SESA1015 Lectures - 2020

Mechanics of Flight Course Notes – October 2020
SESA1015 Mechanics of Flight, 2020/21
A.J. Keane
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION (Lecture 1) ................................................................................................ 2
2 THE ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT, FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND
DEFINITIONS (Lecture 2) ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1 THE ATMOSPHERE ....................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED ...................................................................................................... 5
2.3 MACH NUMBER ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.4 AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS...................................................................................... 8
2.5 GEOMETRY .................................................................................................................................. 9
2.6 WING AREAS ............................................................................................................................. 10
2.7 AEROFOIL .................................................................................................................................. 10
2.8 AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS ........................................................................................................... 11
3 TYPICAL AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR CONVENTIONAL
AIRCRAFT (Lectures 3, 4 & 5) ...................................................................................................... 12
3.1 LIFT COEFFICIENT ..................................................................................................................... 12
3.2 DRAG COEFFICIENT ................................................................................................................... 13
3.3 PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT .............................................................................................. 14
3.4 CENTRE OF PRESSURE................................................................................................................ 16
3.5 AERODYNAMIC CENTRE ............................................................................................................ 17
4 PERFORMANCE – STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT (Lectures 6, 7 & 9) .............................. 19
4.1 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES AND MOMENTS.................................................................................. 19
4.2 STALLING SPEED ....................................................................................................................... 19
4.3 LEVEL FLIGHT SPEEDS .............................................................................................................. 21
4.4 MINIMUM DRAG CONDITIONS ................................................................................................... 22
4.5 MAXIMUM LIFT TO DRAG RATIO (L/D)MAX ................................................................................ 24
4.6 POWER REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................................. 24
5 ENDURANCE AND RANGE OF JET ENGINED AIRCRAFT (Lectures 9 & 10) ........ 25
5.1 RANGE ....................................................................................................................................... 26
5.2 RANGE IN THE STRATOSPHERE ................................................................................................... 27
5.3 CRUISE-CLIMB TECHNIQUE FOR A JET ENGINED AIRCRAFT ...................................................... 28
5.4 MAXIMISING THE BREGUET RANGE........................................................................................... 29
5.5 EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON OPTIMUM CRUISING SPEED ............................................................... 30
6 RANGE AT CONSTANT ALTITUDE AND CONSTANT ANGLE OF ATTACK
(Lectures 11, 12 & 13) ...................................................................................................................... 31
6.1 EFFECT OF COMPRESSIBILITY ON RANGE .................................................................................. 32
6.2 RANGE OF A PISTON ENGINED AIRCRAFT .................................................................................. 33
6.3 OPTIMUM CRUISE PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES ........................................................................ 35
6.3.1 Jet Engined Aircraft ...................................................................................................... 35
1
6.3.2 Piston Engined Aircraft................................................................................................. 35

7 SIMPLE ACCELERATED FLIGHT (LECTURES 8, 14, 15 & 16) ................................. 36
7.1 GLIDING FLIGHT WITHOUT THRUST ........................................................................................... 36
7.2 STEADY CLIMBING FLIGHT ........................................................................................................ 37
7.3 TAKE-OFF ................................................................................................................................. 38
7.3.1 Definitions: .................................................................................................................... 39
7.4 TURNING PERFORMANCE ........................................................................................................... 42
7.4.1 Minimum Radius of Turn .............................................................................................. 44
7.4.2 Thrust limited radius of turn ......................................................................................... 46
8 INTRODUCTION TO LONGITUDINAL STABILITY (LECTURES 17 & 18) ............ 49
8.1 TRIM, STATIC STABILITY AND CONTROL ................................................................................... 49
8.1.1 Trim ............................................................................................................................... 49
8.1.2 Static Stability ............................................................................................................... 49
8.1.3 Control .......................................................................................................................... 49
8.2 LONGITUDINAL STATIC STABILITY ............................................................................................ 54
8.2.1 Trim and C of G Margin ............................................................................................... 55
8.3 TAILPLANE DESIGN ................................................................................................................... 56
8.4 CONTROL DESIGN ...................................................................................................................... 57
8.4.1 Elevator ......................................................................................................................... 57
8.4.2 Aileron ........................................................................................................................... 57
8.4.3 Rudder ........................................................................................................................... 57
1 INTRODUCTION (Lecture 1)
On December 17, 1903, two brothers from Dayton, Ohio, named Wilbur and Orville Wright,
were successful in flying an airplane they built. Their powered aircraft flew for 12 seconds
above the sand dunes of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, making them the first men to pilot a
heavier-than-air machine that took off on its own power, remained under control, and sustained
flight.
• Mechanics of Flight course applies Newton’s laws of motion to flying vehicles

• Part one of the course will consist of:
– 20 lectures (with slides, outline notes and diagrams on Blackboard)
– Examples and past exam questions
– Private study using recommended books and worldwide web resources
– Note that this part of the course has been previously called AA114 and SESA1004
• Aircraft design and aircraft operations are highly regulated and controlled, with
emphasis on:
– Safety
– Cost
– Reliability
– Environmental Impact
• Major components of the Aircraft to be considered are:
– Wings, including definitions, planform and structures
– Thrust generators
– Landing arrangements
– Tail arrangements
• Major elements of Mechanics of Flight are:
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– Performance
– Forces and Moments
– Stability
– Control
– Loading Actions
– Aeroelasticity
• Forces on aircraft do NOT act through a single point; a simplification is to consider them
acting through a single point – the Centre of Gravity
– In trimmed flight the total moment of forces should balance and pitching moment is
zero
• Aircraft can be in equilibrium, but have differing stability
– Civilian aircraft are generally aerodynamically stable
– Modern military fighters are often unstable, so that they are more maneuverable in
combat
2 THE ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT, FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND

DEFINITIONS (Lecture 2)
Before we can commence a study of aircraft performance it is necessary to consider the medium in
which the aircraft operates, i.e. the atmosphere. Another important consideration is the significance of
the aircraft speed relative to the air and the measurement of airspeed.
2.1 The Atmosphere
In the study of Mechanics of Flight a knowledge of the aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft and
the performance of its propulsion system are required. In addition to the geometric shape of the aircraft
and the angle it makes relative to the air free-stream moving past it, the aerodynamic forces depend on
its velocity relative to the air and on the density of the air in which it flies. The performance also
depends on the temperature of the air, since this determines the speed of sound and hence the
magnitude of compressibility effects (i.e. Mach number effects). Similarly, the performance of the
propulsion system is also dependent on the air density and temperature at the altitude at which the
aircraft is flying. Since aircraft can operate at altitudes between sea-level and a few tens of kilometres,
depending on the type, it is important to understand how the density and temperature of the
atmosphere vary with height above sea-level.
Clearly, the properties of the atmosphere vary on a daily and seasonal basis and are also dependent on
the global position. They are also dependent on local topography and the weather. In order to make
comparisons of aircraft performance, flight tests, etc., a standard atmosphere is defined which gives the
mean values of pressure, density, temperature, etc. as a function of height above sea-level.
A detailed study of the atmosphere will be presented in the section of this module on Aircraft
Operations in Semester 2. This will include information on the calculation of the properties of the
International Standard Atmosphere. In the study of the mechanics of flight we use these properties as
the basis for calculating and comparing the performance of flight vehicles. The main interest will
centre on the Troposphere (sea level up to 11 km) and the constant temperature region of the
Stratosphere (11 - 20 km). These two regions cover the principal portion of the atmosphere from sea-
level up to 20 km altitude in which the majority of aircraft operate.
The International Standard Atmosphere gives the values of the density, pressure, temperature and
speed of sound at various altitudes. The variations of these properties, relative to their sea level values,
3
are shown graphically in Fig 2.1. The variation of temperature up to altitudes of 90 km is shown in Fig
2.2.
1.2
Troposphere Stratosphere
1
0.8
Relative pressure
0.6 Relative density
Relative Temperature
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Altitude (km)
Fig 2.1 – International Standard Atmosphere up to 20km
4
Fig 2.2 – International Standard Atmosphere up to 90km
2.2 Measurement of Airspeed

2
We shall see later that the forces acting on the aircraft in flight are dependent on the quantity V /2,
where  is the local air density and V is the speed of the aircraft relative to the air (true air speed). It is
of importance to measure the speed of the aircraft in flight and to display this information on an
instrument - the air speed indicator (ASI) - on the aircraft control panel. The measurement of the speed
of the aircraft relative to the air is obtained by measuring pressure differences due to aircraft motion
using a specially designed instrument called a pitot-static tube shown below.
5
A forward facing open ended central core of the tube measures the pressure where the air is brought to
rest relative to the aircraft. This pressure is known as the pitot pressure (po). Around the central core is
a separate annular tube which is sealed at the front end, but holes are drilled perpendicular to the tube
wall at a particular distance from the front so that the static pressure (p) of the air surrounding the
aircraft is measured. Alternatively, the speed may be measured using a single forward facing tube,
known as a pitot tube, which measures the pitot pressure po, and the static pressure may be measured at
some chosen point on the surface of the aircraft where the pressure is relatively undisturbed.
From Bernoulli's equation the difference between the pitot pressure and the static pressure can be
2
shown to be equal to V /2, i.e.
1
po  p  V 2
2
If the two separate parts of the pitot static tube are connected to two sides of a differential pressure
2
gauge this will measure the quantity V /2, which is known as the dynamic pressure. In the previous
figure a manometer is shown to indicate the pressure difference, but in practice a sensitive pressure
gauge is used to provide an output which is calibrated in knots (nautical miles per hour).
2( p o  p )
The true airspeed is given by : V 

