UPPER 6, 2024

NOTES ON:
MAGNETIC FIELDS,
ELECTROMAGNETISM AND
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Compiled by Mr. G. Chomusina

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 1. Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to:

1. define the magnetic flux and magnetic flux density and appreciate their scalar
nature or vector nature.
2. describe and explain the force on current carrying conductors and on moving
charges and use Fleming’s left hand rule.
3. describe and explain the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and be able to
understand Faraday and Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction.
4. describe and explain the principle of operation of the alternating current (a.c.)
generator.
2. Magnetic flux (ø)
This refers to the number of magnetic field lines in space. The unit of  is the weber (Wb).  is
a scalar quantity.

3. Magnetic flux density (B)

This is the number of magnetic field lines per unit cross sectional area. The unit of B is the tesla
(T). B is a vector quantity.  and B are related by the equation:

  BA ............................................................................... (1)
∅
Where A is area. We can write the equation   BA as 𝐵 = 𝐴 . The tesla can therefore be defined

as one Weber per square metre, i.e. T  Wbm2

6.5.1 Other definitions of B

B is also called magnetic field strength, magnetic field intensity or magnetic field induction. We
recall that the gravitational field and the electric field are forces per unit mass and charge
respectively. The magnetic field can also be defined in a similar way. Consider a conductor of
length L carrying current I perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field of strength B. The
force acting on the conductor is given by

F  BIL ............................................................................. (2)

F ................................................................................
Therefore B (3)
IL
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 B can thus be defined as the force acting per unit current length of a conductor placed in a
magnetic field. When B is defined this way, the Tesla is equivalent to one Newton per ampere
metre.
4. Force on a current carrying conductor
Consider a conductor of length L making an angle θ with the direction of the magnetic field of
strength B and carrying current I as shown in Fig 1.

Fig 1 A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

The force on it is given by

F  BILsin ................................................................... (4)

This force tends to perpendicularise the conductor. F is maximum when sin  1 i.e. when
  90 therefore:

Fmax  BIL ..........................................................................(5)

When the conductor lies parallel to the direction of the magnetic field, i.e.   0 or 180˚ and
sin  0, then F equals to zero. So when a conductor carries current and lies parallel to the direction of
the magnetic field it experiences no force.

5. Force on a moving charge

Consider a charged particle of charge Q moving with velocity v at an angle θ to the direction of
the magnetic field of strength B as shown in Fig 2.

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 Fig 2 A moving charge in a magnetic field

The force acting on it is given by

F  BQv sin .................................................................. (6)

F is maximum when sin  1, i.e. when   90 thus;

Fmax  BQv............................................................................. (7)

The charged particle experiences no force in a magnetic field if

(i) it enters the magnetic field parallel to it i.e. when   0 or 180˚ because sin  0
(ii) the charged particle is stationary in the field i.e. when v  0

Example

A wire carries a current of 10 A in a direction that makes an angle of 30° with the direction of
the magnetic field of strength 0.3 T. Find the magnitude of the force on a 5 m length of the wire.

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Solution

Data Formula Substitution

B  0.3T F  BILsin F  0.310 5sin 30
I  10 A  F  0.310 5 0.5
L  5m  F  7.5N
  30

6. Fleming’s left hand rule (The motor rule)

Fig 3 Illustration of the motor rule

When your left hand fingers are arranged mutually perpendicular to each other, the thump points
in the direction of the thrust or force on the conductor. The first finger points in the direction of
the magnetic field. The second finger points in the direction of the current (conventional current).
This is shown in Fig 3.

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7. Using the motor rule

We desire to predict the direction of the force on the conductor given the direction of current
flow and the direction of the magnetic field.

Case 1

In the diagram, the current is upwards while the field is directed to the right. The conductor
moves into the plane of paper or away from you.

Case 2

In the diagram, current is directed to the left and the field is downwards. The conductor moves
out of plane of paper or towards you.

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Other conventional directions of B.

B is directed into the plane of paper (away from you).

B is directed out of the plane of paper (towards you).

Case 3

In this case, the conductor moves to the left.

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Case 4

In this case, the conductor moves downwards.

When the motor rule is applied to moving charges, the direction of v, the velocity of the charged
particle is that of the motion of a positive charge. In the case of a negative charge, we imagine
the motion of a positive charge in the opposite direction and apply the motor rule. A charged
particles describe circular motion in a magnetic field.

Examples

We are required to determine the direction in which the particle is moving on entering the
magnetic field.

Case 1

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Solution

Particle enters the field from the left and describes vertical circular motion in a clockwise sense.

