave then the more energy it is carrying. The maximum posi-
tive displacement or distance moved by a point on a vibrating body or wave measured from its equi-
librium position is the amplitude of wave. The units of the amplitude depend on the type of wave, but
are always in the same units as the oscillating variable. When the amplitude of a wave steadily de-
creases because its energy is being lost, it is said to be damped. So, the greater the intensity of a
sound, the greater will be the amplitude.

Properties of Waves
Transmission and media: (spacing) The movement of the wave is mostly rectilinear or in a
straight line. A medium can be a bounded medium, a linear medium, a uniform medium, an isotropic
and an anisotropic medium. These are also called as the transmission medium such as solid, liquid,
gas or plasma that can transmit energy waves. Waves undergo the following phenomena namely re-
flection, interference, absorption, refraction, diffraction, polarization, dispersion.
Reflection: The properties of reflection on a mirror are also followed by a wave. When a wave
reflects then the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Interference: When waves of equal frequency and nearly equal amplitude are super imposed
then the phenomenon of interference occurs. It focuses on two kinds such as constructive interference
and destructive interference.
Absorption: The property of absorption is also followed during wave motion. It can be absorbed
by some surface leading to the change in the type of energy.
Refraction: While traveling from one medium to another the wave may change its speed. This
property is called Refraction. The amount of refraction is dependent on the refractive index of the me-
dium.
Diffraction: The phenomenon of spreading of wave when it passes or emerges from an opening
or it bends when it encounters an obstacle is called Diffraction. These effects are more significant if
the size of the opening is comparable to the wave’s wavelength.
Polarization: A wave oscillating in one plane or direction is called a Polarized wave. It can be
circular polarized or plane polarized. We can use the polarization filter for this purpose.
Dispersion: The phenomenon of dispersion is also followed by the wave. Dispersion is the
breaking into the component colors like when the white light passes through the prism then it is dis-
persed into 7 colors.

51 55
Types of Waves
A wave is a vibratory disturbance that is transmitted through a material or through space. Water
waves, sound waves and waves that travel along a spring are examples of mechanical waves. Me-
chanical waves require material for transmission.
Mechanical waves can be divided into three different types: transverse, longitudinal and surface
waves.
Transverse wave, the particles of the medium vibrate or exhibit simple harmonic motion (SHM)
about a rest position perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the wave.

Longitudinal wave, a disturbance causes the particles of the material to vibrate in SHM in a di-
rection parallel to the direction of the motion of the wave.

Surface wave, the combination of transverse and longitudinal waves. The motions of particles
are both parallel and perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave.

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 Periodic Waves
A periodic disturbance will produce a traveling wave. As a result each particle in a medium will
vibrate in simple harmonic motion in response to the disturbance. If we look at a single particle in the
medium, we see that it move up and down as we send a traveling wave through the spring. The time it
takes for its motion to repeat itself is called the period (T), and its measured in seconds.
The number times the motion repeats itself in the time interval of one unit of time is known as
the frequency (f) of the wave. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), which is equivalent to cycles per
second or reciprocal seconds (s-1)
Frequency and period are inversely proportional to each other and are related by this equation:

Where:
T = period
f = frequency

Speed of Waves
How fast does a periodic move? We know that velocity is the change in displacement per unit
time. If the time was equal to T, the period of the wave motion move a distance of one wavelength

(λ). Therefore, Since period and frequency are reciprocals of each other, we can re

write the equation as follows:

v = fλ
Where:
v = velocity
f = frequency
λ = wavelength

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Sample Problem
What is the wavelength of a sound wave whose speed is 330 meters per second and whose fre-
quency is 990 hertz?
Given:
v = 330 m/s
f = 990 Hz
λ =?
Solution:
v = fλ

All electromagnetic waves travel in space at then speed of light, which is denoted by the letter c
and approximately equal to 3.0 x 108 meters per second. Generally, the speed of a mechanical wave
depends on the properties of the medium not on the amplitude or frequency of the wave . A wave
with large amplitude transmits more energy than a wave with low amplitude, both travel at the same
speed through the give medium. If two waves have the same speed, the wave with the higher fre-
quency will have a shorter wavelength than the wave with the lower frequency. This is a direct result
of the equation v = fλ.