Hence to calibrate the pressure gauge to give true air speed it is necessary to know the local air density
. In principle, it would be possible to deduce the local air density, which decreases with height.
Instead, a speed VE is calculated from the measured pressure difference by using the constant sea-level
3
density o (1.226 kg/m ).
2( po  p )
VE 
o
The speed VE is known as the equivalent airspeed. As the altitude increases from sea-level the
equivalent airspeed decreases below the true airspeed.
It is noted from the above that the true airspeed and the equivalent airspeed are related by
6
2 2
V = oVE
½ ½
Hence V = VE (o/) = VE/ where is the relative density.
Note that the airspeed indicator calibrated with sea-level air density gives a measure of the equivalent
airspeed only if the true values of the pitot pressure and the local static pressure are measured. In
practice, it is quite straightforward to measure the value of the pitot pressure without error, but the
measured static pressure is dependent on a number of factors such as the position on the aircraft at
which it is measured, the aircraft angle of attack and the configuration of the aircraft (i.e., flaps up or
down, etc.). The value of the airspeed as indicated without allowance for these errors is known as the
indicated airspeed.
2.3 Mach Number
When the speed of the aircraft approaches the speed of sound the Mach Number is important. The
speed of sound is a measure of the speed of propagation of weak pressure waves in the air, which is a
compressible medium. The speed of propagation of a weak wave is called the speed of sound and is
denoted by the symbol a. For a perfect gas it may be shown to be:
½ ½
a = (p/) = (RT)
where  is the ratio of specific heats for the gas and R is the gas constant.
The Mach Number M is the ratio of the true airspeed to the speed of sound.
i.e M = V/a
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Flight Path is the path through space traced by the centre of gravity of the aircraft.
Relative Wind is the apparent wind seen by the aircraft and is equal and opposite to the instantaneous
velocity of the centre of gravity.
2.4 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
Aerodynamic Reaction consists of the force and moment components referred to the centre of gravity
i.e. R and M.
R can be resolved into the following components:
L normal to the relative wind: Lift

D parallel to the relative wind: Drag
In addition there is a moment M
M is known as the: Pitching Moment
Incidence or Angle of attack (=) is the angle between the body datum (reference line) of the aircraft
and the direction of the relative wind.
Attitude is the angle between the body datum and the Earth reference line.
The angle of attack is important in determining the aerodynamic force, whilst the attitude is important
when considering the pitch mechanics.
A summary of the forces and moment acting on a symmetric aircraft at zero yaw and roll angle,
together with the physical quantities which determine their magnitudes is as follows:
– L (force) N +ve upwards ^

– D (force) N +ve pushing backwards>
– M (moment) Nm +ve nose up
– ρ (density) kg/m3
8
– V (velocity) m/s
– l (typical length) m e.g., wing chord, or fuselage length
–  (angle of attack) non-dim. radians or degrees
Aerodynamic lift for example is a function of:
L  L(  , V , l ,  , shape, etc.)
The form of this function may be found by dimensional analysis. In this process we consider the
dimensions of both sides of the functional equation above.
2
By convention we write: L = ½V SCL
where S is the reference area

and CL is called the Lift Coefficient.
2
Similarly D = ½V SCD
where CD is called the Drag Coefficient.
2
M = ½V SlCM
where CM is called the Pitching Moment Coefficient,

and l is a reference length (e.g. the wing mean chord) .
2.5 Geometry
9
Reference Lengths : i) Root chord cR

ii) Mean chord c
iii) Tail moment arm T
iv) Wing span b
Reference Areas : i) Wing plan area SG or SN

ii) Wetted area of component SW
Tip chord cT
Shape Parameters : i) Taper ratio  = 
Root chord cR
ii) Wing sweep 
Span b
iii) Aspect ratio A = 
Mean chord c
2
Span b2
also A = 
Wing area S
2.6 Wing Areas
Shaded Area = Net Wing Area = SN Shaded Area = Gross Wing Area = SG
Both SG and SN are projected wing areas.

SW is the ‘wetted’ area of the wing = total surface area of the upper and lower surfaces of the wing
(SW>2SN due to wing thickness).
SG is normally used as the Reference Area of the aircraft in defining the aerodynamic coefficients, etc.
2.7 Aerofoil
Maximum thickness = t
Chord = c
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2.8 Aircraft Components
A twin turbo-prop regional passenger aircraft with tricycle undercarriage
11
3 TYPICAL AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR CONVENTIONAL

AIRCRAFT (Lectures 3, 4 & 5)
This section summarises the typical aerodynamic characteristics of a conventional aircraft with an
unswept wing and conventional tailplane. Some typical values of the lift coefficient, the drag
coefficient and the pitching moment coefficient are given, but it should be remembered that the
specific aircraft shape will determine the precise values. It should be noted that the following
descriptions do not include the effects of compressibility and therefore are not applicable to high
subsonic, transonic and supersonic flight.
3.1 Lift Coefficient

For a conventional aircraft shape the lift coefficient increases approximately linearly with an increase
in the angle of attack for angles up to about 10 to 15 degrees. At angles greater than this the character
of the flow about the wing changes dramatically and the flow separates from the upper surface. The
lift coefficient then stops rising before it reduces significantly and this is accompanied by a large
increase in the drag coefficient. The aircraft is said to be stalled. Note that the maximum CL is about
1.2 – students should be absolutely familiar with this value as it is the starting point for most
conventional aircraft design. The CL can be increased above this level with various high lift devices but
these all add weight and cost. For back of the envelope calculations assuming peak CL of unity is a
conservative place to start aircraft design.
A typical variation of lift coefficient with angle of attack for an aircraft in the 'clean configuration’ (i.e.
flaps, slats and undercarriage retracted) is shown in the following diagram:

Fig. 3.1
o is called the no lift angle and is usually negative.
ao = dCL/dα is called the lift curve slope and is usually linear until near the stall.
Hence CL = ao()
Typically CL = 0.09( + 2) where  is in degrees
12
or CL = 5( + 2/57.3) where  is in radians
Typical values of the lift coefficient when the aircraft is flying at its normal cruising speed are in the
range of about 0.2 to 0.5. The reason for this is that when taking off and landing the aircraft will
generally be flying significantly slower than at cruise and so will need to operate at a higher CL value
to keep airborne and clearly one cannot be too close to stall at such times.
So it is emphasized that Fig. 3.1 relates to the aircraft in the cruise configuration. When flaps and slats
are used the values of CLmax which may be achieved can increase to values of 3.0 or more for
sophisticated designs of flap. The angle of attack at which stall occurs is also increased. This enables
the aircraft to fly at much lower speeds for take-off and landing.
3.2 Drag Coefficient

A typical shape of the variation of the drag coefficient CD with angle of attack α is shown in Fig. 3.2.
Induced drag dominant

at large angles of attack
Fig 3.2.
The value of CD at the zero value of the lift coefficient CL is called the profile drag coefficient.
Hence CD = CDo + CDi
where CD is the total drag coefficient,

CDo is the profile drag coefficient,
CDi is the induced drag coefficient.
The profile drag arises from the boundary layer which forms on the aircraft, in which the effects of the
viscosity of the air (‘stickiness’) are predominantly felt. Sometimes this is called the boundary layer
drag. This part of the drag may be split into two parts:
 the skin friction drag acting on all the surfaces of the aircraft directly caused by the viscosity of
the air and
 the drag due to the normal pressures acting on the surface of the aircraft which is known as the
boundary layer normal pressure drag or the form drag.
13
In the absence of viscosity there would be no boundary layer adjacent to the surface and the normal
pressures acting on the forward facing surfaces would exactly balance with those on rearward facing
surfaces, resulting in no net drag force due to pressure. However, when the effect of viscosity is
considered, the pressures do not balance due to the effective change of shape caused by the boundary
layer and this results in the boundary layer normal pressure drag force. The magnitude of this form of
drag is clearly dependent on how ‘streamlined’ the object is (i.e., on the object’s shape or form).
The other contribution to the total drag is the induced drag Di. This arises from the downwash to which
the wing is subject due to the fact that it is generating lift. This downwash tilts the resultant force
acting on the wing rearwards which gives a component of force in the streamwise direction known as
the induced drag. The induced drag coefficient CDi is alternatively called the lift dependent or vortex
drag coefficient, since this is the part of the total drag coefficient associated with the amount of lift
coefficient which is being generated. Aerodynamic theory shows that the induced drag coefficient
increases in proportion to the square of the lift coefficient. This increase of drag coefficient is
associated with the vortices which are shed from the wing tips when the wing generates lift. These
vortices, from which the downwash results, increase in strength as the lift coefficient increases.
Thus, the induced drag coefficient may be written as

2
CDi = kCL
Furthermore, aerodynamic theory shows that the constant k depends on the wing aspect ratio A as
follows:
k = K/A
where K is a constant which depends on the planform shape of the wing and generally has values
somewhat in excess of unity. For an elliptic planform wing (which has the minimum induced drag
coefficient of all planforms) the value of K is exactly 1.0.
Hence the total drag coefficient may be written as:

2
CD = CDo+ KCL /A
Typical values of the profile drag coefficient in the cruise configuration are in the range of about 0.01
to 0.025 for streamlined aircraft with undercarriage and high lift devices retracted. For smaller aircraft
with non-retractable undercarriage rather higher values will pertain, perhaps as high as 0.055. So the
total drag coefficient is typically
2
CD = 0.02 + 0.055CL
It is important to note that since lift varies with the square of speed at fixed angle of attach, the angle
of attack has to be varied in flight as speed changes. This means that value of lift coefficient varies
with speed as well (i.e., as the aircraft mass and thus total lift is fixed, a high CL pertains at low speed
and low CL at high speed). Therefore the drag coefficient also varies with speed and it turns out that
there is a particular speed that minimizes overall drag.
3.3 Pitching Moment Coefficient

Typical variations of the pitching moment coefficient Cm of a conventional aircraft without the
tailplane contribution, for different axis positions, are shown in Fig 3.3 – note how the centre of
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pressure moves with angle of attack and the moment coefficient slope is dependent on the point it is
taken about.
Fig. 3.3 – pitching moment variation with AoA
The variation of Cmwith the lift coefficient CL is then

Cm = Cmo – hCL ....................................................(1)
where h is a constant, the value and sign of which vary with the axis position (+ve for axis positions
forward of the aerodynamic centre and negative for positions aft of the aerodynamic centre), and Cmo is
usually negative (the aero centre is typically at ¼ chord).
Cmo is the pitching moment coefficient at zero lift and depends on the shape of the aircraft, but is
usually negative (nose down). Note that an aircraft which is perfectly symmetric about its datum line
through its nose would have a value of Cmo of zero.
For an aircraft to be trimmed in steady flight at a given speed (hence at a given value of CL ) there
must be no pitching moment about the centre of gravity (axis position). Hence the pitching moment
curve when plotted for the centre of gravity must cross the horizontal axis at the angle of attack that
yields that value of CL . Considering the case of rearward axis positions (CG), see Fig. 3.4, the aircraft
without the tailplane is unstable (i.e. the pitching moment increases if the angle of attack is increased
and vice versa). To trim the aircraft (Cmcg = 0) and to make it stable (–ve slope of Cmcg versus CL)
requires the addition of the tailplane which, for the axis (CG) position relevant to Fig. 3.4, is required
to give a nose down pitching moment (up load on the tailplane) which must be added to the pitching
moment without the tailplane as shown in the Fig. 3.4. Note that pitching moment which is required
from the tailplane to give Cmcg = 0 varies as the value of CL at which trim is required changes. This
changing pitching moment is created by deflection of the trim tab, or the elevator, or by changing the
angle of attack of the whole tailplane.
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Fig. 3.4 Pitching moment coefficient about CoG
Two further definitions are introduced in the context of the pitching moment characteristics of the
wing plus fuselage (less the tailplane) as follows.
3.4 Centre of Pressure
This is defined as the reference axis position about which the pitching moment is zero.
i.e. Mcp = 0
It is the position at which the resultant lift of the wing plus body appears to act with zero moment and
moves as the angle of attack changes.
Taking moments about the CG :

M CG = xCP L
1
Dividing by  V 2 Sc and using Eqn 1 we obtain :
2
x
CmCG  CP C L  Cmo  hC L
c
The result for the distance xcp of the centre of pressure forward of the centre of gravity is:
16
xcp/c = CmCG /CL = Cmo /CL – h
where c is the wing mean chord.

Note that for Cmo –ve this whole expression is negative and as its magnitude is reduced as CL increases,
the centre of pressure moves forward as the angle of attack increases.
3.5 Aerodynamic Centre
This is defined as the reference axis position about which the pitching moment coefficient does not
vary with angle of attack.
dM AC
i.e. 0
d
This position is that at which the force and moment acting may be replaced by a constant pitching
moment Mo (which is independent of  and hence L) together with an equivalent lift force acting at a
changed location and which changes with angle of attack. The position of the aerodynamic centre
does not change as the angle of attack changes.
Taking moments about the CG :

M CG  M o  x AC L
1
Dividing by V 2 Sc and using Eqn 1 we obtain :
2
x
C mCG  C mo  AC C L  C mo  hC L
c
Hence
x AC
 h
c
More generally, the result for the distance xAC of the aerodynamic centre forward of the centre of
gravity is given by
x AC dC mCG
  h
c dC L
Since h is a constant, this result confirms that the aerodynamic centre is at a fixed position. From
classical aerodynamic theory, the position of the aerodynamic centre is at the quarter chord position
17
measured from the leading edge of the wing.
18
4 PERFORMANCE – STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT (Lectures 6, 7 & 9)
4.1 Equilibrium of Forces and Moments
We will consider steady level flight at speed V. The forces and moments acting on the aircraft are the
Thrust, Drag, Lift, Weight and Pitching Moment. For simplicity we will assume all of the forces act
through the centre of gravity as shown in the diagram.
Equilibrium of forces and moments about the CG gives:
L=W
T=D
MCG = 0
where L = Lift, D = Drag, T = Thrust, W = Weight and MCG = Pitching Moment (+ve nose up)
2
Now L = 0.5V SCL = W where S is the reference area
Hence for an aircraft of given weight and wing area, operating at a constant height (constant air
density), the speed V determines the value of CL which is required. Since the lift coefficient CL is
largely a function of incidence (angle of attack) only, therefore  is also determined.
Rearranging the above equation, we can alternatively regard it as an expression which gives the value
of the level flight speed in terms of W, S, CL and :
0.5 0.5
V = (2W/SCL) = (2w/CL)
where w = W/S = Wing Loading.
4.2 Stalling Speed
The stalling speed is the minimum speed at which the aircraft may fly. This occurs when the lift
coefficient is a maximum i.e. CL = CLmax. For steady level flight, L = W and thus:
19
0.5 0.5
VS = (2W/SCLmax) = (2w/CLmax)
where VS is the Stalling Speed
It should be noted that, for a given wing loading and maximum lift coefficient, the true air-speed at the
stall increases as the air density  decreases, i.e., as the altitude increases. However, the equivalent
2 2
airspeed (EAS) at the stall, VS(EAS), remains constant as altitude increases since VS = oVS(EAS) and the
sea-level air density o is constant.
Since the stalling speed is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can fly it is important from the
point of view of the take-off and landing speeds.
The value of CLmax depends on the aircraft configuration. For high speed flight when the aircraft is in
the cruise, for example, low drag is required and all high lift devices such as flaps and slats are
retracted. In this ‘clean’ configuration the value of CLmax is likely to be about 1.2. For landing, it is
necessary to have the lowest possible landing speed and high drag. This is achieved by deploying all
the high lift devices to their greatest extent to increase CLmax. This may more than double the value of
CLmax in comparison with the clean configuration, depending on the sophistication of the high lift
system used. For take-off, partial deployment of high lift devices is used to provide the appropriate
compromise between high lift and comparatively low drag.
The values of lift coefficient and speed in the cruise and landing configurations for the DC-9-30 civil
transport aircraft are illustrated in the Figure below.
Variation of Lift Coefficient with Speed for the DC-9-30 Aircraft
3
Stall
50o flap and slats
2.5 extended
2
Lift Coefficient
1.5 CL at sea-
level
Stall
Landing CL at h =
Speed 9000m
1
Cruising
Speed Flaps and slats
retracted
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Speed (m/s)
20
4.3 Level Flight Speeds
For flight at speed V the total aircraft drag may be written as
1 1  K  B
D  CD V 2 S  V 2 S  C Do  C L2   AV 2  2
2 2  A  V
2
where A' V is the profile drag
2
and B' /V is the induced drag
and A' and B' are constants for flight at a fixed altitude.
1 2 KW 2
A  SC Do and B  
2 A  S
For a jet engine, the thrust at a fixed altitude may be assumed to be almost constant with flight speed
for a given r.p.m. setting. For steady level flight, thrust T is equal to drag D and we obtain the
2
following quadratic equation for V :
4 2
A' V - TV + B' = 0
For a given thrust T this has two solutions for V which are denoted by Vi and Vii. These are the possible
steady level flight speeds for the thrust level (r.p.m. setting) chosen. It is possible that the speed Vi may
be less than the stalling speed.
These solutions are given by:
T  T 2  4 AB 
V2 
2 A
The solution to the thrust equals drag equation is shown graphically in the following diagram. In the
2
diagram it is seen that the profile drag increases (proportional to V ) and the induced drag decreases
2)
(proportional to 1/V as speed increases. The total drag, which is the sum of the profile drag and the
induced drag, passes through a minimum at a speed known as the Minimum Drag Speed (VMD).
21
4.4 Minimum Drag Conditions
B
Since D  AV 2 
V2
the minimum drag condition may be found by differentiating this equation with respect to V and
putting the result equal to zero.
dD B
 2 AV  2 3  0
dV V
B
The result is VMD  4
A
where VMD is known as the Minimum Drag Speed.
The magnitude of the minimum drag is given by substituting the result for VMD into the equation for D.
1 1
 B  2
 A  2
 2  AB  
1
D min  A   B   2
 A   B 
where Dmin is known as the Minimum Drag.
An important deduction from this result is that at the minimum drag speed
22
1/2
Profile Drag = (A'B') = Induced Drag
K 2
 C Do  CL
A
A further important result is obtained by substituting for A and B in the expression for the minimum
drag to obtain:
1
 KC Do  2
D min  2W   .
 A 
Note that this shows that the minimum drag is independent of the density  and is therefore
independent of altitude.
An example of the variation of typical drag and thrust with true airspeed for a twin engined business
jet aircraft of weight 90,000 N is shown in the following figure. The drag coefficient for this aircraft is
given by:
2
CD = 0.02 + 0.045CL
In this figure drag and thrust are compared at sea-level and at a cruising altitude of 11km. The
independence of the minimum drag with altitude is demonstrated. Also shown is the large reduction in
both thrust and drag during high altitude cruise. It should also be noted that at h = 11 km the true
airspeed for minimum drag is much greater than at sea-level. The high Mach number cruise speed at
high altitude would therefore be closer to the minimum drag speed than at sea-level and hence much
greater flight efficiency would result. Since the fuel consumption of turbo-jet and turbo-fan engines is
roughly proportional to the thrust, it is noted that the flight efficiency to fly at a particular true airspeed
is much greater at high altitudes, providing that the Mach number at which the compressibility drag
rise occurs is not exceeded as the speed of sound (proportional to the square root of temperature) falls
as altitude increases.
23
Comparison of Drag and Maximum Thrust at Sea Level and 11 km

Comparison of Drag and Maximum Required Thrust at Sea Level and 11km Altitude
35000
Thrust at sea level
30000
h = sea level
Drag and Thrust (N)
25000
Profile Drag (N)
Induced Drag (N)
20000 Total Drag (N)
Thrust (N)
Profile Drag (N)
15000 Induced Drag (N)
Thrust at 11 km Total drag (N)
Thrust (N)
10000
h = 11 km
5000
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Speed (m/s)
4.5 Maximum Lift to Drag Ratio (L/D)max
The lift to drag ratio is an important parameter which determines flight efficiency. Using the equation
for minimum drag and noting that in steady level flight the lift (L) is equal to the weight (W) and that
the maximum lift to drag ratio will occur when the drag is a minimum, we obtain the following result
for the Maximum Lift to Drag Ratio:
L W 1 A
   
 D  max Dmin 2 KC D0
4.6 Power Requirements

The power requirement to overcome the drag in steady level flight is the rate of doing work against the
drag. This is equal to the force required to overcome the drag multiplied by the distance moved in unit
time.
3
Thus Power = P = TV = DV = A' V + B'/V
The minimum power speed may be found by differentiating the expression for the power P with
respect to speed V and putting the result equal to zero.
dP B
 3 AV 2  2  0
dV V
The result for the Minimum Power Speed VMP and its relationship to the Minimum Drag Speed VMD is:
B  VMD
 VMP  4
 0.76VMD
3 A 3 1 4
i.e., the minimum power speed is less than the minimum drag speed.
24
5 ENDURANCE AND RANGE OF JET ENGINED AIRCRAFT (Lectures 9 & 10)
The following analysis will consider the cruise phase of flight only and will ignore the fuel used in
take-off/climb/descent/landing/taxiing, etc., and the fuel required for reserves.
The important factor here is the rate at which fuel is being used. The characteristics of turbo-jet
engines are such that the specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.) is reasonably independent of forward speed,
but is a function of altitude.
The specific fuel consumption for a turbo-jet engine is defined here as:
s.f.c = s = weight of fuel used per unit time to produce unit thrust (note this is NOT the SFC
used for piston engine aircraft and more generally by mechanical engineers when considering stand-
alone engines, which links fuel consumption to power and not thrust).
Hence the rate at which the aircraft weight decreases as the cruise proceeds is:
dW (t )
  sT
dt
where W(t) is the total aircraft weight at time t
and T is the engine thrust.
For equilibrium during the cruise
Thrust T = Drag D
Lift L = Weight W
dW (t ) LD WD
Hence   sT   sD   s  s
dt L L
Now L/D = CL/CD
dW (t ) WC D
and  s
dt CL
For the moment it is assumed that flight takes place at constant CL/CD. This implies flight at constant
angle of attack (incidence) since CD is also a function of CL together with some constants and CL is just
a function of angle of attack. It should be noted that in order for lift to balance weight, the lift must
reduce as the aircraft uses fuel and the weight decreases. Since
2
L = W = 0.5V SCL
at least one of altitude (hence density ), speed V, or, angle of attack  (hence CL) must change as the
cruise progresses in order to achieve this. Flight at constant L/D implies that if the altitude is constant
the speed must decrease, or, if the speed is constant the altitude must increase. As we shall see later
various cruise patterns can be considered, including that where the aircraft climbs steadily as it burns
fuel.
Using the assumption of constant CL/CD, the endurance may be found by integrating the expression for
dW(t)/dt as follows:
25
dW D CD
W  s
L
dt  ln W   s
CL
t  constant
When t=0, W  WS  W f
Where:
– Ws = weight of dry aircraft
– Wf = weight of fuel  constant  ln(Ws  W f )
1 CL W
At any time t t ln
s C D Ws  W f
The result for the endurance T' is
1 L  Wf 
T  ln  1  
s D  Ws 
where Wf is the weight of fuel used, and

Ws is the total remaining weight of the aircraft.
For maximum endurance, the following conditions must be satisfied:
Low s Propulsion
Maximum L/D Aerodynamics
Maximum Wf / Ws Structural Design
Flight at constant CL/CD implies constant angle of attack (incidence). If the altitude is held constant the
speed must decrease as the weight decreases. This implies that the r.p.m. (throttle) setting must also
change during the cruise since drag decreases and hence thrust decreases. Such a cruise pattern is
seldom acceptable in practice for passenger flights.
Since angle of attack is not generally displayed it is more normal to fly at either:
constant speed
constant r.p.m. (throttle) setting – constant thrust
Maximum endurance at a given altitude occurs at (L/D)max, i.e. at minimum drag.
5.1 Range
To calculate the range we return to:
dW (t ) WD
 s
dt L
dW (t ) dW dx dW
 V
dt dx dt dx
where x = distance
26
and V = velocity.
dW s D
 W
dx V L
V L
Assuming that is held constant during the cruise, the range R obtained as fuel
s D
of weight W f is used is given by :
V L dW
 dx   s D  W
Integrating gives 𝑥 ln 𝑊 constant, which can be eliminated by setting x to zero and W to
Ws+Wf at the start of the journey and x to R and W to Ws at the end:
V L W
R ln(1  f )
s D Ws
This equation is known as the Breguet Range Equation for a jet engined aircraft. It assumes that the
cruise is performed at constant VL/D. Many other cruise modes are possible for which the range will
be somewhat different from the Breguet range. For maximum range the following are required:
Low s efficient propulsion,

Maximum VL/D good aerodynamics,
Maximum Wf / Ws good structural design.
Note that maximum range and maximum endurance do not occur at the same speed.
Maximum endurance - maximum L/D

Maximum range - maximum VL/D.
5.2 Range in the stratosphere
In the stratosphere the speed of sound (a) is constant since the temperature is constant.
Thus V = Ma
and the range R is given by:
a ML Wf
R ln(1  )
s D Ws
In the stratosphere the range is a maximum when ML/D is a maximum, so we fly at the highest
possible Mach Number commensurate with avoiding drag due to compressibility affects (shock drag
caused by shock waves forming on the wings). For current generation jet aircraft this is typically
around M=0.82.
27
5.3 Cruise-Climb Technique for a Jet Engined Aircraft
During the cruise, lift is equal to weight and hence

2
L = W = 0.5V SCL
The three variables which determine the lift are:
 density ( function of height )

V true air speed
CL lift coefficient ( function of angle of attack )
For this particular cruise technique it is assumed that the true air speed V and the angle of attack (hence
CL) are held constant throughout the cruise.
N.B. if CL is constant then
L CL CL
  is also constant.
D C D C  KC L2
Do A
Thus in this particular case both V and L/D are constant throughout the flight. In addition, for a jet
engined aircraft the specific fuel consumption s is usually assumed constant throughout the flight.
Thus VL/sD is constant and the range is given by the Breguet Range Equation:
V L Wf V L W1
R ln(1  ) ln( )
s D Ws s D W2
where W1 = weight at start of cruise = Wf + Ws

and W2 = weight at end of cruise = Ws
In the stratosphere the temperature is assumed constant and the thrust T of a turbo-jet engine at a fixed
throttle setting is proportional to the relative density , ignoring any variation with forward speed.
Thus
T2/T1 =  as the height varies.
During the cruise the weight decreases as fuel is used, but at all times the lift is equal to the weight.
Since V and CL are both constant during the cruise, then as weight decreases so the relative density 
decreases and height increases. This is called a cruise – climb technique.
1
W L V 2 SC L
2
1
i.e. W = (  o )V 2 SC L
2
28
Thus Drag = Thrust at all times throughout the flight.
In summary, as the fuel is consumed, decreasing the aircraft weight, the aircraft gains altitude with the
decreased lift balancing the decreased weight. In the stratosphere this gain in altitude automatically
decreases the thrust as the air density decreases, maintaining thrust equal to drag without any
adjustment to the flight condition of the aircraft. In the stratosphere a constant value of the true air
speed V corresponds to a constant Mach number M, since the speed of sound is constant. The
technique is to fly at constant Mach number and allow the aircraft to gradually "drift up" in altitude as
fuel is used. The main long haul airlanes allow for this approach.
5.4 Maximising the Breguet Range
It is possible to find an optimum cruising speed for the cruise – climb technique to give the maximum
Breguet range for a given weight of fuel used. To find the optimum it is necessary to find the value of
V which gives the maximum value of the factor VL/D which appears in the Breguet range equation.
This is done by expressing VL/D in terms of CL and differentiating this with respect to CL to find the
value of CL corresponding to a maximum as follows.
In the stratosphere, with a jet engine operating at fixed r.p.m. setting, the thrust is approximately
proportional to the relative density  ( = ).
Hence T/ = constant = k

2 2
But T = D = 0.5V SCD = 0.5(o)V SCD = k
2
Hence V CD = constant
1/2
and V is proportional to 1/CD
VL 1 C
Hence is proportion al to 1 2 L
D CD CD
To find the value of CL which gives the maximum Breguet range we need to
1 C
differentiate 1 2 L with respect to C L and put the result equal to zero.
CD CD
29
d  CL  d  CL 

 3 / 2  

dCL  CD  dCL CD  KCL A
 o 
2 32 
 

d  CL  CD0  KCL A
2

32
2

 CL 3 CD0  KCL A 2 KCL
2 12
A 
  3/ 2  
dCL  CD  
CD0  KCL A
2 3


Dividing by CDo  KCL A
2

12
we obtain
d  CL  CD0  KCL A  3 KCL A CD0  2 KCL A
2 2 2
 3 / 2   
dCL  CD  
CD0  KCL A
2 5/ 2
CD0  KCL A
2

5/ 2
 
This is zero when CD0  2 KCL A
2
CD0 CLMD
 CL  
2 K A 2
But since CL is inversely proportional to V 2 then
Voptimum range  4 2 VMD
where the subscript MD refers to minimum drag conditions.
Hence the cruising speed that gives best range is 2¼ × the minimum drag speed. Of course the cruising
pattern adopted will very much depend on the type of mission being flown.
5.5 Effect of Altitude on Optimum Cruising Speed
In the earlier section of the notes headed ‘Level Flight Speeds’ it was shown that the true airspeed at
which the minimum drag speed occurred increased with altitude, but the value of the minimum drag
was independent of altitude. Thus at high altitudes, the optimum cruising speed will occur at higher
true airspeeds than at low altitude. In the Figure shown there, drag and thrust were compared at sea-
level and at a cruising altitude of 11km. This showed the large reduction in both drag and thrust during
high altitude cruise at a given true airspeed. It was also noted that at h = 11 km the true airspeed for
minimum drag was much greater than at sea-level. The high Mach number cruise speed at high altitude
would therefore be closer to the minimum drag speed, and hence the optimum cruising speed, than at
sea-level and hence much greater flight efficiency would result. Since the fuel consumption of turbo-
jet and turbo-fan engines is roughly proportional to the thrust, it is noted that the flight efficiency to fly
at a particular true airspeed is much greater at high altitudes, providing that the Mach number at which
the compressibility drag rise occurs is not exceeded as the speed of sound (proportional to the square
root of temperature) falls as altitude increases. For optimum Breguet range we therefore need to fly at
1/4
V = 2 VMD at high altitude.
30
6 RANGE AT CONSTANT ALTITUDE AND CONSTANT ANGLE OF ATTACK

(Lectures 11, 12 & 13)
For the Breguet Cruise Pattern, that has already been considered, the following assumptions were
made:
 V = constant
 L/D = constant ( = constant)
  ~ decreases (h ~ increases)
Many alternative cruise patterns are possible, amongst which is cruise at constant altitude h and
constant L/D (implies constant angle of attack). For this cruise pattern the following assumptions are
made:
 L/D = constant (constant angle of attack)

 = constant (constant altitude)
 V ~ decreases
To calculate the range it must be recognised that as the weight decreases as fuel is used, the speed of
the aircraft must decrease if lift is to balance weight at constant
i.e., at constant CL).
1
L W  V 2 SC L
2
1
 2W  2
V   
  SC L 
For a turbo jet engined aircraft:
dW
  sT   sD where s is the specific fuel consumption
dt
dW dx dW
  V   sD
dx dt dx
1 1
Using L  W  V 2 SC L and D  V 2 SC D
2 2
1
s V 2 SC D  
1 1
 WS  2 C D
2
dW 2 s s 2W
   VSC D      SC D   s 
dx V 2 2  SC L   2  CL 2
1
1 1
1 2  2
C L 2 dW
 dx    
s  S  CD W 12
1 1
2 1 2  2
CL 2 2 dW
 RANGE   dx     
1 s  S  CD 1
W
1
2
31
1 1
2 2  2
CL 2 W 1 2  W 1 2 
 RANGE = x2  x1   
s  S   1 2 
CD 
where W1 and W2 are the initial and final weights.

1/2
To find the maximum range for this cruise pattern it is necessary to find when CL /CD is a maximum.
 
d  C 12  d  C
1
2 
 L   L 
dCL  CD  dC L  K 2
   C Do  CL 
 A 
 K 2  1 1 1 2K
 CDo  CL  CL 2  CL 2 C
 A  2 A L
 2
0
 K 2
 C Do  C L 
 A 
3K 2
when CD0  CL
A
i.e. when Profile Drag = 3 times Induced Drag
1 CDo CL
 CLCRUISE   MINDRAG
3 K 3
A
1
But V 1
CL 2
Therefore 𝑉 √3 𝑉
1/4
So Maximum Range Cruising Speed = (3) times Minimum Drag Speed for cruise at constant 
and constant altitude.
6.1 Effect of Compressibility on Range
It must be emphasised that the above analysis has not taken account of compressibility drag. The
conditions for optimum range give values of CL and optimum cruise heights which are lower than
those used in practice. When the compressibility drag rise that occurs at high Mach numbers is taken
into account, it is desirable to keep increasing altitude at almost constant Mach number until drag is
minimised. As altitude is increased the density falls and the value of CL needed to balance the weight
increases. Thus, in practice, the values of CL for the optimum range will be greater than indicated by an
analysis that ignores compressibility.
A further factor that affects the analysis is that although the assumption of constant specific fuel
consumption (s.f.c.) is quite good for turbojets, the s.f.c. of turbofans increases slightly with Mach
number and this leads to the conditions for optimum range being at a somewhat lower Mach number
than would result from the assumption of constant s.f.c.
Fig 6.1 includes the effect of compressibility for a trijet wide body aircraft and shows the variation of
32
L/D and ML/D (the factor in the specific range - see section on ‘Endurance and Range of Jet Engined
Aircraft’) with CL. This shows that range is increased by both high L/D and high speed. The best L/D
of 16.4 is achieved at M = 0.75 at CL = 0.46, but the best range (proportional to ML/D) is obtained at
M = 0.825 when CL = 0.46. The graph also shows that the range is reduced by only 1% if CL is reduced
to 0.405. Since, for a given weight, changing CL implies changing altitude, this shows that the range of
the aircraft is relatively insensitive to altitude. The graph also shows that if the Mach number is
increased to 0.85, the range is decreased from the optimum by only 3% whereas the lift to drag ratio is
reduced by 9%.
Fig 6.1
(reproduced from ‘Fundamentals of Flight’ by R S Shevell - see booklist)
6.2 Range of a Piston Engined Aircraft
In the case of a piston engined aircraft the important characteristic which determines the range is the
specific fuel consumption but this is defined in a different way from that for a jet engined aircraft. For
33
the piston engine it is defined as:
s' = weight of fuel used in unit time to produce unit power.
Now the power required to overcome the drag at speed V is:
P = DV
and the power output required from the engine is :
P' = DV/
where  is the combined efficiency of the transmission and the propeller.
For a piston engined aircraft in steady level flight the rate of decrease of weight as fuel is used is
therefore:
𝑑𝑊 𝑡 𝑠′𝐷𝑉 𝑠′ 𝐷
𝑊𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜂 𝜂𝐿
Also
𝑑𝑊 𝑡 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑊
𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
dW (t ) s D
Hence  W
dx  L
 L dW
or dx  
s D W
The specific fuel consumption s' and the efficiency  can usually be taken to be constant. It will also
be assumed that the lift to drag ratio (L/D) remains constant during the cruise. In this case the range R
using fuel of weight Wf is given by:
R = (/s')(L/D) ln(1 + Wf/Ws)
or R = (/s')(L/D) ln(W1/W2)
where W1 = initial weight = Ws + Wf
and W2 = final weight = Ws
The above equations are known as the Breguet Range Equations for Piston Engined Aircraft
The maximum range occurs when the lift to drag ratio (L/D) is a maximum, i.e. at the minimum drag
speed, provided that  and s' are constant.
34
Using the definition of the specific fuel consumption, it can be seen that the maximum endurance
occurs at the minimum power speed.
It should be noted that in practice the efficiency  falls at higher speeds due to the high tip speeds of
the propeller and the consequent compressibility effects.
Also, it is usual to cruise at intermediate heights at speeds greater than the speed for minimum drag
(say at 4 - 8 km).
6.3 Optimum Cruise Performance Techniques
6.3.1 Jet Engined Aircraft
Maximum Range:
a) At a given fixed altitude:

1/4
the best cruising speed is (3) × Minimum Drag Speed.
For this cruise pattern the angle of attack and the altitude are constant and the speed
decreases as fuel is used.
b) For Cruise Climb in the stratosphere:

1/4
the best cruising speed is (2) × Minimum Drag Speed.
Maximum Endurance:
Achieved at (L/D)max , i.e. at the Minimum Drag Speed.
Both maximum range and maximum endurance for turbo-jet and turbo-fan powered aircraft are
achieved at high altitude.
6.3.2 Piston Engined Aircraft
Maximum Range:
Occurs at (L/D)max , i.e at the Minimum Drag Speed, unless /s´ falls off rapidly with
increase of speed.
Maximum Endurance:
Achieved at Minimum Power Speed
35
7 SIMPLE ACCELERATED FLIGHT (LECTURES 8, 14, 15 & 16)
7.1 Gliding Flight without Thrust
Consider an aircraft in a steady glide without thrust. We wish to determine the glide angle and the rate
of descent. The angle of the glide is  and the true air speed of the aircraft is V. The forces acting on
the aircraft are weight W, lift L and drag D.
Equilibrium of forces (aerodynamic forces balanced against weight) gives:
L = W cosθ
D = W sinθ
Hence tanθ = D/L
 Glide angle   tan 1 D D for small values of 

L L
The glide angle is therefore a minimum when L/D is a maximum. This occurs at the minimum drag
condition (see previous notes).
For an aircraft for which the drag coefficient is given by:

C D  a  bC L2
the minimum drag condition occurs when the profile drag is equal to the induced drag (see previous
sections of the notes), i.e., when
a  bC L2
and hence for a shallow glide
D C 2a
 2ab  2
1
 min  min  DMD 
L CL a 2
b
1
 
36
The rate of descent is given by –dh/dt, where h is the height.
dh D
   h  V sin   V
dt W
Thus the minimum rate of descent occurs when VD is a minimum. This is equivalent to the minimum
power condition (see previous sections). At this condition the induced drag is three times the profile
drag and for an aircraft whose drag coefficient is of the form given we get:
3a  bC L2
Hence
D C a  3a 4
ab  2
1
 h min  min power  DMP  
L C L MP 3a 2
b
1
 
3
The speed at this angle of descent for shallow glide angles (L = W) is given by:
1 1 1
 2W  2
 2W  2 b  4
Vh min       
 SC L   S   3a 
 MP 
And the minimum rate of descent is therefore:
dh
  h  Vh min h min
dt
7.2 Steady Climbing Flight
The forces acting on the aircraft in steady climbing flight are shown in the following figure:
θ is the climb angle and γ is the thrust vector angle.
Equilibrium of forces gives:
L + T sin γ= W cos θ

T cos γ – D = W sin θ
dh
and the Rate of Climb   V sin 
dt
37
where h is height and t is time.
dh V (T cos   D)

dt W
If the thrust vector angle is zero then
dh V (T  D)

dt W
T D
is known as the SPECIFIC EXCESS THRUST
W
To calculate the angle of a shallow climb for zero thrust vector angle (γ=0, cosθ=1, L=W) at a given
speed V, CL is found from
2W
CL 
V 2 S
which in turn determines the drag coefficient from C D  a  bC L2
1 2
and the drag D from D = /2V SCD.
The climb angle is then found from the specific excess thrust as
T  D 
  sin 1  
 W 
or for small angles, θ=(T–D)/W, where T is the thrust.
dh
The rate of climb is  V
dt
where θ is in radians.
It should be noted that the above analysis holds only for shallow climb angles where the rates of climb
are relatively small. Many high performance aircraft have very high values of the thrust to weight ratio
(T/W) and this can be in excess of unity, in which case vertical climb is possible. When the climb rates
are very high the climb cannot be considered ‘steady’ since the density in the above analysis will be
changing with time. The calculation of optimum climb rates can then become quite complex and is not
considered here.
7.3 Take-Off
During take-off the aircraft must accelerate from rest through several critical speeds V1, VR, VLOF and
V2 . The first critical speed is the decision speed V1 at which, if an engine fails, it is possible for the
aircraft to decelerate to rest within the available runway. After this speed has been reached it is
necessary to proceed with the take-off. The next critical speed is the rotation speed VR, at which the
pilot increases the angle of attack and the lift acting on the aircraft rapidly increases. The aircraft
38
continues to accelerate to the lift-off speed VLOF at which the aircraft leaves the ground (this is greater
than the unstick speed, where maximum lift available just permits safe take-off). This is followed by a
transition phase to a constant climb angle. The aircraft continues to accelerate during this climb phase
to the screen speed V2 at the point where the aircraft reaches the imaginary screen height of 35 ft (10.7
m). The take-off distance is considered to be the total distance from the start of take-off roll to the
screen, i.e. s1+ s2.
It should be noted that during the take-off run the aircraft will be in the take-off configuration with
flaps and slats deployed at their take-off settings. This gives greater CL at take-off than would be
available in the "clean" configuration and hence a lower stalling speed. The flap angles used during
take-off are much less than during landing so that the increase of drag is not excessive.
lift off V2
VLOF
7.3.1 Definitions:
Vs The stalling speed in the take-off configuration.
Vmu Minimum Unstick Speed. Minimum airspeed at which airplane can safely lift off ground and
continue take-off.
Vmca Minimum Control Speed. Minimum airspeed at which when critical engine is made inoperative, it
is still possible to recover control of the airplane and maintain straight flight.
Vmcg Minimum control speed on the ground. At this speed the aircraft must be able to continue a
straight path down the runway with a failed engine, without relying on nose gear reactions.
V1 Decision speed, a short time after critical engine failure speed. Above this speed, aerodynamic
controls alone must be adequate to proceed safely with takeoff.
VR Rotation Speed. Must be greater than V1 and greater than 1.05 Vmca
VLOF Lift-off Speed. Must be greater than 1.1 Vmu with all engines, or 1.05 Vmu with engine out.
V2 Take-off climb speed is the demonstrated airspeed at the 35 ft height. Must be greater than 1.1 Vmca
and 1.2 Vs, the stalling speed in the take-off configuration (for jet engine aircraft, 1.15 Vs for piston
39
engine aircraft)†
The forces acting on the aircraft during the take-off run are shown in the following diagram. The
resistance due to friction on the runway is (W – L).
The equation of motion in the x direction directed along the runway is:
W dV W dV
T  D   W  L    V
g dt g dx
T D  L  V dV
or    1  
W W  W  g dx
where D and L are the ground run values which are a function of angle of attack and speed.
Strictly, to find the take off distance to reach the speed V2 the values of L and D must be substituted in
the equation of motion which must then be integrated from 0 to V2. An approximate estimate of the
distance s1 can be found by making the following assumptions:
T/W = constant
D/W and L/W are both very small during the ground run prior to lift-off.
The equation of motion then becomes:

T V dV
 
W g dx
s1  T  V2 V
     dx   dV
0
W  0 g
1 V22
 s1 
T W 
  2g
†
more formally, the speed a twin-engined aircraft should be capable of reaching at a screen height of
35ft following a critical engine failure at V1. In what follows we will assume acceleration stops at lift
off, so that V2≈VLOF
40
Taking: V2 = 1.2Vs
2W
and noting Vs 
SC Lmax
the ground run s1 to accelerate from V = 0 to V = V2 is :
W
1.44 W T
s1 
g SC Lmax 1   W 
 T 
where CLmax is the maximum lift coefficient with the aircraft in the take-off configuration in "ground
effect".
Note that for a given value of CLmax the ground run distance s1 depends on
W/S = wing loading low W/S results in short s1

T/W = thrust/weight ratio high T/W results in short s1
 = density low  results in longer s1 (take-off from hot, high
altitude airports requires more runway length)
All of the above analysis assumes still air and a horizontal runway. Taking off into wind and on a
downward sloping runway will reduce the take-off distance.
41
7.4 Turning Performance
In order to change the direction of flight the aircraft must be able to carry out turning manoeuvres.
When in steady level flight, the aircraft can be manoeuvred into turning flight by deflecting the
ailerons alone, or by using the rudder alone, or by a combination of ailerons and the rudder. If ailerons
alone are used the aircraft always has an angle of "sideslip" - this increases the drag compared with the
no-sideslip case. In the case of a rudder only turn, the rudder deflection induces an angle of roll which
inclines the lift vector and causes the flight path to be curved. In the rudder only turn the relative wind
approaches the aircraft from outside the turn and the aircraft is said to be "skidding". If the rudder and
ailerons are used together, turning flight can be achieved in which the aircraft is always aligned with
the relative wind and this turn is called a co-ordinated turn. In the analysis which follows a co-
ordinated turn in the horizontal plane will be considered.
When the aircraft is in a steady turn the wings make an angle to the horizon  that is known as the
bank angle. The lift vector is tilted from the vertical by an amount equal to the bank angle and now has
both vertical and horizontal components. When in equilibrium, the vertical component balances the
weight and the horizontal component provides the force required to cause the aircraft to accelerate
towards the centre of the turning circle. This is illustrated in the following diagram:
The forces acting on the aircraft in the turn are lift L, weight W, thrust T and drag D. In equilibrium:
T=D
L cos = W
2
L sin= (W/g)(V /R)
2
W V 2 
L sin   L cos   W  
2 2 2 2 2 

 g R 
2
V 2 
 L  W 1   
 gR 
42
The result for the radius of turn R is :
V2 1
R
g
LW  2
1
2 2 1/2
or R = (V /g)/(n – 1)
where n = L/W is the load factor
Alternatively, the radius of turn may be expressed in terms of the speed and the bank angle.
W V2
L sin  
g R
WV 2 V2 1
R 
gL sin  g n sin 
but L cos   W
This gives the result