Case 2

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Solution

This particle enters the field directed towards you or out of plain of paper and describes
horizontal circular motion counterclockwise.

We can also use the rule to predict the sign of charge on a given charged particle.

Examples

(a) Predict the sign of charge

Solution

The charge is negative.

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(b) Predict the sign of charge

Solution

The charge is positive.

Practice problems

Determine the initial direction of deflection of the charged particle as it enters the magnetic field
as shown in each of the diagrams.

(a)

Solution: Upwards.

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(b)

Solution: Into the plane of paper.

(c)

Solution: No deflection. (Can you give reason why there is no deflection?)

8. Magnetic flux patterns

Long straight wire

In order to determine the direction of the magnetic field, we use the Right Hand Grip Rule. The
rule works as follows: When your right hand grips a wire, the thump points in the direction of the
current while all other fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field. Fig 4 and 5 show the
magnetic fields around long straight wires.

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(a)

Fig 4 Long straight wire with current downwards

In this case the magnetic fields are concentric circles and their direction is clockwise.

(b)

Fig 5 Long straight wire with current upwards

In this case the direction is counter clockwise

A flat circular coil (loop of wire)

The magnetic fields around a circular coil are shown in Fig 6.

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 Fig 6 Flux pattern due to a loop of wire

A long solenoid (spring-like coil)

In Fig 7, if you look at the coil from the left hand side, current flows in an anticlockwise
direction. Looking at the coil from the right, current flows in a clockwise sense. The solenoid
behaves as a bar magnet with its North Pole on the left hand side and South Pole on the right
hand side. To remember this we use the curly N and curly S in Fig 7. N stands for North Pole
and the arrows on it indicate the direction of current flow. The same applies with the curly S.

Fig 7 Flux pattern due to a long solenoid

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9. Force between current carrying conductors

Fig 8 Force when current is in the same direction

In Fig. 8, the dots show the magnetic field on conductor X carrying current Ix due to conductor Y
carrying current Iy. We use the right hand grip rule on conductor Y to show that the magnetic
field around X due to Y is directed out of paper as indicated by the dots. The same rule applied
on conductor X shows that the magnetic field it produces around wire Y is directed into the plane
of paper. We then apply Fleming’s left hand rule on both conductors to show that the force F y
exerted by conductor Y on X is directed towards Y and the force Fx exerted by conductor X on
conductor Y by is directed towards X. The forces are attractive.

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 Fig 9 Force when current is in the opposite directions

When the conductors carry current in opposite directions as shown in Fig 9, the rules indicate
that the conductors exert repulsive forces on each other. We therefore conclude that like currents
attract wile unlike currents repel.

10. Electromagnetic induction

We are now aware that a current carrying conductor or a moving charge produces a magnetic
field which causes attractive or repulsive forces on other conductors or charges respectively. So
an electric field generates a magnetic field. The question now is: starting with a magnetic field,
can we generate an electric field i.e. can we generate electricity from magnetism? The answer is
yes. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday and at
the same time by Joseph Henry in the 17th century. A simple demonstration was done in which a
strong magnet was moved towards and away from a coil of wire that was attached to a
galvanometer. The galvanometer showed momentary deflection during the motion of the magnet
indicating that there was current flow through the galvanometer. It was therefore concluded that

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electric currents can be induced by changing magnetic fields and an electromotive force may be
generated in two ways:

By relative motion (the generator effect)

When a conductor moves inside a magnetic field, cutting across the magnetic field lines or
magnetic flux an e.m.f. is generated in it which drives current through the conductor. The same
effect is observed when a magnetic field moves relative to a stationary conductor. It should be
noted that an e.m.f. is generated only when there is relative motion. The motion of a conductor
inside a magnetic field is called the generator effect.

Factors affecting the magnitude of the e.m.f and induced current

The magnitude of the e.m.f. and the current that flows is influenced by the following factors:
(a) The strength of the magnetic field
The greater the value of B the greater the magnitude of the e.m.f. and current.
(b) The number of turns if the conductor is a coil
The greater the number of turns the greater the e.m.f. and current.
(c) The speed of motion
The greater the speed the greater the e.m.f. and current.

Changing of magnetic flux linkage (The transformer effect)

An e.m.f. is generated in a coil when ever there is a change in the number of magnetic field lines
(flux) linking or passing through the coil. The number of magnetic field lines linking the coil is
called magnetic flux linkage. It should be noted that an e.m.f. is generated only when there is a
change in the number of magnetic field lines linking that coil.

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 Fig 10 The transformer effect

In Fig. 10, if the coil has two turns then the change in the number of field lines linking the coilat
B (7) to the number linking the coil at A (5) generates an e.m.f. in the coil.

