The psychoanalysis of shame Levin, Sydney The International Journal of Psycho-Analysis; Jan 1, 1971; 52, Periodicals Archive Online

pg. 355

Int. J. Psycho-Anal. (1971) 52, 355

THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF SHAME

SIDNEY LEVIN, Brookline, Mass.

criticism or rejection and therefore less readily

When psychoanalysis is successful, it results, shamed by him.
among other things, in a progressive alleviation 5. The discharge of aggression. People often
of shame. In order to achieve this result to an defend against shame by blaming someone else
optimum degree, it is necessary to analyse care­ for their failures. They may also use more
fully the numerous reactions in which shame is direct forms of aggression as a defence (Grinkcr,
involved. In an attempt to accent the importance 1955). For example, it is not uncommon for a
of these analytic eflorts, which are often over­ man who is ashamed of his deficient masculinity
looked or inadequately executed, the present to behave in a sadistic manner towards others in
article will focus upon this aspect of psycho­ order to prove his masculinity or to direct the
analysis to the exclusion of other aspects of attention of others towards his aggressive
psychoanalysis. behaviour and away from his sexual behaviour,
In a previous article (Levin, 1967a), I discussed upon which shame tends to concentrate. In
the function of shame as a basic internal barrier fact, there arc those who actually become
to the libido, a notion originally proposed by * criminals from a sense of shame * just as there
Freud (1905). I also pointed out that the ex­ are those who, as Freud (1916) pointed out,
ternal factors which are most significant in the become * criminals from a sense of guilt
arousal of shame are criticism, ridicule, scorn or A variety of other defences may also be insti­
abandonment by others. Since strong feelings of tuted. If one reviews the list of major defences
shame are unpleasant, the ego, in accordance tabulated by Valcnstcin (1961), it is apparent
with the pleasure principle, attempts to avoid that many of them serve the purpose, among
such feelings. During the process of develop­ other things, of avoiding shame. The following
ment, these attempts precipitate out in the form arc a few examples, taken from this list: altruistic
of various defences, some of the most typical of surrender, asceticism, blocking, clinging to ob­
which are the following: jects, clowning, mocking and scoffing, counter­
1. The limiting of self-exposure. In order to phobia, denial, dcsexualization, displacement,
protect oneself from being shamed by others, falling ill, intellectualization, isolation, projec­
each individual learns to avoid exposing certain tion, restriction of ego functions, sublimation,
thoughts, feelings, and impulses. undoing, whistling in the dark, and withdrawal.
2. Repression. As the personality develops The use of these defences as a means of avoiding
and shaming becomes internalized, certain shame is a complex topic, which it is not possible
thoughts, feelings and impulses will evoke shame to consider in a few pages. In the present article,
in the absence of self-exposure. As a conse­ therefore, I will not deal with all of these defences
quence, in order to protect against shame, but will discuss some general issues concerning
repression of many of these thoughts, feelings the analysis of shame and will introduce a few
and impulses may be necessary. examples for purposes of illustration.
3. The development of the ego ideal. The
numerous aspirations which are set up within
the ego ideal reflect, among other things, the The intensity of shame which a person experi­
wish to perform in such a manner as to protect ences is determined by both constitutional and
oneself from being shamed by others. environmental factors. Although shame is not
4. The limiting of libidinal investment. By present at birth, it begins to appear in early
reducing the amount of libido invested in a per­ childhood and may undergo major reinforce­
son, one can become less vulnerable to his ment or accentuation during the ocdipal phase

Presented at the Scientific Meeting of the Boston Psychoanalytic Society, 26 March 1969.

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 356 SIDNEY LEVIN

or latency (French, 1958, pp. 460-1). As In many instances the focus of intense shame
development proceeds shame tends to concen­ is displaced from the self on to external objects—
trate upon aspects of the self which are exposed one’s relatives, one's friends, etc. For example,
to others and may therefore be manifested it is not uncommon for an adolescent to be
through obsessive preoccupations with certain intensely ashamed of his parents and therefore
parts of the body. A common example is an to avoid being seen with them.
obsessive concern with the size or shape of the
nose. Although this type of symptom may at
times be relieved by eradicating the apparent hi
‘ defect ’ through plastic surgery, in many
There are many highly sensitive people who
instances it remains after surgery since the
underlying shame tends to persist. An 18-year- react to criticism or rejection with intense shame
old girl believed that her nose was too large and
from early life onwards. They are often quite
secretive and may be incorrectly perceived by
persuaded her parents to permit her to have a
others to be snobbish.1 These highly sensitive
nasal plastic operation even though they did not
believe it was necessary. Surgery was successful
people often develop perfectionistic aspirations,
from a cosmetic point of view, but within a few
in the hope of reaching an unassailable state.
They may also pay careful attention to the atti­
weeks the patient came to a psychiatrist in the
hope that he might persuade the surgeon to tudes of others and may modify their behaviour
reconstruct her nose in its original form, since in extreme ways in order to avoid criticism.
she was now embarrassed about its shape. In
Although they may have a strong wish to be the
centre of attention, they may not act upon this
other cases, following surgery the shame shifts
wish, due to an equally strong fear of being
to other parts of the body. A 20-year-old girl
initially had a plastic operation on her nose
criticized or rejected.
because she believed it was too large. A few
Schizophrenic patients are usually quite sensi­
months later she became preoccupied with her tive to criticism and readily experience intense
breasts and underwent a plastic operation in
shame. Because of this sensitivity they often
order to reduce their size. Her intense shame
become very shy (Jacobson, 1964, pp. 197-205).
It is my opinion that many of these patients
was not relieved by these procedures, but was
again displaced; she now sought a plastic oper­ start off in life with a constitutional limitation
ation on her legs, which she described as ‘ too in the ego’s ability to avoid shame through
heavy At this point the family called a halt to normal defensive measures. Superimposed upon
this basic limitation may be the effects of exces­
surgery and sent her for psychotherapy.
The obsessions to which shame gives rise may sive shaming during childhood, which may force
readily undergo displacement. For example, a the patient to use much of his free ego energy
young male college student manifested obsessive for suppressing or repressing shameful thoughts,
cleanliness as one of his symptoms. In analysis feelings and impulses. The resulting depletion
it was determined that in early adolescence he of ego energy may then add to the basic weak­
ness of the ego, making it more susceptible to
was ashamed of being Jewish and was obsessively
preoccupied with this issue. For several years psychotic developments. It is worth noting that
thereafter he hid his Jewish identity and was
when such a patient becomes psychotic, he often
temporarily relieved of his shame. However, in
develops symptoms which reflect his intense
late adolescence he felt guilty about his behaviour
shame, such as delusions of being watched, of
and began to admit that he was Jewish. This
having his mind read, etc.
change reactivated his shame and gave rise to a
new symptom in the form of obsessive cleanli­
ness, which arose largely as a displacement of IV
the previous obsession, since it was based to a Those sensitive people who have strong
considerable degree upon the unconscious fear primary shame reactions often experience, in
that others might consider him to be a * dirty addition, a secondary shame, which can be
Jew described as ‘ feeling ashamed of reacting

1 The tendency to misperceive in this manner is found relatively secure defences against shame may not experi­
most commonly in people who experience little shame ence this affect to any significant degree and may therefore
and who do not readily empathize with those who have not perceive it accurately in others.
intense shame. In other words, individuals who have

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 THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF SHAME 357
strongly with shame *.2 This secondary shame never been frightened by anything in my whole
often concentrates upon the person's underlying life! ’ This reply indicated that the experience
sensitivity to being shamed by others or upon of fear was intensely shameful for this man and
the inhibitions which result from such sensitivity. was being repressed and denied. If such a
It is common for patients to attempt to coun­ patient were to undergo therapy, analytic eflorts
teract their secondary shame by denying their would have to be exerted to make him conscious
sensitivity. For example, the man who experi­ of his shame and of tlie projections associated
ences intense shame when his sexual overtures with it, namely the expectation tliat others would
to his wife are at times rejected may deny that he ridicule him if they found out tliat he was
is reacting sensitively or even that he is reacting frightened. If such analytic eflorts were success­
with shame. And when the anger to which his ful, the patienfs shame concerning his fear
shame gives rise comes to the surface, he may would diminish and the fear itself would become
attribute it to severe sexual frustration. In order conscious. He would also be freer to expose the
to make this explanation appear logical, how­ fear to others. He might then find it possible to
ever, he may have to exaggerate the frequency take a sate route home from work rather than
of his wife's rejections (Levin, 1969). have to walk through the park, which was a
It is also common for patients to attempt to well-known hang-out for tliicvcs, in order to
counteract their secondary shame by denying prove that lie was fearless.
their inhibitions. For example, the male college When intense shame envelopes a person's nor­
student whose intense primary shame results in mal aflcctivc responses, interpersonal relation­
heterosexual inhibitions may develop secondary ships may sufler. In a previous article (Levin,
shame in front of his peers concerning these 1969) I pointed out that when marital partners
inhibitions. He may then attempt to counteract have had a fight with one another, their mutual
the secondary shame by denying that he is expressions of guilt may facilitate a reconcili­
inhibited; and in order to support this denial he ation. In other words, it is often through the
may have to use various rationalizations. For expression of guilt that the libido, which has
example, he might claim that academic demands temporarily withdrawn to a narcissistic position,
prevent him from going out on dates, or that he can return to an object-libidinal position. But
is opposed to premarital sexual relations on the if the partners are not conscious of guilt or can­
basis of ‘ moral principles not communicate it, due to intense shame
concerning it, a cold-war atmosphere may pre­
v vail. When such people enter therapy, it is
Several years ago I was called to the emerg­ essential to analyse the shame, so that the under­
ency ward of a general hospital one evening to lying guilt can be liberated and expressed to one
see a man who was trembling all over, as though another.
he were reacting to some terrifying event. When In an earlier publication (Levin 19676) I
I tried to find out what might have happened pointed out that the first-ycar college student
that day to arouse his fear, he answered in a who becomes emotionally upset due to separ­
cryptic manner that nothing unusual had hap­ ation from his (or her) parents may feel intense
pened; he merely went to work in the morning unconscious shame about still being dependent
and returned home at the usual time. I found it upon the parents. Because of this shame, he
difficult to elicit any details, but with some may deny to himself and to others that separ­
encouragement he described the routine events ation from home is diflicult; and he may oiler
of the day. When I then asked what had hap­ various rationalizations to explain his emotional
pened on the way home from work, he answered upset at school. Unfortunately, when a return
in an unemotional tone that as he walked home or a transfer to a college closer to home is
through the park near his home he was held up indicated, the studenfs unconscious shame may
by a man with a gun, but since he had no money make him resistant to such a step. In fact, he
the man left and did not bother him any more. might even prefer to return home as an academic
I commented that he must have been frightened failure or as a disciplinary problem rather than
by the gun and the possibility of being shot. He as one who might be considered too immature
then replied in a highly indignant tone: * I*ve to tolerate separation from his parents. Therapy

J In discussing the resistances which are observed in relation to secondary shame, Grecnson (1967, pp. 126-8) has
used the term * resistance to resistance*.

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Copyright © International Journal of Psycho-analysis.
 358 SIDNEY LEVIN

for such a student will obviously require con­ In many instances the analyst has to stimulate
siderable analysis of the underlying shame. further self-exposure by repeatedly urging the
patient to communicate in detail. Sometimes an
VI • exploratory guess ’ will help to overcome the
Although the alleviation of shame during shame barrier (Ferenczi, 1911; Levin, 1965). A
psychoanalysis depends mainly upon the acqui­ single woman of 35 with a moderately deep
sition of insight, some degree of alleviation depression talked repetitively, like a broken
results merely from the patienfs efforts to com­ record, about her fear that she would never be
municate to the analyst. When a patient brings able to marry because men invariably dropped
up a new topic in the face of shameful feelings, her after a brief relationship. The therapist
the very act of verbalizing tends to mitigate the guessed that by talking only about heterosexual
shame. The analyst’s neutrality plays an import­ issues she was avoiding the topic of homo­
ant role in this change, since he does not express sexuality, and he communicated this guess to
intolerant attitudes towards the patient nor does her. She immediately confessed her homosexual
he react with intense shame himself and therefore affairs and it was then possible to analyse her
avoid discussing topics which arouse the patienfs intense shame concerning them. It is worth
shame. In fact, the analyst adopts a serious, noting that this patient had gone to a previous
shame-diluting attitude and is ready to hear therapist for over a year without revealing her
more. homosexuality to him.
When a patienfs primary shame gives rise to Patients who manifest severe blocking in
severe blocking during psychoanalysis, he may analysis are often labelled with a diagnosis of
develop intense secondary shame concerning the hysteria. Such blocking can be thought of as
blocking itself and may feel that he is failing in phobic in nature, since it is based upon a high
the analysis. As a consequence, he may manifest level of fear (i.e. the fear of experiencing intense
a depressive response to treatment, often with shame). Patients with such fear usually have an
increasing reluctance to come to the sessions. If inability to defend successfully against shame by
the secondary shame is then clarified, the patient expressing their sexual fantasies as derivatives
usually becomes more tolerant of the blocking that are removed from deeper shameful content
and the depressive response to treatment dis­ (Levin, 1964).
appears. Many patients experience intense shame in
As the analysis proceeds, the blocks themselves relation to feelings of afiection. Several years
will tend to disappear. This change depends to a ago I undertook the treatment of an unmarried
considerable degree upon the analysfs clarifi­ middle-aged woman who complained of long­
cation of the primary shame responsible for the standing depression. After a few weeks of
blocks. Such clarification is facilitated by the therapy she made a major confession, to the
use of such terms as * self-consciousness \ effect that for a period of two years in her early
* embarrassment *, * shame * and • humiliation * 20s she had been the ‘ mistress ’ to a married
at appropriate times, thereby giving the patient man. When she first discussed this affair, her
useful labels to apply to his underlying feelings remorse focused mainly upon the illicit nature of
and reactions. the relationship. With further analysis, however,
Sometimes the analyst intentionally reinforces it became clear that she had been deeply in love
secondary shame as a means of counteracting with this man, but was ashamed to admit it.
the patienfs withholding tendencies. For After this shame was clarified, it diminished
example, the analyst may tell the patient that, considerably; and the intensity of her love broke
in order for the analysis to be successful, the through into consciousness. She was then able
patient has to make repeated efiorts to express to grieve about losing this man. Following this
his thoughts and fantasies. Such a remark can phase of treatment, her depression diminished
shame a patient into complying, since it suggests and she was freer in her relationships with men
that the analyst will be disappointed if the in general.
patient does not continue to face his resistances. Much of the analysis of shame must focus
Furthermore, whether it is made explicit or not, upon the ‘ fear of experiencing shame，，which I
the analysfs expectation that the patient will be have labelled ‘ shame anxiety ’(1967a). This
utterly truthful contains a threat of disapproval type of anxiety, which is as basic as castration
if the patient is found to be using dishonesty as anxiety, is felt largely as a combination of self­
a defence. consciousness and the fear of being shamed by

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 THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF SHAME 359
others. During the process of development, as it was learned that during childhood, when the
successful techniques for avoiding shame are patient reacted strongly to separation, his father
acquired, shame anxiety is transformed more would often shame him by calling him a • big
and more into a form of signal anxiety (Fenichel, baby *. It was now 叩parent that the patient
1945, pp. 139-40). had experienced the analyst's comments as a
When shame anxiety is subjected to careful repetition and reinforcement of these childhood
scrutiny, it is found to consist of a number of experiences. After this issue was clarified and
specific fears, which are largely unconscious and the patienfs excessive shame concerning depen­
which tend to become part of the transference. dency was carefully delineated, the shame
The contents of these fears include such factors became mitigated and an increased tolerance for
as the specific aspects of the self for which one dependency needs evolved.
expects to be shamed, the circumstances under It is not uncommon for a patient to enter
which one expects to be shamed, the individuals psychoanalysis with an unconscious hope of
who might do the shaming, etc. It is apparent achieving a relatively shamc-frcc state. This
that much of this content is derived from past type of patient often grossly undercslimales the
experience. However, some of the content is shame reactions of others and may have intense
also derived from current reality, which always envy of people who appear to be well poised.
contains many realistic possibilities of being He may also incorrectly perceive the analyst to
shamed. In assessing these possibilities the ego be essentially free of shatne. This type of distor­
functions like a computer, since it continuously tion usually serves a special purpose: it enables
processes experiential data in order to determine the patient to retain the unrealistic expectation
what qualities in oneself are most likely to evoke of eradicating his own shame by becoming like
the shaming responses of others, and, as a an idealized other person. When the analyst
corollary, what qualities in oneself are most also has unrealistic expectations of eradicating
likely to elicit the esteem of others. These deter­ the patienfs shame, the hope of achieving a
minations involve complex integrations of past relatively shamc-frcc state may be reinforced.
and current experience and take place largely on Shame is often mitigated when a patient conies
an unconscious level. In fact, much of the to the full realization that other people experience
current reality which is thus integrated is per­ feelings of shame similar to his own. For
ceived unconsciously. These unconscious pro­ example, after a period of analysis a student
cesses, which enable the ego to set up its defences might remark: ‘ Before I entered analysis, I
against shame, can often be brought to con­ realized that some people were afraid to speak
sciousness and subjected to careful analysis. up in class, but I didn't realize that everyone
Much of the analysis of shame is conducted in had such fear and that so many people had a
relation to the transference, and if this aspect of great deal of it, even the teachers.* Such a
analysis is omitted the patient*s shame may patient may now see others as fellow suficrcrs
actually become reinforced. A young male rather than as envied rivals; and he may now
graduate student started an analytic hour by speak more realistically about people in gen­
describing several incidents in childhood when eral, without exaggerating their differences.
he felt resentful towards his parents for going Counterphobic patients may behave in a
away on trips. He then expressed similar resent­ manner which might be characterized as
ment towards his analyst for having taken a * countershamc Some of these patients
recent vacation. In interpreting these reactions, appear to have deficient shame and may at
the analyst focused upon the patienfs strong times behave inappropriately with little apparent
dependency needs (which were originally directed embarrasssment and little apparent sensitivity
towards his parents and which were now being to criticism. With careful analysis, however, one
directed towards the analyst) and pointed out may find that the patienfs shame is actually
that when these needs were frustrated the being repressed and that, as an auxiliary defence,
patient became very angry at the frustrating the critical attitudes of others arc being denied.
object. The patient reacted to this interpretation When these defences are successfully analysed,
as though it were a criticism and following it he more normal shame responses may evolve and
showed increased suppression of his dependency the inappropriate behaviour may then diminish
needs and increased efforts to hide the anger or disappear.
which arose when these needs were frustrated. The patient who has strong countershame
On exploring the genetic basis for this response, may also have a strong need to shock others. It

