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Course I: Introduction to communication and Journalism : JOU1(2) C01

Module I: Fundamentals of communication (Continued)

Osgood and Schramm’s Circular Model

Osgood and Schramm envisioned communication as a circular process which has beginning and
or end. Hence their model is called Circular Model. In their view, sender and receiver are
interchangeable positions and though not specifically mentioned, feedback is an essential
component of this model. There are three functions on each part of the communication circle.
They are: encoding, decoding and interpreting. Both sender and receiver are encoders, decoders
and interpreters at the same time.
Encoder: Who does encoding or sends the message
Decoder: Who receives the message?
Interpreter: Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret.
Merits of this model are:
1. Dynamic model- Shows how a situation can change
2. It shows why redundancy is an essential part
3. There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the same person
4. Assume communication to be circular in nature
5. Feedback - central feature.
Demerit: This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assume the moment of encoding
and decoding.
From the message starting to ending, there is an interpretation goes on, and based on this
interpretation only the message is received. This model breaks the sender and receiver model it
seems communication in a practical way. It is not a traditional model. It can happen within our
self or two people; each person acts as both sender and receiver and hence uses interpretation. It
is simultaneously take place e.g. encoding, interpret and decoding.
Semantic noise is a concept introduced here it occurs when sender and receiver apply different
meaning to the same message. It happens mostly because of words and phrases for e.g. Technical
Language, So certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate from the actual meaning of the
communication. When semantic noise takes place decoding and interpretation becomes difficult
and people get deviated from the actual message.
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Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Model of Communication

In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Claude Shannon, an electronics engineer at the
Bell Telephone Company, along with Warren Weaver, a scientist, developed the most influential
of all early communication models. Their goal was to formulate a theory to guide the efforts of
engineers to find out the most efficient way of transmitting electrical signals from one location to
another. Both of them join together to write an article in “Bell System Technical Journal” called “A
Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as “Shannon-Weaver model of
communication”.
This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between sender and
receiver. Also they find factors which affecting the communication process called “Noise”. At
first the model was developed to improve the Technical communication. Later it’s widely
applied in the field of Communication. The model deals with various concepts like Information
source, transmitter, Noise, channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode
and decode.
Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desired message
Encoder : The transmitter which converts the message into signals
The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is compactable to
transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone the voice is
converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables
Decoder : The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode
The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable and
understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it will affect
the effective communication between sender and receiver
Receiver : The destination of the message from sender
Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feedback to sender. If the message
distracted by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver
Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder and
crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission process
which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct message
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The model is clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals from
external sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network which directly affect
the mobile phone communication or distract the messages
As the prime concern of the developers of this model was to quantitatively maximize the signals
transmitted, this model is also called Mathematical Model of Communication. The model is
based on technical communication settings where information source transmits the messages
after converting it to signals. These signals are captured using receivers and decoded.
Communication through mechanical devices like telephone or television is a best example for
this model.

Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of communication is:

1. One of the simplest model and its general applied in various communication theories
2. The model which attracts both academics of Human communication and Information
theorist to leads their further research in communication.
3. It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass audience
4. The model based on “Sender and Receiver”. Here sender plays the primary role and
receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive)
5. Communication is not a one way process. If it’s behaved like that, it will lose its strength.
For example: Audience or receiver who listening a radio, reading the books or watching
television is a one way communication because absence of feedback
6. Understanding Noise will helps to solve the various problems in communication

Berlo’s SMCR Model

Berlo’s model includes a number of factors under each of the elements:

Source: The source is situated where the message originates.
Communication skills – It is the skill of the individual to communicate. For example, the ability
to read, write, speak, listen etc.
Attitudes – This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject and towards oneself. For
example, for the student, the attitude is to learn more and for teachers, it is to help teach.
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Knowledge– Communicating also means that the person needs to be knowledgeable about the
subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to know about the subject in detail that he or she teaches
so that they can communicate properly such that the students understand here.
Note: It refers, not to the general knowledge, but to the knowledge of the subject that the person
is communicating and their familiarity with it.
Social system – The social system includes the various aspects of society like values, beliefs,
culture, religion and a general understanding of society. It is where the communication takes
place.
For example, classrooms differ from country to country just like people’s behaviours and how
they communicate, etc.
Note: We can communicate only to the extent that the social system allows. When we
communicate, we take the social system into account.
Culture: Culture of a particular society also comes under the social system.
According to this model, people can communicate only if the above requirements are met in the
proper or adequate proportion.
Encoder: The sender of the message, from where the message originates, is referred to as the
encoder. So the source encodes the message here.
Message
Content – The body of a message, from the beginning to the end, comprises its content. For
example, whatever the class teacher teaches in the class, from beginning to end, is the content of
the message.
Elements – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language, etc. They
constitute all the elements of a particular message. Any content is accompanied by some
elements.
Treatment – It refers to the packing of the message and the way in which the message is
conveyed or the way in which it is passed on or delivered.
Note: When there is too much treatment, communication will not go smoothly.
Structure– The structure of the message refers to how it is arranged; the way people structure
the message into various parts.
Note: Message is the same, but if the structure is not properly arranged then the receiver will not
understand the message.
Code– The code of the message refers to the means through which it is sent and in what form. It
could be, for example, language, body language, gestures, music, etc. Even culture is a code.
Through this, people give and receive messages and communication takes place.
Note: Only when the code is clear, the message will be clear. The wrong usage may lead to
misinterpretation.
Channel– It refers to the five sense organs. The following are the five senses:
 Hearing
 Seeing
 Touching
 Smelling
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 Tasting
Communication occurs through one or more of these channels.
Hearing: The use of ears to receive the message. For example, orally transmitted messages,
interpersonal communication etc.
Seeing: Visual channels, for example, Watching television so the message is conveyed through
the scene/film.
Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate. For example, we touch,
buy food, hugging our loved ones, etc.
Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to communicate. For example, perfumes, food, fragrances
etc. Charred smell communicates something is burning. People can deduct which food is being
cooked by its smell etc.
Tasting : The tongue is a muscular organ used in the act of eat and taste food. For example,
while a food is being shared, the communication can happen regarding its taste.
Note: Despite not mentioning a medium, we need to assume that as communication is taking
place, channels can be any of the 5 senses or combination.
Decoder : The person who receives the message and decodes it is referred to a decoder.
Receiver: The receiver needs to think all the contents and elements of the source, so as to
communicate/responds to sender effectively.;
Berlo’s model believes that for effective communication to take place, the source and the
receiver need to be on the same level. Only then communication will happen or take place
properly. Hence, the source and the receiver should be similar.
For example, if the communication skill of the source is good, then the receiver should have
equally good listening skills.
It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message because even though he
may receive it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning. For effective communication, the
source and the receiver need to be on the same level.
Self-image differs from person to person. For communication, the person should consider the
receiver, speak accordingly and give them what they need.

Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:

1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.
2. It does not mention the barriers to communication.
3. There is no room for noise.
4. It is a rather complex model.
5. It is a linear model of communication.
6. It requires people to be on the same level for effective communication to happen. However,
that rarely happens in everyday life.
7. The main drawback of the model is that it omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel of
communication, which is an asset to human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc.)

The Normative Theories of the Press

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Normative theories were first proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm
in their book called “Four Theories of the Press” published in 1956. The four theories were
Authoritarian, Soviet media, Libertarian and Social Responsibility. Later in 1983, Dennis
McQuail developed a typology of “Four plus Two” by adding the Democratic- Participant theory
and Development Media Theory in addition to the four theories of press. Hence, Dennis
McQuail, in his book Mass Communication Theory; An Introduction developed two additional
theories to accommodate the loopholes in the four basic theories.
These theories are basically different from other communication theories because normative
theories of press are not providing any scientific explanations or prediction. Normative theories
are more focused in the relationship between Press and the Government than press and the
audience. These theories are more concern about the ownership of the media and who controls
the press or media in the country.

Authoritarian Media Theory

Authoritarian theory describe that all forms of communications are under the control of the
governing elite or authorities or influential bureaucrats. The media existed basically as the
mouthpiece of the government of the day. Authoritarians are necessary to control the media to
protect and prevent the people from the national threats through any form information or news.
The press is an instrument to enhance the ruler’s power in the country rather than any threats.
Under the authoritarian theory of the press, all media of communication were under the control
of the ruling authority. The theory violated rights of freedom of expression and was entreated
under forceful conditions. The authorities have all rights to permit any media and control it by
providing license to the media and make certain censorship. If any media violate the government
policies against license, then the authority has all right to cancel the license and revoke it. Other
mechanisms of control were: hefty taxation, suppressive laws, and control of media employees,
embargo on printing materials, shutting of media, killing and imprisonment of journalists under
harsh laws. It is still in practice in counties like Iran, Syria and North Korea.
[Media Censorship: Censorship of media is a suppression of any communication which may
consider as harmful to the people, King, government and its nation. Especially these censorship
methods are much familiar in press which against the freedom of speech and freedom of
expression. In some other cases, the censorship helps to protect the rulers and authorities from
sensitive issues. There are different types of censors like: Political censorship (by ruling Govt.),
Censorship on moral grounds, Religious motivated censorship, censorship imposed by military,
Censorship to protect corporate interests.]
Examples: Press censorship in North Korea, Facebook ban in China, Ban on Russian press in
European countries during Russia - Ukraine War, Press regulations during Emergency in India.

Libertarian Media Theory

Libertarian theory sees people are more enough to find and judge good ideas from bad. The
theory says people are rational and their rational thoughts lead them to find out what are good
and bad. It is also called the ‘free press’, which has fully developed in the United States of
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America. It is a precise contradiction of the authoritarian theory. The theory asserts total freedom
of public expression and of economic operation of the media and discards any intrusion by
government in any facet of the press. The press should not restrict anything even a negative
content may give knowledge and can make better decision whilst worst situation. The libertarian
thoughts are exactly against or opposite to the authoritarian theory which means the authoritarian
theory says “all forms of communication works under the control of government or elite like
king”. In other words, it supports free expression, autonomy from any power, freedom from
censorship -either internal or external. The liberal standpoint also highlights the need to
safeguard the freedom of the media from government intrusion.
Negative aspects of libertarian press theory:
 Freedom of press will give more freedom to media to reveal the real thing happening in
the society without any censorship or any authority blockades.
 Is reliable with U.S media traditions.
 It gives more values for individuals to express their thoughts in media.
 Theory excessively positive about media’s willing to meet responsibilities which may
leads people into negative aspects.
 Is too positive about individual ethics and rationality.
 Ignores need for reasonable control of media.
 Ignores dilemmas posed by conflicting freedoms.
[Liberalism means information is knowledge and knowledge is power. Libertarianism is free
from any authority or any control or censorship. The libertarianism is an idea of individualism
and limited government which is not harmful to another.]
Examples: Wiki leaks brought out war crimes of America in Iraq, Twitter outburst during
American presidential elections helped Donald trump to come into power, thus his hate policies
were legitimized.
The libertarian media was supposed to protect the interests of the common people, on the
contrary, it ended up in protecting the interests of corporates who own the press and neglecting
the interests of marginalized communities. In the book “Four theories of Press” (Siebert,
Peterson and Schramm) it’s been stated that “pure libertarianism is antiquated, out dated and
obsolete.” That paved way for replacement of Libertarian theory with the Social responsibility
theory.

Social Responsibility Theory

The theory ideology is in-between both authoritarian theory and libertarian theory because it
gives room for media freedom on one hand but with need for external controls on the other hand.
The basic assumption of the theory holds that the press must be free but with a responsibility to
serve public good whether by way of state regulation or self-censorship. The theory balances the
necessity for press freedom with the need for responsibility. It states that in the interest of public
interest and true depiction, both sides of an incident should be stated. Social responsibility theory
allows free press without any censorship but at the same time the content of the press should be
discussed in public panel and media should accept any obligation from public interference or
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professional self-regulations or both. The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and
libertarian theory because it gives total media freedom in one hand but the external controls in
other hand. The theory helped in creating professionalism in media by setting up a high level of
accuracy, truth, and information. The commission of press council also included some tasks
based on social responsibility of media, which are as follows:
 Formulate the code of conduct for the press.
 Improve the standards of journalism.
 Safeguarding the interests of journalism and journalist.
 Criticize and make some penalty for violating the code of conduct.
Social responsibility allows:
 Everyone to say something or express their opinion about the media.
 Community opinion, Consumer action and professional ethics.
 Serious invasion of recognized private rights and vital social interests.
 Private ownership in media may give better public service unless government has to take
over to assure the public to provide better media service.
 Media must take care of social responsibility and if they do not, government or other
organization will do.
Negatives of Social Responsibility Theory:
 Avoids the conflict situation during war or emergency by accepting the public opinion.
 Media will not play monopoly because the audience and media scholars will rise
questions if media published or broadcast anything wrongly or manipulate any story.
 Media Standards will improve.
 Media will concern all class audience rather than focus on higher classes in the society.
 Media may work autonomously but certain thing is controlled by the government and
other public organization.

Soviet Media Theory

Soviet media theory is imitative of Leninist principles which based on the Carl Marx and Engel’s
ideology. The government undertakes or controls the total media and communication to serve
working classes and their interest. Theory says the state have absolute power to control any
media for the benefits of people. They put end to the private ownership of the press and other
media. The government media provide positive thoughts to create a strong socialized society as
well as providing information, education, entertainment, motivation and mobilization. The
theory describe the whole purpose of the mass media is to educate the greater masses of working
class or workers. Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback which would able to create
interests towards the media. According to authoritarian theory, the media controlled and
censored by the ministries in the country but libertarian is fully free without any intervention of
any authority or government, Social responsibility theory – press freedom in one hand but other
hand they controlled the press by raising question and Soviet media theory, the whole control of
the media is under the leader of the nation.
Negatives of Soviet Media Theory:
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 Soviet media theory looks similar like authoritarian theory but the core part is different
from each other. In authoritarian theory is a one way communication, there is no
feedback allowed from the public but in Soviet media theory is a two way
communication at the same time the whole media is controlled or works under the
leadership.
 Private ownership is not allowed which leads the press without any restriction and it can
serve people without any authoritative blockades.
 Soviet media theory allows some restriction based on the nation interest rather than
personal.
 Under communist theories like soviet media theory, the journalist or press should support
the leadership rather than a watchdog.
 If the leadership is wrong the whole nation will suffer a lot.
Current examples: Chinese regulations on media shows a stark resemblance to soviet media
theory, as it restricts media from promoting any ideology that may be harmful to the socialist
ideologies and interests of the nation.
[Historical Background: After the 1917th Russian revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured
with new political system based on the Marxist-Leninist principles. The newly formed
communist party by Lenin shows much interest in the media which serves to the working class in
the country and their welfares. So the Soviet originates a theory from Marxist, Leninist and
Stalinist thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel’s ideology which is called
“Soviet Media Theory” is also known as “The Communist Media Theory”.]

Development Media Theory

The development media theory propounded by Dennis McQuail (1987) solicits media support for
government and its initiatives to bring about socio-economic development. The theory argues
that until a country is well established and its social-economic development in progress, media
must be helpful. Rather, than antagonizing government, the media should help them in
implementing their policies. As the name implies, the theory relates to media in third world
nations. With the development Media theory, in the interest of development, the state has the
right to intervene in media operations by the use of censorship policies, especially when the
activities of the press are not in line with the development objectives of the government.
Criticisms: Development media theory is a diluted form of authoritarian media theory. It gives
control to the government over media.
Examples: Most of the third world nations with neo liberal economic policies promote
development media culture.

Democratic Participant Theory

Democratic participant theory ideology resist media profiteering and monopoly while at the same
time being against the bureaucracy of public media institutions. The theory stresses the relevance
of the receiver in the communication process and incorporates recipient’s rights to germane
information, to be heard as well as to air and be shown. The philosophy of the democratic
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participant theory also states that existence of media should be proved in respect of the interests
and needs of the receivers and shouldn’t be justified in respect of interests and needs of the
media entity.
Examples: Spontaneous growth in social media culture in the 2010’s. Dissemination of news and
information through social media outlets turn them into the primary source of news.

Magic Bullet of Hypodermic Needle Theory

The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into audience head without their own
knowledge. The message cause the instant reaction from the audience mind without any
hesitation is called “Magic Bullet Theory”. The media (needle) injects the message into audience
mind and it cause changes in audience behavior and psyche towards the message. Audience are
passive and they can’t resist the media message is called “Hypodermic Needle Theory”.
Both theories are deals with impact of media messages in audience mind and how audience
reacts towards the message without any hesitation.
In mid 1930’s media scholars found the first theory on Media Effects and the Media Behaviors. During
second world wars media plays a vital role in both United States and Germany to made influence in the
people’s mind. The Germany Hitler’s Nazi used film industry for Propaganda and they produced lots of
movies about their achievements which made a great impact in Germans mind (ex: Triumph of will).
In 1930, Newly formed mercury theater and Orson Wells join together and created a fake news
bulletin about aliens invasion in american city called Grover’s Mill, New jersey. They broadcast
this news bulletin in between the radio program called “The War of the Worlds”. The “Panic
Broadcast” was reached merely 12 million American people and one million were seriously
believed. Due to this broadcast the whole country was in chaos.
The magic bullet theory is based on assumption of human nature and it was not based on any
empirical findings from research. Few media scholars do not accepting this model because it’s
based on assumption rather than any scientific evidence.
In 1938, Lazarsfeld and Herta Herzog testified the hypodermic needle theory in a radio broadcast
“The War of the Worlds” (a famous comic program) by insert a news bulletin which made a
widespread reaction and panic among the American Mass audience. Through this investigation
he found the media messages may affect or may not affect audience.
“People’s Choice” a study conducted by Lazarsfeld in 1940 about Franklin D. Roosevelt election
campaign and the effects of media messages. Through this study Lazarsfeld disproved the Magic
Bullet theory and added audience are more influential in interpersonal than a media messages.

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