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52 Chapter 2 Modeling in the Frequency Domain

4. Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.

5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
6. Form the transfer function.
Let us look at an example.

Example 2.10
Transfer Function—Multiple Loops
PROBLEM: Given the network of Figure 2.6(a), find the transfer function,
I 2 ðsÞ=VðsÞ.
SOLUTION: The first step in the solution is to convert the network into Laplace
transforms for impedances and circuit variables, assuming zero initial conditions.
The result is shown in Figure 2.6(b). The circuit with which we are dealing requires
two simultaneous equations to solve for the transfer function. These equations can
be found by summing voltages around each mesh through which the assumed
currents, I 1 ðsÞ and I 2 ðsÞ, flow. Around Mesh 1, where I 1 ðsÞ flows,

R1 I 1 ðsÞ þ LsI 1 ðsÞ  LsI 2 ðsÞ ¼ VðsÞ ð2:78Þ

Around Mesh 2, where I 2 ðsÞ flows,

1
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LsI ðsÞ þEnhancer
R I ðsÞ þ
2
Cs
I ðsÞ  LsI ðsÞ ¼ 0
2 2 2 1 ð2:79Þ

FIGURE 2.6 a. Two-loop

electrical network;
b. transformed two-loop
electrical network;
c. block diagram
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2.4 Electrical Network Transfer Functions 53

Combining terms, Eqs. (2.78) and (2.79) become simultaneous equations in I 1 ðsÞ
and I 2 ðsÞ:
ðR1 þ LsÞI 1 ðsÞ  LsI 2 ðsÞ ¼ VðsÞ ð2:80aÞ
1
 LsI 1 ðsÞ þ Ls þ R2 þ I 2 ðsÞ ¼ 0 ð2:80bÞ
Cs
We can use Cramer’s rule (or any other method for solving simultaneous
equations) to solve Eq. (2.80) for I 2 ðsÞ.4 Hence,
 
 ðR1 þ LsÞ VðsÞ 
 
 
 Ls 0  LsVðsÞ
I 2 ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ð2:81Þ
D D
where
 
 ðR1 þ LsÞ Ls 
 
 
D¼ 1 
 Ls Ls þ R þ
 2
Cs 

Forming the transfer function, G(s), yields

I 2 ðsÞ Ls LCs2
GðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ ð2:82Þ
VðsÞ D ðR1 þ R2 ÞLCs2 þ ðR1 R2 C þ LÞs þ R1

as shown in Figure 2.6(c).

We have succeeded in modeling a physical network as a transfer function: The
network of Figure 2.6(a) is now modeled as the transfer function of Figure 2.6(c).
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Before leaving the example, we notice a pattern first illustrated by Eq. (2.72). The
form that Eq. (2.80) take is
2 3
2 3 Sum of 2 3
Sum of 6 impedances 7 Sum of applied
6 7
4 impedances 5I 1 ðsÞ  6 7I 2 ðsÞ ¼ 4 voltages around 5 ð2:83aÞ
4 common to the 5
around Mesh 1 Mesh 1
2 3 two meshes
Sum of 2 3 2 3
6 impedances 7 Sum of Sum of applied
6 7
6 7I 1 ðsÞ þ 4 impedances 5I 2 ðsÞ ¼ 4 voltages around 5 ð2:83bÞ
4 common to the 5
around Mesh 2 Mesh 2
two meshes

Recognizing the form will help us write such equations rapidly; for example, mechani-
cal equations of motion (covered in Sections 2.5 and 2.6) have the same form.
Students who are performing the MATLAB exercises and want to explore
the added capability of MATLAB’s Symbolic Math Toolbox should now
run ch2sp4 in Appendix F at www.wiley.com/college/nise, where
Example 2.10 is solved. You will learn how to use the Symbolic
Math Toolbox to solve simultaneous equations using Cramer’s
rule. Specifically, the Symbolic Math Toolbox will be used to solve
for the transfer function in Eq. (2.82) using Eq. (2.80).

4
See Appendix G (Section G.4) at www.wiley.com/college/nise for Cramer’s rule.
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54 Chapter 2 Modeling in the Frequency Domain

Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis

Often, the easiest way to find the transfer function is to use nodal analysis rather than
mesh analysis. The number of simultaneous differential equations that must be
written is equal to the number of nodes whose voltage is unknown. In the previous
example we wrote simultaneous mesh equations using Kirchhoff’s voltage law. For
multiple nodes we use Kirchhoff’s current law and sum currents flowing from each
node. Again, as a convention, currents flowing from the node are assumed to be
positive, and currents flowing into the node are assumed to be negative.
Before progressing to an example, let us first define admittance, Y(s), as the
reciprocal of impedance, or
1 IðsÞ
YðsÞ ¼ ¼ ð2:84Þ
ZðsÞ VðsÞ

When writing nodal equations, it can be more convenient to represent circuit

elements by their admittance. Admittances for the basic electrical components
are shown in Table 2.3. Let us look at an example.