Sound Waves
Sound is a longitudinal, mechanical wave. Sound can travel through any medium, but it cannot
travel through a vacuum. There is no sound in outer space. It is a variation in pressure. A region of
increased pressure on a sound wave is called a compression (or condensation). A region of decreased
pressure on a sound wave is called a rarefaction (or dilation).
The sources of sound
 vibrating solids
 rapid expansion or compression (explosions and implositons)
 Smooth (laminar) air flow around blunt obstacles may result in the formation of vorticies (the
plural of vortex) that snap off or shed with a characteristic frequency. This process is called
vortex shedding and is another means by which sound waves are formed. This is how a whistle
or flute produces sound. Aslo the aeolian harp effect of singing power lines and fluttering vene-
tian blinds.

58 54
 Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect is a phenomenon observed whenever the source of waves is moving with
respect to an observer. The Doppler effect can be described as the effect produced by a moving
source of waves in which there is an apparent upward shift in frequency for the observer and the
source are approaching and an apparent downward shift in frequency when the observer and the
source is receding. The Doppler effect can be observed to occur with all types of waves - most nota-
bly water waves, sound waves, and light waves.
We are most familiar with the Doppler effect because of our experiences with sound waves.
Perhaps you recall an instance in which a police car or emergency vehicle was traveling towards
you on the highway. As the car approached with its siren blasting, the pitch of the siren sound (a
measure of the siren's frequency) was high; and then suddenly after the car passed by, the pitch of
the siren sound was low. That was the Doppler effect - a shift in the apparent frequency for a sound
wave produced by a moving source.

LIGHT
Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that can be seen by humans. The wave nature of
light was first illustrated through experiments on diffraction and interference. Like all electromag-
netic waves, light can travel through a vacuum. The transverse nature of light can be demonstrated
through polarization.
Light is an electromagnetic wave. The different forms of light constitute the electromagnetic
spectrum.

59
55
Polarization
Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave that can be seen by a typical human. Wherever light
goes, the electric and magnetic fields are disturbed perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
This propagating disturbance is what makes light a wave. The fact that the electric and magnetic
fields are disturbed makes light an electromagnetic wave. The fact that it disturbs these fields at right
angles to the direction of propagation makes light a transverse wave. In this section we will explore
what it means to be transverse.

Speed of Light
Anyone who has observed lightning or fireworks from a distance knows that the flash of light
appears nearly instantaneously, while explosion is heard somewhat later. We know that sound travels
in air at approximately 330 meters per second (about 750mi/h), but how fast does light travels?
As a result of Einstein’ special theory of relativity, the speed of light in a vacuum is constant
under all circumstances. It has been set at the value 2.99792458 x 108 meters per second
(approximately 186,000 mi/s). The letter c is used to represent the speed of light in a vacuum. The
speed of light is less in a material medium than in a vacuum and depends on the nature of the medi-
um and the frequency of the light.

Visible Light
The visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum ranges
from red to violet. Monochromatic light consists of light of a
single color, that is, light is a single wavelength (frequency). Of
all the colors of visible light are mixed together, the result is
white light. Black is the complete absence of visible light.

60 56
 REFLECTION
Law of reflection
Light is known to behave in a very predictable manner. If a ray of light could be observed ap-
proaching and reflecting off of a flat mirror, then the behavior of the light as it reflects would follow a
predictable law known as the law of reflection.

The ray of light approaching the mirror is known as the incident ray. The ray of light that leaves
the mirror is known as the reflected ray. At the point of incidence where the ray strikes the mirror, a
line can be drawn perpendicular to the surface of the mirror.
This line is known as a normal line. The normal line divides the angle between the incident ray
and the reflected ray into two equal angles. The angle between the incident ray and the normal is
known as the angle of incidence. The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is known as
the angle of reflection. (These two angles are labeled with the Greek letter "theta" accompanied by a
subscript; read as "theta-i" for angle of incidence and "theta-r" for angle of reflection.) The law of re-
flection states that when a ray of light reflects off a surface, the angle of incidence is equal to the an-
gle of reflection.
Polished surfaces such as plane mirrors produce regular reflection.

An irregular surface such as a windblown water surface or the paper on which this book is
printed produces diffuse reflection.