11. Magnetic flux linkage

The magnetic flux passing through a given area is given by

  BA .................................................................................... (1)
This equation applies for an area A whose normal is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field
as shown in Fig 11.

Fig 11 An area whose normal is parallel to the direction of B

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In general, if the normal to the area makes an angle θ with the direction of the magnetic field,
then

  BAcos ................................................................... (8)

Fig 12 An area whose normal is at an angle to the direction of B

Bcosθ is a component if B resolved along the normal (remember B is a vector quantity).

If a coil has N number of turns then the total flux linkage is N i.e. T  N

Therefore T  NBAcos ................................................................ (9)

12. Laws of electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s law
It states that the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of magnetic flux linkage i.e.

dT
E ………………………………………………….(10)
dt

The constant of proportionality is unity (one) therefore

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 dT .......................................................................................................................................
E (11)
dt

Lenz’s law
It states that the induced e.m.f. or current produces a magnetic field that opposes the inducing
magnetic field. Fig 13 illustrates Lenz’s law.

Fig 13 Representation of Lenz’s law

In Fig 13 the magnet approaches the coil with its north pole. The current that flows in the coilis
in such a direction that the coil behaves as a bar magnet with its north pole on its left hand side
thus causing repulsion or opposition.

When the bar magnet is withdrawn from the coil, the coil behaves as a bar magnet with its south
pole on its left hand side thus causing attraction or opposition again.

Lenz’s law is based on the principle of conservation of energy. When an e.m.f. is induced in a
coil in this way, there is conversion of energy from mechanical to electrical. When there is

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energy conversion, some work is done. The current that flows opposes the flux change causing it
so as to allow work to be done against resistive forces thus converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy. If for instance a south pole was created on the left hand side of the coil in Fig
13, then the magnet would accelerate towards the coil i.e. no work is done and energy is
converted from nothing thus violating the law of conservation of energy. In order to account for
Lenz’s law, Faraday’s law is written as

dT .................................................................................................................................
E  (12)
dt

The negative sign shows that the e.m.f. generated opposes the flux change causing it.

13. Mutual induction (The transformer effect)

Fig 14 Mutual induction

Suppose that an a.c. source is used as shown in Fig 14. When the switch is closed, alternating
current flows in the left hand side coil. This causes a changing magnetic field to link the right

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hand side coil and so an e.m.f. is generated in this coil. This e.m.f is also alternating. Note that
the two coils are not joined together but they are separate. If the frequency of the inducing e.m.f.
is adjusted to allow the pointer on the galvanometer to move slowly then this pointer is observed
to deflect in both directions continuously.

Example

The diagram shows two coils A and B.

Find the direction of the current in the resistor R

(a) At the instant the switch S is closed.

(b) After the switch S has been closed for several minutes.
(c) At the instant the switch S is closed.

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Solution

(a) From right to left.

(b) No current flows.
(c) From left to right.

Explanation

(a) At the instant when the switch S is closed, the battery supplies current in the anticlockwise
direction in coil A as shown in the next diagram. Thus coil A behaves as a bar magnet with its
north pole on the right hand side. At this instant, coil A produces magnetic fields that link coil
B. By Faraday’s law, an e.m.f. is generated in coil B which drives current in this coil.
According to Lenz’s law, the current flow in coil B is such that this coil behaves as a bar
magnet with its north pole on the left hand side as shown. If we use the curly N that you learnt
in section 6.10.3, the current in coil B flows in the counterclockwise direction thus the current
through R is from right to left as indicated by the arrows in the diagram. Note that the current
flow in coil B is just momentary.

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(b) After the switch S has been closed for several minutes, there is no change in magnetic
flux linkage because we are using a d.c. source so no current is induced.
(c) At the instant the switch S is closed, there is change in magnetic flux linkage from
maximum to zero. There is momentary current flow in coil B but now in the opposite
sense to the one observed in (a) thus from left to right in the resistor R.

14. E.m.f. induced in a straight conductor

Fig 15 Induced e.m.f in a straight conductor

Consider a straight rod XY of length L moving with constant velocity v at right angles to the
direction of the magnetic field of strength B as shown in Fig 15. Suppose that in a time interval
t , the rod moves from position A to position B. The distance it moves is v t . The small area
swept by the rod A is given by

A  Lvt ............................................................................ (13)

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By Faraday’s law, the e.m.f. induced in the conductor is given by

d ................................................................................
E (14)
dt

E 
t

But   BA ..................................................................................... (1)

(BA)
E and since B is a constant we have:
t
BA ..............................................................................
E (15)
t
Substituting (13) in (15)

BLvt
E
t
 E  BLv .............................................................................. (16)

15. Fleming’s right hand rule (The dynamo rule)

This rule is similar to the left hand rule but in this case the thump points in the direction of
motion of the conductor rather than the force on the conductor. The following examples illustrate
how the rule can be used to predict the direction of current flow in a conductor moving in a
magnetic field.

