Part(3)

REACTIVEPOWER
VOLTAGECONTROL

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 REACTIVE POWER
Reactive power is an odd topic in AC (Alternating Current) power systems, and it's
usually explained with vector mathematics or phase-shift sine wave graphs. However, a non-
math verbal explanation is possible. Note that Reactive power only becomes important when
an "electrical load" or a home appliance contains coils or capacitors. If the electrical load
behaves purely as a resistor, (such as a heater or incandescent bulb for example,) then the
device consumes "real power" only. Reactive power and "power factor" can be ignored, and
it can be analyzed using an AC version of Ohm's law. Reactive power is simply this: when a
coil or capacitor is connected to an AC power supply, the coil or capacitor stores electrical
energy during one-fourth of an AC cycle. But then during the next quarter-cycle, the coil or
capacitor dumps all the stored energy back into the distant AC power supply.

Ideal coils and capacitors consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant
electric current. This is very different from a resistor which genuinely consumes electrical
energy, and where the electrical energy flows continuously in one direction; moving from
source to load. In other words, if your electrical appliance contains inductance or capacitance
then electrical energy will periodically return to the power plant, and it will flow back and
forth across the power lines. This leads to an extra current in the power lines, a current
which heats the power lines ,but which isn't used to provide energy to the a appliance. The
coil or capacitor causes electrical energy to begin "sloshing" back and forth between the
appliance and the distant AC

Generator. Electric companies must install heavier wires to tolerate the excess
current, and they will charge extra for this "unused" energy. This undesired "energy
sloshing" effect can be eliminated. If an electrical load contains both a coil and
capacitor ,and if their resonant frequency is adjusted to exactly 60Hz, then the coil and
capacitor like magic will begin to behave like a pure resistor. The "energy sloshing" still
occurs, but now it's all happening between the coil and capacitor, and not in the AC power
lines. So, if your appliance contains a large coil induction motor, you can make the motor
behave as a pure resistor, and reduce the current in the power lines by connecting the right
value of capacitance across the motor coil. Why is reactive power so confusing? Well, the
math is daunting if not entirely obscure. And the concept of "imaginary power" puts many
people off. But this is not the only problem. Unfortunately most of us are taught in grade
school that an electric current is a flow of energy, and that energy flows back and forth in
AC power lines. This is completely wrong. In fact the energy flows constantly forward,
going from source to load. It's only the charges of the metal wires which flow back and forth.

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 2.GENERATION AND ABSORPTION OF REACTIVE POWER
Synchronous Generators:
Synchronous machines can be made to generate or absorb reactive power depending
upon the excitation (a form of generator control) applied. The ability to supply reactive
power is determined by the short circuit ratio.
Synchronous Compensators:
Certain smaller generators ,once run up to speed and synchronized to the system, can
be declutched from their turbine and provide reactive power without producing real power.
Capacitive and Inductive Compensators:
These are devices that can be connected to the system to adjust voltage levels .A
capacitive compensator produces an electric field thereby generating reactive power An
inductive compensator produces a magnetic field to absorber active power .Compensation
devices are available as either capacitive or inductive alone or as hybrid to provide both
generation and absorption of reactive power.
1. Overhead lines and underground cables ,when operating at the normal system voltage,
both produce strong electric fields and so generate reactive power.
2. When current flows through a line or cable it produces magnetic field which absorbs
reactive power.
3. A lightly loaded overhead line is an regenerator of reactive power while a heavily loaded
line is a net absorber of reactive power.
4. In the case of cables designed for use at 275or400kV the reactive power generated by the
electric field is always greater than the reactive power absorbed by the magnetic field and so
cables are always net generators of reactive power.
5.Transformers always absorb reactive power.
2. METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL
Reactors:
Inductive reactors absorb reactive power and may be used in circuits, series or shunt
connected, while series connected reactors are used to limit fault currents, shunt reactors are
used for var control. Reactors installed at line ends and intermediate substations can
compensate up to 70% of charging power while the remaining 30% power at no-load can be
provided by the under excited operation of the generator. With increase in load, generator

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Excitation maybe increased with reactors gradually cut-out .Figure shows some typical shunt
reactor arrangements.

Figure-Typical Shunt Reactor

Shunt Capacitors:
Capacitors produce var and may be connected in series or shunt in the system. Series
capacitors compensate the line reactance in long overhead lines and thus improve the
stability limit. However, they give rise to additional problems like high voltage transients,
sub- synchronous resonance, etc. Shunt capacitors are used for reactive compensation.
Simplicity and low cost are the chief considerations for using shunt capacitor. Further, for

expanding systems additions can be made. Fig. shows the connected of shunt capacitors
through the tertiary of a transformer.

Shunt capacitor

Series capacitors:
Here the capacitors are connected in series with the line. The main aim is to reduce
the inductive reactance between supply point and the load. The major disadvantage of the
method is, whenever short circuit current flows through the capacitor ,protective devices
like spark gaps and non linear resistors are to be in corporate. Phase diagram for a line
With series capacitor is shown in the figure(b).

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 a) Series capacitor b) Phasor diagram

Relative merits between shunt and series capacitors.

1. If the load var requirement is small, series capacitors are of little help.
2. If the voltage drop is the limiting factor ,series capacitors are effective; also to some
extent the voltage fluctuations can be evened.

3. If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very effective stability is
improved.

4. With series capacitors the reduction in line current is small, hence if the thermal
considerations limits the current, little advantage is from this, so shunt compensation isto be
used.

Synchronous compensators:
A synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running without a mechanical
load and depending on the excitation level; it can either absorb or generate reactive power.
When used with a voltage regulator the compensator can automatically run overexcited at
times of high loads and under excited atlightloads. A typical connection of a compensator
isshowninthefigurealongwiththeassociatedvoltage–varoutputcharacteristics.

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 A great advantage of the method is the flexible operation for all load conditions. Being
a rotating machine, its stored energy is useful for riding through transient disturbances,
including voltage drops.

Synchronous Compensator

Even though the capacitors and reactors in are shown in figure connected to the low
voltage side of a down transformer, the capacitor banks may be distributed between high and
low voltage buses. The capacitor bank often includes, in part, harmonic filters which prevent
the harmonic currents from flowing in the transformer and the high voltage system. Filters for
the 5th and 7th harmonics are generally provided. The thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) is
operated on the low voltage bus. In another form of the compensator illustrated in Figure the
reactor compensator is connected to the secondary of a transformer.
Withthistransformer,thereactivepowercanbeadjustedtoanywherebetween10%totherated value.
With a capacitor bank provided with steps, a full control range from capacitive to inductive
power can be obtained. The reactor's transformer is directly connected to the line, so that no
circuit breaker is needed.

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 1. Static VAR compensators:
In Recent years reactive compensation of charging power is made feasible with the
application of 3-phase, thyristor, and power controller circuits with automatic control
functions.

Static VAR Compensator

The term static var compensator is applied to a number of static var compensation
devices for use in shunt reactive control. These devices consist of shunt connected, static
reactive element (linear or non linear reactors and capacitors) configured into a var
compensating system. Some possible configurations are shown in above Figure. Even though
the capacitors and reactors in are shown in figure connected to the low voltage side ofa down
transformer, the capacitor banks may be distributed between high and low voltage buses. The
capacitor bank often includes, in part, harmonic filters which prevent the harmonic currents
from flowing in the transformer and the high voltage system. Filters for the 5th and 7th
harmonics are generally provided. The thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) is operated on the
low voltage bus. In another form of the compensator illustrated in Figure the reactor
compensator is connected to the secondary of a transformer.

Reactor Compensator

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 EXCITATION SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS
1. Meet specified response criteria.
2. Provide limiting and protective functions are required to prevent damage to
itself ,the generator, and other equipment.
3. Meet specified requirements for operating flexibility
4. Meet the desired reliability and availability ,by incorporating then necessary level
of redundancy and internal fault detection and isolation capability.

ELEMENTS OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

Exciter:providesdcpowertothesynchronousmachinefieldwindingconstituting thepower
stage of the excitation system.

Regulator: Process and amplifies input control signals to a level and form appropriate for
control of the exciter. This includes both regulating and excitation system stabilizing
function.
Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator: Senses generator terminal voltage,
rectifier and filters it to dc quantity, and compares it with a reference which represents the
desired terminal voltage.
Power system stabilizer: provides an additional input signal to the regulator to damp
power system oscillation.

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Limiters and protective circuits: These include a wide array of control and protective function
which ensure that the capability limits of the exciter and synchronous generator are not exceeded.

Schematic picture of asynchronous machine with excitation system with

several control, protection, and supervisory functions.

TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

Today ,large number of different types of exciter systems are used. Three
main types can be distinguished:
• DC excitation system, where the exciter is aDC generator ,often on the same
axis as the rotor of the synchronous machine.
• AC excitation system ,where the exciter is an AC machine with rectifier.
• Static excitation system, where the exciting current is fed from a controlled rectifier
that gets its power either directly from the generator terminals or from the power plant’s
auxiliary power system, normally containing batteries.
Block Schematic of Excitation Control:
A typical excitation control system is shown in Fig. The terminal voltage of the
alternator is sampled, rectified and compared with a reference voltage; the difference is
amplified and fed back to the exciter field winding to change the excitation current.

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 Static Excitation System:
In the static excitation system, the generator field is fed from a thyristor network Itis
just sufficient to adjust the thyristor firing angle to vary the excitation level. A major
advantage of such a system is that, when required the field voltage can be varied through a full
range of positive to negative values very rapidly with the ultimate benefit of generator Voltage
regulation during transient disturbances. The thyristor network consists of either 3-phase
fully controlled or semi controlled bridge rectifiers. Field suppression resistor dissipates
Energy in the field circuit while the field breaker ensures field isolation during generator
faults.

Static Excitation System

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 Brushless Excitation Scheme:

Brushless Excitation Scheme:

In the brushless excitation system of an alternator with rotating armature and
stationary field is employed as the main exciter. Direct voltage for the generator excitation is
obtained by rectification through a rotating, semiconductor diode network which is mounted
on the generator shaft itself. Thus, the excited armature, the diode network and the generator
field are rigidly connected in series. The advantage of this method of excitation is that the
moving contacts such as slip rings and brushes are completely eliminated thus offeringsmooth
and maintenance-free operation.