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57
MIRRORS
One primary application of reflected light is the image formed by a mirror. Mirrors may be
plane or curved.

Plane Mirrors
When an object is viewed in a plane mirror, the image that is formed is erect (upright), left-right
reversed, and the same size as the object. The object and image distances from the mirror are equal.
These relationships can be proved by using the law of reflection.
The image produced by a plane mirror is virtual because light does not actually pass through the
mirror to form the image; it only appears to be located inside the mirror

This phenomenon occurs because light appears to travel in straight lines, and a device such as
human eye searches for the apparent origin of light.

Curved Mirrors
When parallel rays of light strike the surface of a curved mirror, the light may either converge
or diverge. Concave mirrors cause the light rays to converge to a point known as the principal focus.
Convex mirrors cause light rays to diverge. If the diverging rays were projected backward, they
would meet at a point called the virtual focus.

Converging Light Rays

62 58
 Diverging Light Rays

Concave Mirrors
If an object is placed at various distances from a curved mirror, the mirror will produce differ-
ent types of images. Any two rays along with the principal axis can be used to locate the image
formed by a concave mirror.
Image Formation by a Concave Mirror
For a real object very far away from the mirror, the real image is formed at the focus.

For a real object close to the mirror but outside of the center of curvature, the real image is formed
between C and f. The image is inverted and smaller than the object .

63
59
For a real object at C, the real image is formed at C. The image is inverted and the same size as the
object.

For a real object between C and f, a real image is formed outside of C. The image is inverted and
larger than the object.

For a real object at f, no image is formed. The reflected rays are parallel and never converge.

64 60
 For a real object between f and the mirror, a virtual image is formed behind the mirror. The position
of the image is found by tracing the reflected rays back behind the mirror to where they meet. The
image is upright and larger than the object.

Convex Mirrors
In every case, a spherical convex mirror produces an erect virtual, image that is located behind
the mirror.

We note the following:

1. When a ray parallel to the principal axis strikes the surface of a convex mirror, it is reflected
from the surface of the mirror in such a way that, it is projected back behind the mirror, it passes
through a virtual focus.
2. If a ray strikes the mirror at an angle such that, if it were projected as a straight line, it would
pass through the virtual focus , it is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
3. If a ray strikes the mirror in such a way that, if it were projected as a straight line, it would pass
through the center of curvature, the ray is reflected back on itself.
4. For a ray that strikes the surface of the mirror at the principal axis, the principal axis serves as a
normal to the surface and the ray is, therefore, reflected at the same angle.
In all cases involving single curved mirrors, real images are inverted (upside down and left-right
reversed), and virtual images are erect.

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Mirrors Equations
We can calculate the sizes and distances of the images formed by curved mirrors by means of
the following equations,

where hi and ho represent the respective size (heights) of the image and object, and di and do represent
the respective distances of the image and object from the mirror.
The following sign conventions are used for the equations: when the object, image, or focal
point is “real” (i.e., is on reflecting side of the mirror), the distance is considered positive; when the
object, image, or focal point is “virtual” (i.e., behind the mirror), the distance is considered negative.
Virtual objects occur only in problems in which more than one mirror is used. Only then can an ob-
ject be behind the mirror, that is, if it is the image produce by another mirror.
We can use the following equation to calculate the magnification (m) of the mirror:

The magnification is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. The nega-
tive sign is inserted as a convention. Object and image heights are considered negative if below the
axis. Thus the magnification is positive for an erect image and negative for an inverted image.

Sample Problem
Describe the image and its placement when a 0.10 meter object is placed 0.50 meter in front of
a convex mirror whose focal length is 1.0 meter.
Given: Solution:
f = 0.10 meter
do = 0.50 meter
di = ?
hi = ?

66 62
 REFRACTION
When monochromatic light travels between two media, there is a change in the speed of light
wave. If the light enters at an oblique angle, it will change direction as it passes in the second medi-
um.

Mathematically express in the equation:

As a result of the relationship expressed in this equation (Snell’s law) is that the lower the
speed, the smaller the angle.

Absolute Index of Refraction

To simplify refraction problems, a quantity known as the absolute index of refraction is de-
fined as follows:

The equation states that the absolute index of refraction of a medium (n) is the ration of the speed of
light in the vacuum (c) to the speed of light in a medium (v). The absolute index of refraction is al-
ways grater than or equal to 1. the larger the index of refraction, the slower the speed of light in a me-
dium.

Sample Problem
The speed of light in a medium is 2.4 x 108 meters per second. What is the absolute index of
refraction of the medium?
Given: Solution:
c = 3.0 x 108 m/s
v = 2.4 x 108 m/s
n=?

63 67
LENSES
A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of re-
fraction. A simple lens consists of a single piece of transparent material, while a com-
pound lens consists of several simple lenses (elements), usually arranged along a common axis.

Types of Lenses
Another way to classify lenses is by the curve of the glass on each side of the lens. There are
terms used to describe each side. Then the two sides are combined to come up with the name of the
lens.
Convex, a convex lens is one where the center of the lens is thicker than the edges.
Concave, a concave lens is one where the center of the lens is thinner than the edges. One way to
remember the difference between the two lenses is to think of "caving in" with the concave lens.
Plano, a plano lens is a flat lens. This is used when one side is flat and the other side is concave or
convex. You can think of flat as a "plain."
Meniscus, a meniscus lens is one where one side is concave and one side is convex.
Biconvex, a lens in which both sides are convex is biconvex. Biconvex lenses are converging lenses.
Plano-convex, a lens in which one side is convex and the other is plano. Plano-convex lenses are
converging lenses.
Biconcave, a lens in which both sides are concave is biconcave. Biconcave lenses are diverging
lenses.
Plano-concave, a lens in which one side is concave and the other is plano. Plano-concave lenses are
diverging lenses.
Positive meniscus, a converging lens where one side is concave and the other convex.
Negative meniscus, a diverging lens where one side is concave and the other convex.

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 Converging (Convex) Lenses
A converging lens will cause the light rays to bend to a specific focal point. Another name for
this type of lens is a positive lens. Convex lenses are thicker at the middle. Rays of light that pass
through the lens are brought closer together (they converge). A convex lens is a converging lens.
When parallel rays of light pass through a convex lens the refracted rays converge at one point
called the principal focus. The distance between the principal focus and the centre of the lens is called
the focal length.

• Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens will refract through
the lens and travel through the focal point on the opposite side of the lens.
• Incident ray traveling through the focal point on the way to the lens will refract through the lens
and travel parallel to the principal axis.

Convex Lens Ray Diagram

When an object is placed in front of a lens, light rays coming from the object fall on the lens
and get refracted. The refracted rays produce an image at a point where they intersect or appear to in-
tersect each other. The formation of images by lenses is usually shown by a ray diagram. To construct
a ray diagram we need at least two rays whose path after refraction through the lens is known. Any
two of the following rays are usually considered for constructing ray diagrams.
A ray of light passing through the Optical Center of the lens travels straight without suffering
any deviation. This holds good only in the case of a thin lens.

65 69
 An incident ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the focus.

An incident ray passing through the focus of a lens emerge parallel to the principal axis after
refraction.

The nature of images formed by a convex lens depends upon the distance of the object from the
Optical Center of the lens. Let us now see how the image is formed by a convex lens for various po-
sitions of the object.
1. When the Object is Placed between F1 and O:

The image is:

• Formed on the same side

of the lens
• Virtual
• Erect
• Magnified

2. When the Object is Placed at 2F1.

The image is:

• Formed at 2F2
• Real
• Inverted
• Same size as the object

70 66
 3. When the Object is Placed between F1 and F2.

The image is:

• Formed beyond 2F2

• Real
• Inverted
• Magnified

4. When the Object is Placed at F1.

The image is:

• Formed at infinity
• real
• Inverted
• Magnified

5. When the Object is Placed beyond 2F1.

The image is:

• Formed between
F2 and 2F2
• Real
• Inverted
• Diminished

6. When the Object is Placed at Infinity.

The image is:

• Formed at F2
• Inverted
• Real
• Highly diminished

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67
 Table of Summary of Image Formed by a Convex Lens