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Copyright © International Journal of Psycho-analysis.
 360 SIDNEY LEVIN
is not uncommon for this need to be unconscious for perfection tends to diminish. As a conse­
and for the patient to be unaware of the shocking quence, the original need for a ‘ perfect ’ ana­
eflects of his actions. And, surprisingly enough, lyst, a * perfect * wife, a ‘ perfect job perform­
when people avoid having contact with him, he ance \ etc. gives way to greater readiness to
may not understand why they behave this way. accept compromises. Furthermore, since reality
Considerable analysis may be necessary before sense improves, the patient realizes not only that
he realizes that they avoid him largely to protect feelings of shame are universal but also that, at
themselves from embarrassment. This realiz­ normal levels of intensity, they are essential
ation is usually accompanied by greater aware­ mediators of normal interpersonal relationships
ness of the need to shock others and by greater (Levin, 1967a).
effort to exert control over this need. As a con­ It is not uncommon for young people to enter
sequence, the patient is usually better able to into sexual relations in the face of intense shame
analyse the shame which he had isolated which seriously interferes with satisfaction. By
previously. repeating the sexual activity, some alleviation of
Sometimes a patient who behaves in an indis­ the shame may result. But in many people these
creet manner does not isolate his shame but eflects do not occur, since the shame is uncon­
experiences it as a painful symptom which he scious. If treatment is undertaken and the
hopes to eradicate through psychoanalysis. In underlying shameful thoughts, feelings and
other words, he wishes to be *cured ’ of his impulses are brought to consciousness, relief of
shame so that he might continue to indulge in shame may occur; and the sexual activity may
his indiscreet behaviour in an ego-syntonic man­ then bring the satisfaction which the patient
ner. This wish is unrealistic and the patient must had originally anticipated.
be helped t© realize that in order to protect Experiences of being teased by others, which
himself from excessive shame he will have to are common in adolescence, tend to diminish
control his indiscreet actions. Even if it were considerably when adult life is reached. How­
possible to build up his defences against shame ever, when a person who is highly shame-ridden
so that he might continue his indiscreet behaviour reaches adult life, he may unrealistically con­
in an ego-syntonic manner, his relationships tinue to anticipate being teased by his peers and
with others would still be unsatisfactory. may continue to manifest defensive withdrawal
The childhood * wish for perfection ’，which or defensive teasing. Analysis can help such a
is often an important motivation for treatment patient to realize that his anticipations of being
(Tartakoft^ 1966), also has to be carefully teased by others are unrealistic and are based
analysed in terms of underlying feelings of upon persistence of adolescent shame reactions.
shame. When the analyst first indicates that the As this realization is acquired, the patienfs
wish for perfection represents a wish to avoid defensiveness may disappear and he may begin
shame by making oneself invulnerable to criti­ to communicate with others in a more serious
cism, the patient may show strong resistance to manner.
this idea. And when the analyst first points out When analytic therapy is successful and shame
some of the patienfs specific shame reactions, is mitigated, many thoughts, leelings and
the patient may complain somewhat as follows: impulses which have been repressed due to
* What good is it to point out my shame? I want shame are made conscious. If the patient can
to get rid of it. I must therefore revive those then give up some of his characteristic secretive­
early childhood experiences which gave rise to ness and expose to others in an appropriate
it.’ This attitude is often associated with the manner more of his thoughts, feelings and
conviction that intense shame is based entirely impulses, a further mitigation of shame may
upon early traumatic experiences, which only occur, since the previously anticipated rejection
have to be brought to consciousness in order for by others will not be forthcoming. This aspect
the shame to be eliminated. A patient with such of the therapeutic process is a form of working
a conviction may therefore concentrate upon through.
reviving early childhood memories. Although The process of working through involves a
these eflorts may foster the genetic analysis of gradual facing of new experiences and may also
shame, they may also serve as a major resistance require a step-by-step expansion of sexual
to the analysis of current shame reactions. When activity. A 21-year-old female college student
these resistances are overcome and a more came to analysis with what appeared to be a
thorough analysis of shame is achieved, the wish * marriage phobia She had been dating a

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Copyright © International Journal of Psycho-analysis.
 THE PSYCHOANALYSIS OF SHAME 361
young man for about a year and knew that she Although much of the analysis of shame falls
wanted to marry him but was unable to do so. into the category of ego analysis, a great deal of
On exploring her sexual behaviour it was found it falls into the category of ego-ideal analysis,
that she was avoiding all types of sexual stimu­ since it involves the exploration of numerous
lation except for hugging and kissing and that * positive ’ and ‘ negative，ego-ideal attitudes
this avoidance was due largely to excessive (Kaplan & Whitney, 1965). Furthermore, shame
shame. The genetic basis for these inhibitions has to be analysed at each phase of treatment,
could then be determined, especially the numer­ since it represents one of the major motives for
ous shaming experiences to which she had been defence. For example, when a young man enters
subjected in childhood, primarily by her prudish analysis his fear of being hurt by the analyst
mother. Following this phase of analysis she may be largely repressed due to shame. Tlicrc-
permitted her boy friend to touch her breasts fore the shame may have to be analysed first
for the first time, and she was surprised to find before the repression can be released and the
that she actually enjoyed this experience, even lear of the analyst brought to consciousness. As
though it was still accompanied by self-con- the analysis proceeds, one may find that the
sciousness and embarrassment. With further patient's anger at the analyst is also repressed
analysis, she participated in and enjoyed addi­ due to shame; and the shame may liave to be
tional forms of sexual stimulation, but only after analysed first before the anger can be brought
she consciously faced the shame barrier at each to consciousness. Some time later, it may
step of the way. As a result of these new become apparent that the patient’s sexual feel­
experiences, the alleviation of shame gradually ings for the analyst arc repressed due to shame
increased and the fear of marriage dissolved. and in order to bring these feelings to conscious­
When a patient is ready to face new experi­ ness one may again have to analyse the patienfs
ences with the intention of mastering his shame, shame. Each one of these steps may include not
he has to proceed slowly in order to avoid only careful ego and superego analysis but also
experiencing overwhelming levels of shame careful genetic analysis.
which might lead him to recoil. In deciding
upon a new course of action, therefore, he has
to take into account his probable emotional Summary
reaction. For example, if he has a low tolerance
In conducting a psychoanalysis, the efforts of the
for speaking before audiences, it may be wise analyst must be directed, among other things, to a
for him to avoid undertaking a large number of careful analysis of reactions involving shame. When
such engagements. Or if he has a low tolerance such efforts arc successful, a progressive alleviation
for socializing, it may be wise for him to limit of shame will result. The present paper focuses upon
such experiences until further analysis raises this aspect of psychoanalysis to the exclusion of
his level of tolerance. other aspects of psychoanalysis.

References
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25

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Levin, S. (1967厶). Some group observations on Tartakoff, H. H. (1966). The normal personality
reactions to separation from home in first-year in our culture and the Nobel Prize complex. In
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Copyright © Sidney Levin
72 Evans Road,
Brookline, Mass. 02146

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