Example 1

It is desired to predict the direction of current flow given the direction of the magnetic field and
the direction of motion of the conductor.

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In this example current flows to the left

Example 2

In this example, current flows downwards

Example 3

A straight wire of length 50 cm and resistance 10 Ω moves sideways with velocity 15 ms-1 at
right angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density 2.0 x 10-3 T. What current would flow if
its ends were connected by leads of negligible resistance?

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Solution

Data Formulae Substitution

B  2.0 103T E  BLv E  2 103  0.515
L  50cm  0.5m I
E  E  0.015V
v  15ms1 R
I 
0.015
R  10 10
 I  1.5mA

Practice problem

An aeroplane with a wing span of 25 m is flying from East to West at a speed of 250 ms-1.

(a) Calculate the potential difference between the wing tips if the vertical component of the
earth’s magnetic field is 4.0 x 10-5 T.
(b) Which wing tip is at a positive potential?

Answer: (a) 250 mV

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16. The generator effect

The alternating current (a.c.) generator

We want to study a simple a.c. generator which produces a sinusoidal e.m.f. or current. A simple
generator of alternating current is a coil of wire that rotates in a uniform magnetic field. As the
coil rotates, it cuts across magnetic field lines and an e.m.f. is induced in it. In this type of e.m.f.,
mechanical energy (kinetic energy) is converted into electrical energy. Fig 16 shows thestructure
of the a.c. generator.

Fig 16 Structure of the a.c. generator

Consider a coil of N turns each of area A rotating in a magnetic field of strength B with constant
angular velocity ω as shown in Fig 16. The normal to the area of the coil makes an angle θ with
the direction of the magnetic field. We recall that the total magnetic flux linkage is given by

T  NBAcos ..................................................................... (9)

But   t .................................................................................... (17)

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T  NBAcos(t)......................................... (18)

T is maximum when cost 1

i.e. Tmax  NBA .................................................................... (19)

If we define T  o = constant then

max

T  o cost .......................................................................... (20)

The e.m.f. E generated is by Faraday’s law given by

dT.....................................................................................................................................
E  (12)
dt
d
 E   ( cost) 

dt o
d cost
 E  o
dt
 E  o sin t ...................................................................... (21)

If we define o  Emax  Eo = constant

Then E  Eo sint ....................................................................... (22)

Eo is called the peak value or the maximum value of the induced e.m.f. When the coil lies
parallel to the magnetic field,   t  90 and sint 1
E  Eo corresponding to the maximum value of the induced e.m.f. When the coil is perpendicular
to the direction of the magnetic field,   t  0 and sint  0 and E  0 i.e. there is no e.m.f.
induced in the coil. Each cycle of the e.m.f. corresponds to one turn of the coil in the magnetic
field. The variation with time of the e.m.f. generated is shown if Fig. 17.

17 also shows the various positions of the coil.

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 Fig 17 Variation of e.m.f with time

Summary

 Magnetic fields arise from permanent magnets or from moving charged particles.

 Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given space and it
is a scalar quantity.

 Magnetic flux density is a vector quantity. It is also called magnetic field strength,
magnetic field intensity or magnetic field induction.

 The magnetic flux and magnetic flux density are related by the equation:

  BA

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  The magnetic force on a current carrying conductor is given by:

F  BILsin



 The conductor experiences maximum force when it lies at right angles to the direction of
the magnetic field. When the conductor lies parallel to the direction of the field, it
experiences no force.
 The magnetic force on a moving charged particle is given by

F  BQv sin

 A charged particle experiences a magnetic force only when it is in motion in a magnetic
field. This force is maximum when the particle moves at right angles to the direction of
the field. A charged particle experiences no force either when it is stationary or if it enters
the magnetic field parallel to it.
 If a conductor of length L moves through a magnetic field with a speed v so that the
magnetic field is perpendicular to the conductor, an e.m.f. is induced in the conductor and
this e.m.f. is given by:
E  BLv
 Faraday’s law states that the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of magnetic
flux linkage i.e.
dT
E 
dt

 According to Lenz’s law, the induced e.m.f. and current are in such a direction as to
oppose the change of flux which produce them. Lenz’s law is based on the principle of
conservation of energy.

 An a.c. generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

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