V2
R cot 
g 
Since the lift acting on the aircraft in the turn is n times the weight, the stalling speed in the turn for a
given CL max is increased above its steady level flight value.
1
  2
 nW 
In the turn : VST   
 1 SC 
 Lmax 
2 
1
  2
 W 
In the steady level flight : VS   
 1 SC 
 Lmax 
2 
43
VST
Hence the ratio of stalling speeds is :  n
VS
The relationships of i) the load factor in a co-ordinated turn and ii) the ratio of the stalling speed in the
turn to that in steady level flight, with the bank angle are illustrated in the following figure:
Increase of Load Factor and Stalling Speed in Co-ordinated Turns
12 400
11
350
10
% increse in stalling speed

9 300
Load Factor g's
8
250
7
Load Factor g's
6 200
% increase in Stalling Speed
5
150
4
3 100
2
50
1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Bank Angle (degrees)
7.4.1 Minimum Radius of Turn
From the previous work on turning performance it can be seen that for a given speed V and weight W
the radius of turn R will be a minimum when
1) Lift L is a maximum
2) Load factor n is a maximum
3) Angle of bank is a maximum
The load factor limit arises when the ratio of lift to weight reaches a value nmax at which the structural
strength limit of the wing is reached (allowing for a safety factor). In this case the limiting radius of
turn is given by
V2 1
Rmin  Load Factor Limit
g n 2
max 1
The lift limit is reached when the wing is at the point of stalling. This will arise when the wing is
operating at CLmax and the wing lift is given by
44
2
L = 0.5V SCLmax
In straight and level flight at a lift coefficient equal to CLmax
2
W = 0.5Vs SCLmax
where Vs is the level flight stalling speed.
V2 1
 Rmin 
g  0.5 V 2 SC Lmax 
2
  1
 0.5Vs2 SC L 
 max 
2
V2 V  1
Hence Rmin  s   Maximum Lift or Stall Limit
g  Vs  V  1
4
 V 
 s
It may be noted from this result that if the speed of the aircraft in the turn is equal to the level flight
stalling speed then the minimum radius of turn is infinite, i.e. the aircraft has no manoeuvrability.
Using the above two results, a diagram may be drawn showing the domain of turning flight which is
achievable.
To the left of the stall limit the value of CL required is in excess of CLmax. Flight is therefore not
possible to the left of the stall limit. To the right of the load factor limit the value of n would be greater
than nmax and the structural limit of the wing would be exceeded. Flight is therefore not possible to the
right of the load factor limit. The domain of flight is limited at the highest speed by the maximum
45
design speed of the aircraft which is shown as Vmax on the diagram.
It may also be seen from the diagram above that the absolute minimum radius of turn occurs when the
stall limit and load factor limit coincide.
A further implication is that since Vs increases with altitude, Rmin increases with altitude and the
manoeuvrability decreases.
7.4.2 Thrust limited radius of turn
At high speeds in the turn a limit on the minimum radius of turn Rmin can occur due to the thrust or
power limitation. This is a consequence of the fact that since the lift must exceed the weight during the
turn, the value of CL in the turn is greater than the value of CL in steady level flight at the same speed
2
as in the turn. Since induced drag is proportional to CL , this means that there is an increase in induced
drag in the turn compared with steady level flight at the same speed. With this increase in drag, the
thrust or power limits of the engine will be exceeded in the turn at a lower speed than would be the
case in steady level flight.
It is necessary to calculate the drag in the turn and equate this to the maximum thrust available in order
to find the thrust limited radius of turn.
D  Tmax
 qS (C Do  kC L2 )  Tmax
1 K
where q V 2 and k
2 A
2
L  qSC L  W 1  V 
2
But 
 gRmin 
W 2   V 2  
2
C  2 2 1  
2

q S   gRmin  
L
 
 kW 2   V 2  
2
 qS C Do  2 2 1      Tmax
 q S   gRmin  
 
2
kW 2 kW 2  V 2 
 qSC Do      Tmax
qS qS  gRmin 
46
2
kW 2  V 2  kW 2
i.e.    Tmax  qSC Do 
qS  gRmin  qS
kW 2
But drag in level flight at speed V  DL  qSC Do 
qS
The result for the thrust limited radius of turn is
1
 2 kW 2V 2  2
1
Rmin    Thrust Limit
 Sg
2
 Tmax  DL
The effect of the excess of thrust over the drag in level flight at the same speed as in the turn is
illustrated in the following sequence of diagrams.
In addition to the above thrust limitation on the radius of turn the previously considered stall limit must
also be examined to find which of the limits will occur in practice. Two possibilities exist which are
shown diagrammatically in the following two diagrams:
47
In the first of these diagrams the aircraft would experience the thrust limit as the radius of turn is
reduced at all flight speeds. In the second diagram the radius of turn would be limited by the stall at
speeds below the speed for the optimum radius, but at higher speeds the aircraft would be limited by
the maximum thrust available.
48
8 INTRODUCTION TO LONGITUDINAL STABILITY (LECTURES 17 & 18)
8.1 Trim, Static Stability and Control
8.1.1 Trim
An aircraft is in trimmed flight when, in a steady flight condition, all the forces and moments are
balanced. The steady flight condition may involve a steady acceleration e.g. a correctly banked turn or
a steady dive or climb. In the pitching plane, trim would be accomplished by deflecting the horizontal
stabiliser, the elevator, or the elevator trim tab, to achieve zero pitching moment about the centre of
gravity.
i.e. MG = 0 for Trim
It should be noted that it is possible for an aircraft to be in a trimmed state but it may not necessarily be
a stable state; i.e. all the forces and moments may be balanced, but as soon as the state is perturbed the
aircraft departs from equilibrium.
8.1.2 Static Stability
Stability is defined as the ability of an aircraft to return to a given equilibrium state after a disturbance
(this might be caused by a gust or a small movement of the control surfaces).
An aircraft is said to be statically stable when, if it is disturbed from its equilibrium state by a small
displacement, the set of forces and moments so caused initially tend to return the aircraft to its original
state.
For longitudinal static stability this requires:
dC mG
0
d
i.e. the slope of the variation of the pitching moment about the centre of gravity with the angle of
attack (or CL) must be negative.
8.1.3 Control
Control is defined as the ability to change from one flight condition to another and to correct for the
effect of disturbances.
In general, six degrees of freedom (translation in the x, y and z directions and the respective rotations
about these axes) are required to define the motion of the aircraft. In order to introduce the ideas of
trim and stability only motion in the pitching plane (nose-up and nose-down motion) will be
considered at this stage. In this case consideration will be given to longitudinal trim and longitudinal
stability.
To study these topics it is necessary to consider the forces and moments which act on the aircraft in the
49
pitching plane. These are shown in the following diagram:
In the above diagram it is assumed that thrust T is equal to drag D and that they both act through the
centre of gravity (C of G) and make no contribution to the pitching moment.
Lw = Lift of the wing plus body excluding the horizontal stabiliser

P = Lift of the horizontal stabiliser alone
Mo = Pitching moment at zero lift
W = Aircraft weight
c = Reference wing chord
(h – ho)c = Distance between the aerodynamic centre and the centre of
gravity
h = Fraction of the wing chord from the leading edge of the centre of
gravity position
ho = Fraction of the wing chord from the leading edge of the
aerodynamic centre position
ST = Reference area of the horizontal stabiliser
S = Reference wing area
lT = distance of centre of lift of horizontal stabiliser behind aerodynamic
centre
Taking moments about the centre of gravity:
MG = {Mo + (h – ho)cLw} – {P[lT – (h – ho)c]}
This consists of two contributions from a) the wing plus body, and b) the horizontal stabiliser. For the
C of G position shown in the previous diagram, the wing plus body contribution will increase, as CL
50
increases in a nose up sense, from Cmo at CL = 0. The horizontal stabiliser contribution provides an
increasing nose down moment as CL increases, starting from a nose up value at CL = 0.
This diagram below shows that for the wing plus body alone, the slope of the pitching moment curve is
positive, indicating longitudinal static instability. The addition of the horizontal stabiliser results in a
pitching moment curve for the complete aircraft which has a negative slope, indicating that the
complete aircraft is statically stable. The curve also intersects the CL axis at the value of CL at which
the aircraft would be trimmed (CmG = 0). A different value of the angle of the horizontal stabiliser (or
the elevator or trim tab) would change the horizontal stabiliser pitching moment curve causing the
complete aircraft pitching moment curve to intersect (i.e. trim the aircraft) at a different value of CL.
The previous equation can be converted to coefficients by dividing by ½ ρ V2Sc and noting that the lift
coefficient for the horizontal stabiliser CLT is defined on its reference area ST and neglecting the
tailplane moment since it is very small.
The result for the pitching moment coefficient about the centre of gravity is :
CmG = Cmo + (h – ho)(CLw + CLTST/S) – (STlT/Sc)CLT
ST lT
where V   Tail Volume Coefficien t or Tail Volume Ratio
Sc
Vertical equilibrium gives