Example 2.11
Transfer Function—Multiple Nodes
PROBLEM: Find the transfer function, V C ðsÞ=VðsÞ, for the circuit in Figure 2.6(b).
Use nodal analysis.
SOLUTION: For this problem, we sum currents at the nodes rather than sum
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voltages around the meshes. From Figure 2.6(b) the sum of currents flowing from
the nodes marked V L ðsÞ and V C ðsÞ are, respectively,
V L ðsÞ  VðsÞ V L ðsÞ V L ðsÞ  V C ðsÞ
þ þ ¼0 ð2:85aÞ
R1 Ls R2
V C ðsÞ  V L ðsÞ
CsV C ðsÞ þ ¼0 ð2:85bÞ
R2
Rearranging and expressing the resistances as conductances,5 G1 ¼ 1=R1 and
G2 ¼ 1=R2 , we obtain,
1
G1 þ G2 þ V L ðsÞ  G2 V C ðsÞ ¼ VðsÞG1 ð2:86aÞ
Ls

G2 V L ðsÞ þ ðG2 þ CsÞV C ðsÞ ¼ 0 ð2:86bÞ

G1G2 Solving for the transfer function, V C ðsÞ=VðsÞ, yields

V(s) C s VC(s)
G1G2L + C G2 G1 G2
(G1 + G2)s2 + s+ V C ðsÞ s
LC LC C
¼ ð2:87Þ
VðsÞ G1 G 2 L þ C G2
FIGURE 2.7 Block diagram of the network of ðG1 þ G2 Þs2 þ sþ
Figure 2.6 LC LC
as shown in Figure 2.7.

5
In general, admittance is complex. The real part is called conductance and the imaginary part is called
susceptance. But when we take the reciprocal of resistance to obtain the admittance, a purely real quantity
results. The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.
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2.4 Electrical Network Transfer Functions 55

Another way to write node equations is to replace voltage sources by

current sources. A voltage source presents a constant voltage to any load;
conversely, a current source delivers a constant current to any load. Practically,
a current source can be constructed from a voltage source by placing a large
resistance in series with the voltage source. Thus, variations in the load do not
appreciably change the current, because the current is determined approxi-
mately by the large series resistor and the voltage source. Theoretically, we rely
on Norton’s theorem, which states that a voltage source, V(s), in series with an
impedance, Zs ðsÞ, can be replaced by a current source, IðsÞ ¼ VðsÞ=Zs ðsÞ, in
parallel with Zs ðsÞ.
In order to handle multiple-node electrical networks, we can perform the
following steps:
1. Replace passive element values with their admittances.
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
3. Replace transformed voltage sources with transformed current sources.
4. Write Kirchhoff’s current law at each node.
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
6. Form the transfer function.
Let us look at an example.

Apago Example 2.12

PDF Enhancer
Transfer Function—Multiple Nodes with Current Sources
PROBLEM: For the network of Figure 2.6, find the transfer function,
V C ðsÞ=VðsÞ, using nodal analysis and a transformed circuit with current VL(s)
G2
VC(s)
sources.
SOLUTION: Convert all impedances to admittances and all voltage 1
V(s)G1 G1 Cs
sources in series with an impedance to current sources in parallel with Ls
an admittance using Norton’s theorem.
Redrawing Figure 2.6(b) to reflect the changes, we obtain Fig-
FIGURE 2.8 Transformed network
ure 2.8, where G1 ¼ 1=R1 ; G2 ¼ 1=R2, and the node voltages—the ready for nodal analysis
voltages across the inductor and the capacitor—have been identified
as V L ðsÞ and V C ðsÞ, respectively. Using the general relationship,
IðsÞ ¼ YðsÞVðsÞ, and summing currents at the node V L ðsÞ,
1
G1 V L ðsÞ þ V L ðsÞ þ G2 ½V L ðsÞ  V C ðsÞ ¼ VðsÞG1 ð2:88Þ
Ls
Summing the currents at the node V C ðsÞ yields
CsV C ðsÞ þ G2 ½V C ðsÞ  V L ðsÞ ¼ 0 ð2:89Þ

Combining terms, Eqs. (2.88) and (2.89) become simultaneous equations in V C ðsÞ
and V L ðsÞ, which are identical to Eq. (2.86) and lead to the same solution as Eq. (2.87).
An advantage of drawing this circuit lies in the form of Eq. (2.86) and its
direct relationship to Figure 2.8, namely
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56 Chapter 2 Modeling in the Frequency Domain

2 3
  Sum of admittances  
Sum of admittances Sum of applied
V L ðsÞ  4 common to the two 5V C ðsÞ ¼
connected to Node 1 currents at Node 1
nodes
ð2:90aÞ

2 3
Sum of admittances    
4 5 Sum of admittances Sum of applied
 common to the two V L ðsÞ þ V C ðsÞ ¼
connected to Node 2 currents at Node 2
nodes
ð2:90bÞ

A Problem-Solving Technique
In all of the previous examples, we have seen a repeating pattern in the equations
that we can use to our advantage. If we recognize this pattern, we need not write the
equations component by component; we can sum impedances around a mesh in the
case of mesh equations or sum admittances at a node in the case of node equations.
Let us now look at a three-loop electrical network and write the mesh equations by
inspection to demonstrate the process.

Example 2.13
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Mesh Equations via Inspection
PROBLEM: Write, but do not solve, the mesh equations for the network shown in
Figure 2.9.

1
s

I3(s)
1 4s

V(s) +
– 3s

2s
I1(s) I2(s)
FIGURE 2.9 Three-loop
electrical network

SOLUTION: Each of the previous problems has illustrated that the mesh
equations and nodal equations have a predictable form. We use that knowledge
to solve this three-loop problem. The equation for Mesh 1 will have the following
form: