INTRODUCTION

Concentration of Solutions
 Objectives

 Identify fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry.

 Indentify main classes of quantitative analysis.

 Apply volumetric calculations.

 Identify different concentration terms.

3
 Introduction

Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and

methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter

It can be classified as Qualitative and Quantitative analysis

 Qualitative Analysis
establishes the chemical identity of the species in the
sample.

 Quantitative Analysis
determines the relative amount of species or analytes, in
numerical terms.

4
 Some Important applications
 Quality control: uniformity of products; safety of
products; ingredient specifications.
 Monitoring of components in industrial processes.
 Research & development for new products: such as
pharmaceutical products and new agricultural active
ingredients
 Environmental analysis: quantities of hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide and other
pollutants present in air and many parameters in water are
measured to determine their qualities.
 Forensics, biochemical and clinical analysis

5
 Classification of Quantitative Methods of Analysis
Quantitative Analysis can be classified into two main
groups; Manual & Instrumental Analysis

Manual (Classical) Analysis: in which we use simple

equipments such as pipettes, burettes, flasks, etc… These can
be further classified into two classes:

 Gravimetric Methods: in which, the mass of analyte or

a compound stoichiometrically related to the analyte is
measured.

 Volumetric Methods: in which the volume of a solution

containing a substance that reacts stoichiometrically
with the analyte is measured.

6
Classification of Quantitative Methods of Analysis (Cont.)
Instrumental Analysis: in which, we use an instrument to measure
a certain physical property proportional to the amount of analyte in
the sample.
These can be classified into different categories according to the
property measured :

 Spectral Methods: These are based on the measurement of the

interaction between electromagnetic radiation and analyte atoms or
molecules such as absorption or emission of the radiation.

 Electrometric Methods: These are based on measurement of an

electrical property such as potential, current, resistance or quantity of
electricity which can be related to the quantity of analyte.

 Miscellaneous methods: These include the measurement of such

quantities as charge ratio, rate of radioactive decay, heat of reaction,
rate of reaction, sample thermal conductivity, optical activity and
refractive index.
7
 Concentration Terms

Concentration is the quantity of analyte (solute) dissolved in a

certain amount of solvent.

It can be expressed in several ways:

 Weight concentration: in which the amount of solvent is expressed

in weight; e.g., weight percentage (w/w), parts per million (ppm or
mg/Kg) and molality (m).

 Volume concentration: in which the amount of solvent is expressed

in volume; e.g., molarity (M), strength (S), volume percentage (w/v
& v/v), and p-function (pH).

8
 The mole Concept (Amount of Substance)
amount of substance that contains
1 mol of any substance  6.022  1023 units  Molecular Weight (g)
atom - ion Avogadro’s Number Molar Mass
molecule Formula Mass (FM)
formula unit

Mole Number Mass Na2CO3

Example
(222.99)
1 mol of Na2CO3  6.022  1023 Na2CO3  106.0 g +
Formula units (112.01)
+
(316.00)
1 mol of HCl  6.022  1023 HCl  36.46 g
Formula units 106.0 g/mol
0.5 mol of HCl 18.23 g
?? mol of HCl 1.235 g

Generally 1 mol of substance  Molecular Weight (g)

n mol  W (g)
W (g)
𝒘 (𝒈)
𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 = 𝒈 n molar
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 ( ) Mass
𝒎𝒐𝒍 (mol) (g/mol)
9
 Concentration of solution
Molar concentration - molarity (M) Solution
Solute/Solvent
How many dissolved in w/w
Moles 1.0 L w/v
(Solute) Solution
(solute + solvent)
Example
106.0 g of Na2CO3 / L solution  1 mol Na2CO3 / L solution  1.0 M Na2CO3 solution

n mol of Na2CO3 VL solution

?? M 1.0 L solution

𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒍

𝑴 = =
𝑽𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳 𝒎𝑳
n (mol)
M
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬, 𝐧 = 𝐌 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋 × 𝐕𝐋 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
(mol/L)
VL
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 = 𝐌 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋 × 𝐕𝐦𝐋 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
10
 Mass – concentration – volume relation
𝑾 (𝒈)
𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑴. 𝑾𝒕.
𝑴 = =
𝑽𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝑳 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒈
𝑾 𝒈 =𝑴 × 𝑽 𝑳 × 𝑴. 𝑾𝒕
𝑳 𝒎𝒐𝒍

𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒈
𝑴 × 𝑽 𝒎𝑳 × 𝑴. 𝑾𝒕
𝑾 𝒎𝒈 = 𝑴 × 𝑽 𝒎𝑳 × 𝑴. 𝑾𝒕 𝑳 𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑳 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑾 𝒈 =
𝒎𝑳
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑳

Concentration is a Ratio
40.0 g NaOH 4.0 g NaOH 0.40 g NaOH 0.10 g NaOH
= = =
1000 mL 100 mL 10 mL 2.5 mL
All these solutions certainly have the same concentration of 1.0 M NaOH

11
Example
Calculate the molar concentration of NaOH in an aqueous solution that contains
4.0 g of sodium hydroxide (40 g/mol) in 2.0 liters.

Weight of NaOH
no. of moles of NaOH =
Molecular weight of NaOH
4.0 g
= = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥
40 (g/mol)

no. of moles of NaOH

c𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇 =
Volume of solution in liters
0.1 mol
= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
2.0 L
In one step
𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐠
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞(𝐠) = 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 × 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐋 × 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 ( )
𝐋 𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐠
𝟒. 𝟎 (𝐠) = 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 × 𝟐. 𝟎 𝐋 × 𝟒𝟎 ( ) 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
𝐋 𝐦𝐨𝐥

12
 Reaction Stoichiometry

In the chemical reaction:

2HCl + Na2CO3  2NaCl + CO2 + H2O (balanced Equation)
2 Formula units 1 Formula unit 1 Formula unit 1 molecule 1 molecule

2 mol 1 mol 2 mo1 1 mol 1 mol

The molar ratio (stoichiometric ratio) by which HCl reacts with Na2CO3
2 mol HCl : 1 mol Na2CO3
Thus, we can say that 2 mol of HCl will react completely with 1 mol of Na2CO3

20.0 g 10.0 g (Is that correct?) Absolutely Not !!

HCl Na2CO3
13
 Reaction Stoichiometry
Example
How many grams of Na2CO3 (106.0 g/mol) are needed to reacts with 20.0 g of
HCl (36.46 g/mol? 2HCl + Na2CO3  2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

Molar Ratio (reaction)

 How many moles of HCl
are there in 20.0 g of 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝑪𝒍 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
𝟐𝟎. 𝟎 𝒈 𝑯𝑪𝒍 × ×
HCl? 𝟑𝟔. 𝟒𝟔 𝒈 𝑯𝑪𝒍 𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝑪𝒍
 How many moles of mol HCl mol Na2CO3
Na2CO3 are required to
react with 20.0 g of HCl? 𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟎 𝒈 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
× = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟎𝟒𝟏 𝒈 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
= 𝟐𝟗. 𝟎 𝒈 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
 How many grams of
g Na2CO3
Na2CO3 are needed to
react with 20.0 g of HCl?
Dimensional analysis, Factorlabel method or Picket fence method 14
 Reaction Stoichiometry
Example
How many grams of Na2CO3 (106.0 g/mol) are needed to reacts with 25.0 mL of
0.10 M H2SO4? H2SO4 + Na2CO3  Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O

 How many moles of H2SO4 𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒

are there in 25.0 mL of (𝟐𝟓. 𝟎 𝒎𝑳 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 ) × 𝟑
𝒎𝑳 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒
0.10 M H2SO4?
mmol H2SO4
mol H2SO4
 How many moles of Na2CO3 Molar Ratio (reaction)
are required to react with
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟎 𝒈 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
25.0 mL of 0.10 M H2SO4? × ×
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
 How many grams of Na2CO3 mol Na2CO3 g Na2CO3
are needed to react with
25.0 mL of 0.10 M H2SO4? = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟓 𝒈 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑

15
 Reaction Stoichiometry
Example
What mass of Ag2CO3 (275.7 g/mol) is formed when 25.0 mL of 0.200 M AgNO3 is added
to 30.0 mL of 0.10 M Na2CO3? What is the analytical concentration of Na2CO3 in the
resulting solution?
2AgNO3 + Na2CO3  Ag2CO3 + 2NaNO3
Before 25.0 mL  0.20 M 30.0 mL of 0.10 M 0 mmol
reaction 5 mmol 3 mmol
𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3
 What is the limiting 25.0 𝑚𝐿 × 0.20 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 × = 2.5 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3
𝑚𝐿 2 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3
reactant?
Thus, 2.5 mmol Na2CO3 are actually needed to react with 5.0 mmol of
AgNO3, but we have more of Na2CO3 (3 mmol available).
Consequently, Na2CO3 will be in excess and AgNO3 is the limiting reactant

Another method to determine the limiting reactant

5 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑨𝒈𝑵𝑶𝟑 3 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3
2 1
Coefficient in the
𝟐. 𝟓 𝟑. 𝟎 chemical equation
the smallest (the limiting reactant) 16
 Reaction Stoichiometry

2AgNO3 + Na2CO3  Ag2CO3 + 2NaNO3

After 0 mmol 3 mmol – 2.5 mmol ?? mmol
reaction reacted
= 0.5 mmol remains

 What mass of 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔2 𝐶𝑂3 275.7 𝑚𝑔 𝐴𝑔2 𝐶𝑂3

25.0 𝑚𝐿 × 0.20 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 × ×
Ag2CO3 is formed? 𝑚𝐿 2 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔2 𝐶𝑂3

1 𝑔 𝐴𝑔2 𝐶𝑂3
× = 0.689 𝑔 𝐴𝑔2 𝐶𝑂3
103 𝑚𝑔 𝐴𝑔2 𝐶𝑂3

 What is the 3.0 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 2.5 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠
analytical
concentration of total volume of solution = 25.0 mL + 30.0 mL = 55.0 mL
Na2CO3 in the
0.5 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3
resulting solution? 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 = = 9.1 × 10−3 𝑀
55.0 𝑚𝐿

17
Example
If 25.0 mL of 0.1 M HCl is mixed with 50.0 mL of 0.2 M H2SO4, what is the molar
concentration of hydrogen ion in the resulting solution?
Note that the two acids don’t react with each other they just mix together

0.1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 + 0.2 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 2 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 +

25.0 𝑚𝐿 × × + 50.0 𝑚𝐿 × ×
𝑚𝐿 1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝐿 1 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
𝐻+ =
25.0 + 50.0 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2.5 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 + 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 20 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 + 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
= = 0.30 𝑀
75.0 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)

Example:
What is the mass in grams of Na+ (22.99 g/mol) in 25.0 g of Na2SO4 (142.0 g/mol)?

The units given are g Na2SO4 and the units of the answer are g Na+
Na2SO4  2Na+ + SO42-

1 mol Na2SO4 2 mol Na+ 22.99 g Na+

25.0 g Na2SO4 × × × +
= 8.10 g Na+
142.0 g Na2SO4 1 mol Na2SO4 1 mol Na
18
 Exercises

1.1. How many moles of Na2CO3 (106.0 g/mol) are there in

a) 0.53 g of solid Na2CO3? [0.005 mol]
b) 10.0 mL of 0.15 M Na2CO3 solution? [0.0015 mol]

1.2. What mass of Ba(OH)2·8H2O, 315.46 g/mol, would be required to make 500.0 mL of a
solution that is 0.1500 M in hydroxide ions? [11.83 g]

1.3. What volume of 0.416 M Mg(NO3)2 should be added to 255 mL of 0.102 M KNO3 to
produce a solution with a concentration of 0.278 M NO3− ions. [81.0 mL]

1.4. What mass of Ag2CO3 (275.7 g/mol) is formed when 25.0 mL of 0.200 M AgNO3 is
added to 50.0 mL of 0.080 M Na2CO3? What is the analytical concentration of Na2CO3 in
the resulting solution? [0.69 g Ag2CO3, 0.020 M Na2CO3]

19
 Molal Concentration (molality)
It is the number of moles of solute contained in 1000 g of solvent,
i.e.; one molal solution contains one mole/1000 g (1 Kg) of solvent.

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 (𝐧)

𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐦) =
𝐖𝐢𝐞𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐊𝐠)

 Molal concentrations are temperature independent, unlike molarity,

where change in temperature has an effect on volume of solution.

Exercises
1.5. How many grams of water should you add to 67 g of sucrose (342.3 g/mol), to get
a 0.95 m solution? [206 g water]

1.6. Hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl, 36.46 g/mol) in water. A
concentrated solution of 12.18 M has a density of 1.18 g/mL at 20 °C. Calculate the
molality of the concentrated HCl solution. [16.55 m]
20
 Percent Concentration
Weight percent (w/w)
mass of solute
weight % (w/w) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
mass of solution
 20% (w/w) HCl solution is a solution containing 20 g of HCl per 100 g of solution.

Volume percent (v/v)

volume of solute
volume % (v/v) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
.
volume of solution
 5% (v/v) aqueous solution of methanol is prepared by diluting 5.0 mL of pure methanol
with enough water to give 100 mL solution

Weight/Volume percent (w/v)

mass of solute
weight/volume % (w/v) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
volume of solution
 8% (w/v) aqueous silver nitrate solution can be prepared by dissolving 8.0 g pure silver
nitrate in distilled water to give 100 mL solution. 21
 Exercises
1.7. A 135g sample of seawater is evaporated to dryness, leaving 4.73 g of solid residue
(the salts formerly dissolved in the seawater). Calculate the mass percent of solute
present in the original seawater. [3.5%]

1.8. Cow’s milk typically contains 4.5% by mass of lactose, C12H22O11. Calculate the mass
of lactose present in 175 g of milk. [7.88 g lactose]

1.9. If 500 g of water is added to 75 g of 25% NaCl solution, what is the percent by mass
of NaCl in the diluted solution? [3.26%]

1.10. A 10.0 M aqueous solution of NaOH (40.0 g/mol) has a density of 1.33 g/mL at
25 °C. Calculate the mass percent of the NaOH in the solution. [30.1%]

22
 Mass Concentration (part per million)
 For very dilute solutions, parts per million (ppm or mg solute/Kg solution) is a
convenient way to express concentration.

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 (𝐠)

𝐂 𝐩𝐩𝐦 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐠)

𝐂 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 (𝐠)

𝐩𝐩𝐦 = (𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔)
𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐠)
𝐦𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐦𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝟏 𝐊𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
= × 𝟔 = 𝟔 = 𝐂 𝐩𝐩𝐦
𝐊𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐊𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏𝟎 𝐦𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏𝟎 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

 For a solution of given strength, for example 0.005 g/L NaCl aqueous solution (5 mg/L),
knowing that density of solution is 1.045 kg/L

𝟓 𝐦𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝟏 𝐋 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟓 𝐦𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞

× = = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟕 𝐩𝐩𝐦
𝟏 𝐋 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟓 𝐊𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟓 𝐊𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

For very diluted aqueous solution, density (d) of solution will approach density of water (1 Kg/L or 1 g/mL)

5 mg/L  5 mg/kg  5 ppm (exactly 4.77 ppm)

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 Mass Concentration (part per billion)
 For very dilute solutions, parts per billion (ppb or g/Kg) is a convenient way to
express concentration.

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 (𝐠)

𝐂 𝐩𝐩𝐛 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟗
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐠)

𝐂 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 (𝐠)

𝐩𝐩𝐛 = (𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔)
𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐠)

𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐦𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝟏 𝐊𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞

= × 𝟗 = 𝟗 = 𝐂 𝐩𝐩𝐛
𝐊𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐊𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏𝟎 𝛍𝐠 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏𝟎 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

 For a solution of given strength, for example 0.005 g/L NaCl aqueous solution
500 g/L = 500 g/Kg = 500 ppb
(Definitely, for this so much diluted solution, density will equal 1)
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 Exercises
1.11. A 250.0mL aqueous solution contains 45.1 µg of a pesticide. Express the pesticide’s
concentration in percent (w/v) and in parts per million. [1.8010–5 % w/v, 0.180 ppm]

1.12. A person is medically considered to have lead poisoning if he or she has a concentration
of greater than 10 mg of lead per deciliter of blood. What is this concentration in parts
per billion? Assume that the density of blood is the same as that of water. [1105 ppb]

1.13. What is the molar concentration of K+ in a solution that contains 63.3 ppm of K3Fe(CN)6
(329.3 g/mol)? [5.77104 M K+]

1.14. Fluoride ion is added to drinking water at low concentrations to prevent tooth decay.
What mass of sodium fluoride (NaF, 42.0 g/mol) should be added to 750 L of water to
make a solution that is 1.5 ppm in fluoride ion (19.0 g/mol)? [2.5 g NaF]