A permanent-magnet generator serves as the power source for the exciter field. The
output of the permanent magnet generator is rectified with thyristor network and is applied to
the exciter field. The voltage regulator measures the output or terminal voltage, compares it
with a set reference and utilizes the error signal, if any, to control the gate pulses of the
thyristor network.
AC Excitation system:

Ac Excitation System

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 Where V1 is the terminal voltage and Vref is the reference voltage.
Exciter ceiling voltage :It is defined as the maximum voltage that may be attained by an
exciter with specified conditions of load.
Exciter response :It is the rate of increase or decrease of the exciter voltage. When a change
in this voltage is de the response curve shown in Figure.

Exciter Response
Exciter builds up: The exciter build up depends upon the field resistance and the charging of
its value by cutting or adding. The greatest possible control effort is the complete shorting of
the field rheostat when maximum current value is reached in the field circuit. This can be
done by closing the contactor.

AC excitation operations

When the exciter is operated at rated speed at no load, the record of voltage as function of
time with a step change that drives the exciter to its ceiling voltage is called the exciter build
up curve. Such a response curve is show in Figure.

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 SCR
Response Conventional
exciter
ratio Exciter

0.5 1.25-1.35 1.2

1.0 1.4-1.5 1.2-1.25
1.5 1.55-1.65 1.3-1.4
2.0 1.7-1.8 1.45-1.55
4.0 2.0-2.1

Comparison between Exciters

In general the present day practice is to use 125V excitation up to IOMVA units and
250V systems up to 100MVA units. Units generating power beyond IOOMVA have
excitation system voltages variedly. Some use 350V and 375V system while some go up to
500V excitation system.
DC Excitation System
The excitation system of this category utilize dc generator as source of excitation
power and provide current to the rotor of the synchronous machine through slip ring. The
exciter may be driven by a motor or the shaft of the generator. It may be either self excited or
separately excited. When separately excited, the exciter field is supplied by a pivot exciter
comprising a permanent magnet generator .Below figure a simplified schematic representation
of a typical dc excitation system. It consists of a dc commutator exciter which supplies direct
current to the main generator field through slip ring.

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 Generator Voltage Control
The voltage control system is also called as excitation control system or automatic
voltage regulator (AVR).

For the alternators ,the excitation is provided by adevice(anothermachineorastatic

device) called exciter. For a large alternator the exciter may be required to supply a
field current of as large as 6500A at 500V and hence the exciter is a fairly large machine.
Dependingonthewaythedcsupplyisgiventothefieldwindingofthealternator (which is on the
rotor), the exciters are classified as: i) DC Exciters; ii) AC Exciters; and
iii)Static Exciters .Accordingly, several standard block diagrams are developed by the
IEEE working group to represent the excitation system.

Schematic of Excitation(Voltage)Control System.

A simplified block diagram of the generator voltage control system. The

generator terminal voltage Vt is compared with a voltage reference Vref to obtain a
voltage error signal ∆V. This signal is applied to the voltage regulator shown as a
block with transfer function KA/(1+TAs).The output of the regulator is the applied
to exciter shown with a block of transfer function Ke/(1+Tes). The output of the
exciter E fd is the applied to the field winding which adjusts the generator terminal
voltage. The generator field can be represented by a block with a transfer function
KF/(1+sTF). The total transfer function

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 The stabilizing compensator shown in the diagram is used to improve the
dynamic response of the exciter .The input to this block is the exciter voltage and the
output is a stabilizing feedback signal to reduce the excessive overshoot.

A simplified block diagram of Voltage (Excitation)Control System

.Performance of AVR loop

The purpose of the AVR loop is to maintain the generator terminal voltage with in
acceptable values. Static accuracy limit in percentage is specified for the AVR, so that the
terminal voltage is maintained within that value. For example, if the accuracy limit is 4%,
then the terminal voltage must be maintained within 4% of the base voltage.
STEADY STATE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
The control loop must regulate the output voltage VI so that the error is made equal to
zero. It is also imperative that the response must be reasonably fast, yet not cause any
instability problem.
The performance of the AVR loop is measured by its ability to regulate the terminal
voltage of the generator within prescribed static accuracy limit with an acceptable speed of
response. Suppose the static accuracy limit is denoted by Ac in

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Percentage with reference to the nominal value. The error voltage is to be less than
(Ac/100)∆|Vref.
From the block diagram ,for a steady state error voltage ∆e;

∆e=∆[V]ref-∆[V]t =∆ [V]ref

∆e=∆ [V]ref-∆ [V]t=∆[V]ref- ∆ [V]ref

=1- ∆[V]ref
For constraint input condition(s-0)

∆e=1- ∆[V]ref

=1- ∆[V]ref

= ∆

[V]ref= ∆
[V]ref

K=G (0)is the open loop gain of the AVR .Hence

∆[V]ref =∆[V]ref

Larger the overall gain of the forward block gain K smaller is the steady state error.But
too large a gain K cans instability

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