Position of Ob-
No. Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
ject

Highly diminished,
1. At infinity At the focus Real and inverted
Point sized

Between the focus

2. Beyond 2F and centre of curva- Diminished Real and inverted
ture
At the centre of cur-
3. At 2F Same size Real and inverted
vature
Between F and Beyond the centre of
4. Enlarged Real and inverted
2F curvature

5. At the focus F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted

Between the fo-

6. cus F and optical Behind the object Enlarged Virtual and erect
centre C

Diverging (Concave) Lenses

A diverging lens will cause light rays from a specific focal point to be spread out. Another
name for this type of lens is a negative lens. Concave lenses are thinner at the middle. Rays of light
that pass through the lens are spread out (they diverge). A concave lens is a diverging lens.
When parallel rays of light pass through a concave lens the refracted rays diverge so that they
appear to come from one point called the principal focus.
The distance between the principal focus and the centre of the lens is called the focal length.
The image formed is virtual and diminished (smaller).

• Any incident ray traveling parallel to

the principal axis of a diverging lens
will refract through the lens and trav-
el in line with the focal point (i.e., in a
direction such that its extension will
pass through the focal point).
• Any incident ray traveling towards the
focal point on the way to the lens will
refract through the lens and travel par-
allel to the principal axis.

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 Lens Equations
We can calculate the sizes and distances of images formed by lenses by means of the following
equations, which are identical to the equations used for curved mirrors:

The following sign conventions are used for these equations: the focal length is considered pos-
itive for converging lenses and negative for diverging lenses. The objects distance is considered as
positive if it is on the side of the lens from which light is coming, that is, if the object is real, as usu-
ally the case. The image distance is considered positive if it is on the opposite side of the lens from
which light is coming, that is, if the image is virtual, the distance is negative.
The equation for the magnification of a (m) mirror can be used also to calculate the magnifica-
tion of a lens:

The magnification is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. The nega-
tive sign is inserted as a convention. Object and image heights are considered positive if they are
above the axis and negative if below the axis. Thus the magnification is positive for an erect image
and negative for an inverted image.

Sample Problem
A 0.70 meter object is placed 0.50 meter from a converging lens whose focal length is 0.25 me-
ter. Describe the image and its placement.
Given: Solution:
f = 0.25 meter
do = 0.50 meter
di = ?
hi = ?

The image is located 0.50 meter from the lens and is real. It is the same height as the object and
is below the principal axis, that is, inverted.

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69
 PROBLEM SOLVING
Level 1
Solve the following completely.
1. What is the period of the wave with a frequency of 250 hertz?
2. A wave has a frequency of 2.0 hertz and a velocity of 3.0 meters per second. Find the distance
covered by the wave in 5.0 seconds.
3. The speed of a transverse wave in a string is 10 meters per second. If the frequency of the of
the source producing this wave is 2.5 hertz. What is its wavelength?
4. The frequency of water wave is 6.0 hertz. If its wavelength is 2.0 meters, calculate the speed of
the wave.
5. A radio station transmits waves with a wavelength of 30 meters. Determine the frequency of
the transmitted waves.

Level 2
Solve the following completely.
1. Light of frequency 5.0 x 1014 hertz has a wavelength of 4.0 x 10-7 meters while traveling in a
certain material. What is the speed of light in the material?
2. What is the wavelength of X-rays with a frequency of 1.5 x 1018 hertz traveling in a vacuum?
3. An object is located 0.12 meter in front of a concave mirror (converging) mirror of 0.16 meter
radius. What is the distance between the image of the mirror?
4. A pencil 0.10 meter long is placed 1.0 meter in front of a concave mirror whose focal length is
0.50 meter. Calculate the image of the object.
5. If the speed of light in a medium is 1.5 x 108 meters per second, what is the index of refraction
of the medium?

Level 3
Solve the following completely.
1. If the frequency of a light wave in a vacuum is 5.1 x 1014 hertz. What is the wavelength?
2. If the a wave has a frequency of 110 hertz, its period is?
3. The frequency of a wave is 2.0 hertz, and its speed is 0.04 meter per second. Calculate the peri-
od of the wave.
4. The frequency of a wave is 2.0 hertz, and its speed is 0.04 meter per second. Find the wave-
length of the wave.
5. Sound waves with constant frequency of 250 hertz are traveling through air at STP. What is the
wavelength of the sound waves?

74 70