2
L = L w + P = W = 0.5V SCL
2
i.e. CL = W/0.5V S
and CL = CLw + CLTST/S
51
Thus C mG  C mo  ( h  ho )C L  V C LT
The implications for trim are:
CmG = 0 (since MG = 0)
CL = CLw + CLTST/S (since W = Lw + P)
In order to proceed further it is necessary to consider the tailplane lift coefficient in more detail. It is
important to note that the tailplane operates in the flow region which is affected by the downwash from
the wing. This affects the effective angle of attack of the tailplane as is shown in the following
diagrams:
In the above diagram:
s is the setting or the rigging angle of the tailplane relative to the body datum
 is the elevator angle (positive as shown).
The following diagram shows the effect of the downwash velocity w on the local angle of attack of the
tailplane. In this diagram
 is the downwash angle

w is the downwash velocity
V is the freestream velocity
52
tan = w/V
Downwash angle at tailpla ne    tan   w / V

where ≅ constant ∝ 𝛼, angle of attack.
Tailplane angle of attack = T = S
d
and T     S  
d
d
where is the variation of the downwash angle with angle
d
of attack and is usually in the range from 0.25 to 0.5 depending
on the position of the tailplane.
 d 
 T   1   S
 d 
The tailplane lift coefficient is:
CLT  a1T T  a2T 
C LT
a1T  is the lift curve slope of the tailplane (for  fixed)
 T
CLT
a2T  ( for T fixed)

For the complete aircraft:
C L  a1
dC L
where a1 
d
Substituting into the expression for CmG we obtain:
   d   
C mG  C mo  h  ho a1  V a1T 
 S    1    a 
2T 
  d  
53
For Trim: CmG = 0

The final result for the elevator angle to trim  is :
  d  
V a 2T  C mo  ( h  ho ) a1  V a1T  s   1  
  d  
In some cases the tailplane is ‘all moving’ and the tailplane angle S is adjusted to trim the aircraft. In
this case the tailplane angle to trim is given by the following expression:
 d 
V a1T  S  C mo  ( h  ho ) a1  V a1T   1  
 d 
The design case for the maximum up elevator angle for trim is when stall i.e. the high CL case.
Note: most forward C of G is determined by the maximum available negative trim (i.e. maximum –ve
and at maximum CL. If the tailplane carries –ve lift (i.e., η is large and –ve) then the main wing
must carry more lift. The result is extra induced drag from both the tailplane and main wing which is
known as TRIM DRAG.
8.2 Longitudinal Static Stability
The requirement for longitudinal static stability is that if the aircraft is disturbed in pitch, there should
be a tendency to return to the previous steady flight condition.
i.e. we require a –ve change in MG with a +ve change in 

and a +ve change in MG with a –ve change in 
dM G
Thus we require to be negative
d
dCmG
or 0
d
In considering this condition we assume that the controls are held fixed.
Hence:  and s do not change with i.e., the stick is fixed.
54
To find out when the condition for stability is satisfied we need to differentiate the following
expression for the pitching moment about the centre of gravity with respect to :
   d  
C mG  C mo  ( h  ho ) a1  V a1T  s   1     a 2T 
   d  
dC mG  d 
Hence  (h  ho )a1  V a1T 1  
d  d 
where hc is the distance of the C of G from the leading edge

and hoc is the distance of the aerodynamic centre from the leading edge.
The position of the C of G for neutral stability is given when h = hn,
 d 
i.e. when (hn  ho ) a1  V a1T 1  0
 d 
a  d 
 hn  ho  V 1T 1  
a1  d 
Thus hn represents the position of the Neutral Point Stick Fixed. This is the rearmost allowable C of G
position for static stability. Any C of G positions aft of this point will result in a statically unstable
aircraft stick fixed.
Thus in general: h < hn for static stability.
The Centre of Gravity Margin Stick Fixed (sometimes called the Static Margin) is given by:
Kn = hn – h
where Kn must be positive for stability.
Substituting the result for hn into the expression for dCmG/d we obtain:
dC mG
  a1 K n
d
8.2.1 Trim and C of G Margin
Trim and C of G margin are related by the following analysis:

2
For trim: L = LW + P = W = 0.5V SCL = constant
2
Hence V CL = constant
55
d (V 2C L ) dC L
V 2  2VC L  0
dV dV
dCL 2C
  L
dV V
d d dC L d d dC L d  2C L 
Now     
dV dC L dV d dC L dV d  a1V 
d
We can also obtain an expression for from the previous equation for the elevator
dV
angle to trim derived in the notes on Trim, Static Stability and Control :
  d 
V a2T  Cmo  (h  ho )a1  V a1T  s   1  
  d 
d  2C L   d  
Differenti ating we obtain V a2T    h  ho a1  V a1T 1  
dV  a1V   d  
d 2C
V a2T   L h  hn 
dV V
d 2C L K n
i.e 
dV V V a 2T
This equation gives an expression for the rate of change of the elevator angle for trim as the speed of
the aircraft changes. The rate of change is high when:
i) the speed V is low

ii) the static margin Kn is large.
In practice this means that the largest changes in the elevator angle for trim with speed will occur when
the speed is low (high CL) and the C of G is well forward (large Kn).
8.3 Tailplane Design
The tailplane must be designed to meet the following criteria:
a) provide adequate pitching stability in all configurations of the aircraft,

b) ensure that CLT is not excessive in the forward C of G and flaps extended case.
To save weight and to reduce drag the tailplane should be as small as possible. The ideal
C of G position will therefore be that position giving the same tailplane size for both stability and
56
control considerations.
If possible the tailplane should be positioned so that it is not :
a) in a position of high d/d (i.e. high downwash),

b) in the wake from flaps and dive brakes,
c) in a region of intense slipstream effects.
8.4 Control Design
8.4.1 Elevator
The forces generated by the elevator must be sufficient to :
a) trim and manoeuvre the aircraft in all configurations,

b) stall the aircraft in all configurations,
c) land the aircraft in a taildown attitude,
d) unstick the nose-wheel on take-off at less than the stalling speed.
Cases b) c) and d) usually size the elevator on conventional aircraft. The critical case is usually the
forward C of G case.
8.4.2 Aileron
The aileron size is usually fixed by landing approach requirement (say produce a 60 degree bank in 7
seconds). Aileron generated forces must be adequate to make possible cross-wind landings in gusty
conditions.
8.4.3 Rudder
The rudder size is usually determined to meet one of the following criteria :
a) the ability to counter engine failure during take-off,

b) the ability to make safe cross-wind landings.
57

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Mechanics of Flight Course Notes – October 2020

SESA1015 Mechanics of Flight, 2020/21

6.3.2 Piston Engined Aircraft................................................................................................. 35

• Mechanics of Flight course applies Newton’s laws of motion to flying vehicles

2 THE ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT, FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND

2.1 The Atmosphere

Fig 2.1 – International Standard Atmosphere up to 20km

Fig 2.2 – International Standard Atmosphere up to 90km

2.2 Measurement of Airspeed

2.3 Mach Number

2.4 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

R can be resolved into the following components:

L normal to the relative wind: Lift

In addition there is a moment M

M is known as the: Pitching Moment

– L (force) N +ve upwards ^

Aerodynamic lift for example is a function of:

where S is the reference area

where CD is called the Drag Coefficient.

where CM is called the Pitching Moment Coefficient,

Reference Lengths : i) Root chord cR

Reference Areas : i) Wing plan area SG or SN

2.6 Wing Areas

Both SG and SN are projected wing areas.

2.8 Aircraft Components

A twin turbo-prop regional passenger aircraft with tricycle undercarriage

3 TYPICAL AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR CONVENTIONAL

3.1 Lift Coefficient

o is called the no lift angle and is usually negative.

Typically CL = 0.09( + 2) where  is in degrees

or CL = 5( + 2/57.3) where  is in radians

3.2 Drag Coefficient

Induced drag dominant

Hence CD = CDo + CDi

where CD is the total drag coefficient,

Thus, the induced drag coefficient may be written as

Hence the total drag coefficient may be written as:

3.3 Pitching Moment Coefficient

Fig. 3.3 – pitching moment variation with AoA

The variation of Cmwith the lift coefficient CL is then

Fig. 3.4 Pitching moment coefficient about CoG

3.4 Centre of Pressure

Taking moments about the CG :

xcp/c = CmCG /CL = Cmo /CL – h

where c is the wing mean chord.

3.5 Aerodynamic Centre

Taking moments about the CG :

measured from the leading edge of the wing.

4 PERFORMANCE – STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT (Lectures 6, 7 & 9)

4.1 Equilibrium of Forces and Moments

Equilibrium of forces and moments about the CG gives:

where w = W/S = Wing Loading.

4.2 Stalling Speed

where VS is the Stalling Speed

Variation of Lift Coefficient with Speed for the DC-9-30 Aircraft

4.3 Level Flight Speeds

For flight at speed V the total aircraft drag may be written as

These solutions are given by:

4.4 Minimum Drag Conditions