1.15. Seawater contains an average of 1.08103 ppm of Na+ and 270 ppm of SO42. Calculate
the molar concentration of Na+ (22.99 g/mol) and SO42 (96 g/mol) given that the
average density of seawater is 1.02 g/mL. [4.79102 Na+, 2.87103 M SO42]

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 Strength
It is the no. of grams of solute per liter of solution

 Strength, S, can be calculated as:

S (g/L) = Molarity (mol/L)  Molecular Weight (g/mol)

Exercises
1.16. Sulfuric acid has a great affinity for water, and for this reason, the most
concentrated form of sulfuric acid available is actually a 98.3% solution. The
density of concentrated sulfuric acid is 1.84 g/mL. What mass of sulfuric acid is
present in 1.00 L (strength) of the concentrated solution? [1.81103 g/L]

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 Concentration of Commercial Acids and Bases HCl
HNO3
Example H2SO4
Calculate the molar concentration (molarity) of HNO3 H3PO4
(63 g/mol) in a solution that has a specific gravity of 1.42 HClO4
and is 70% by mass HNO3 HF
NH3
70% HNO3 (w/w) 70 g HNO3 100 g solution
W 70 g
n= g mol HNO3 100 g solution
M. Wt. 63 mol g mL solution
1.42 mL
W
V= ?? mol HNO3 1000 mL solution
d
M
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟕𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐌 = = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟕𝟖 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝟏𝟎 × 𝐏 × 𝐒𝐩. 𝐆𝐫.
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐌) =
𝐌𝐖𝐭.
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 Dilution
 To save time and space in the laboratory, solutions that are routinely used are often
purchased or prepared in concentrated form (called stock solutions).
 Water (or another solvent) is then added to achieve the molarity desired for a
particular solution. The process of adding more solvent to a solution is called
dilution.
 A typical dilution calculation involves determining how much water must be added
to an amount of stock solution to achieve a solution of the desired concentration.
 The amount of solute in the final, more dilute solution is the same as the amount of
solute in the original, concentrated stock solution. That is,
Moles of solute after dilution = Moles of solute before dilution
 The number of moles of solute stays the same but more water is added, increasing
the volume, so the molarity decreases.

Initial Conditions Final Conditions

M1  V1 = moles of solute = M2  V2
Molarity Volume Molarity Volume
before before after after
dilution dilution dilution dilution

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 What volume of 15.78 M nitric acid must be used to prepare
500 mL of a 0.10 M HNO3 solution?
15.78  V1 = moles of solute = 0.10  500
V1 = 3.17 mL

a b c

3.17 mL of 15.78 M nitric Water is added to the flask The resulting solution
acid solution is transferred (with swirling) to bring the is 0.10 M nitric acid.
to a 500volumetric flask volume to the calibration
that already contains some mark, and the solution is
water. mixed by inverting the flask
several times
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 Exercises

1.17. Water is added to 25.0 mL of a 0.866 M KNO3 solution until the volume of the solution is
exactly 500 mL. What is the concentration of the final solution? [0.0433 M]

1.18. You make 1.000 L of an aqueous solution that contains 35.0 g of sucrose (C12H22O11,
342.3 g/mol).
a) What is the molarity of sucrose in this solution? [0.1022 M]
b) How many liters of water would you have to add to this solution to reduce the
molarity you calculated in part (a) by a factor of two? [1.000 L]

1.19. You have 505 mL of a 0.125 M HCl solution and you want to dilute it to exactly 0.100 M.
How much water should you add? [126 mL of water]

1.20. A bottle of concentrated aqueous sulfuric acid, labeled 98.0 wt% H2SO4 (98 g/mol), has
a concentration of 18.0 M.
a) How many milliliters of reagent should be diluted to 1.000 L to give 1.00 M H2SO4?
b) Calculate the density of 98.0 wt% H2SO4. [a) 55.6 mL, b) 1.8 g/mL]

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 p-Functions

p-function or p-value, is the negative logarithm (to the base

10) of the molar concentration of that species

 So for a species X,
pX =  log [X]

 Example,
H+ concentration pH value
[H+] = 103 M pH = log [H+] = log MHCl = log (103) = 3

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 REFERENCES
 Analytical Chemistry, Gary D. Christian, 7ed, 2014

 Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry, D. A. Skoog,

10ed, 2017

 Telegram group Link:

Chem221  Dr. Raafat Aly

https://t.me/+4Yi2-i6dJkM2NGI0

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