Contents

Chapter 1
3 Arithmetic

Chapter 2
10 Exponents and Radicals

Chapter 3
14 Algebra

Chapter 4
28 Co-ordinate Geometry

Chapter 5
37 Sequences and Summations

Chapter 6
41 Logarithms

Chapter 7
45 Logic

64 Pre-Quiz Answer Key

i
ii
Welcome to the Rotman School of Management
(Executive MBA Programs) math help guide.
Our Executive MBA Diagnostic Tool (or EDT for short) has been
introduced as a replacement for the GMAT for candidates who have
an undergraduate degree recognized by the University of Toronto.
Given the large scope of the testing in the GMAT, preparation time
and anxiety levels were high for most candidates in the past. Also,
many of the topics tested in the GMAT were simply not relevant for
an Executive MBA Program.
The EDT is a targeted tool, developed by the Rotman faculty,
which focuses on the relevant quantitative areas for your curriculum
and requires little, or certainly much less, preparation time than
the GMAT.
A typical EDT has eight to ten quantitative questions, a graph of a
function, two or three logical reasoning questions, and will ask you
to write a short memorandum from data on a given topic (this
memo should be written in full sentences and organized into
three sections: an introductory paragraph; a body containing
observations in the data; and a concluding paragraph containing
your insights into the topic).The purpose of the EDT is to get you
ready for the Executive MBA Program, for those first days in the
classroom and moments where quantitative discussion may occur.
We believe that after passing the EDT, you will be well prepared to
embark on your MBA adventure.

In this guide, we review a number of subjects that are frequently

tested on the Rotman EDT: arithmetic, algebra, exponents and
radicals, co-ordinate geometry, sequences and summations, and
logarithms. We also talk about translating word problems into
1
algebra. This guide is meant to be used to refresh your memory
on topics that you may not have looked at for a while (it might be
best not to think about exactly how long it has been since grade
10 math!) and not as a means to approach these topics for the first
time. It is also important to note that just reading these materials is
unlikely to be sufficient to prepare you for the test. You should also
practice what you learn until you are completely comfortable with
the subject matter.

Each chapter of the guide begins with a quiz. If you can answer
all the quiz questions correctly, then you may not need to review
that particular chapter. If you struggle with any of the questions
(remember, on the Rotman EDT you need to show all your work
to get full marks), then you should at least review the parts of
the chapter relevant to the questions that gave you some trouble.
Even if you get all the questions right, you may still want
to do a quick review. In order to schedule your EDT exam, please
contact 416-946-3022.
Enough introduction - on to the math!

2
Chapter 1

Arithmetic
Pre-Quiz
1 1 1
1. 2 + 3 + 4 =
3 2 1 8
2. (5 − 3) ÷ (4 × 3) =
3. Express the following as a decimal:
3
a. 4
9
b. 10
7
c. 5
5
d. 8
13
e. 2
5
f. 6

4. Solve the following percent problems:

a. What is 50% of 80?
b. What is 80% of 50?
c. What is 40% of 90?
d. What is 250% of 50?
e. What is 250% more than 50?
f. What is 25% more than 200?
g. What is 35% more than 75% of 160?
h. What is 40% less than 20?
i. What is 60% less than 60% more than 100?

3
Fractions, Percents and Decimals

Fractions, percents and decimals are all different ways of expressing the
same idea, and it is important to be able to move freely among these
concepts.

SECTION 1 – FRACTIONS
A fraction is the relationship between a part and a whole. We call the top of the
fraction the numerator and the bottom of the fraction the denominator. Expressed
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
simply, a fraction is .
𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
2
For example, the fraction means 2 parts out of a total of 3.
3

Mathematically, we can solve fractions by dividing the numerator by the

2
denominator. In other words, can also be expressed as 2 ÷ 3.
3

It is stylistically correct to reduce fractions to the lowest numbers possible. To

reduce a fraction, look for a common factor of both the numerator and
2
denominator and divide through by that factor. For example, (common factor
4
1 12 3 6
of 2) can be reduced to ; (common factor of 4) can be reduced to ;
2 16 4 9
2
(common factor of 3) can be reduced to . When presenting the answer to a
3
question, always reduce fractions as much as possible.
7
A fraction greater than 1, such as (where the numerator is greater than the
4
denominator) is called an improper fraction. Improper fractions can be
expressed as a mixed fraction where the whole is accompanied by a remainder.
7
Since 4 divides into 7 once and leaves a remainder of 3, can be expressed as
4
3
1 . Both forms – improper and mixed – are appropriate forms of expressing an
4
answer, though it is often easier to work with improper fractions when
performing basic mathematical operations.

You may be asked to perform any of the basic mathematical operations –

addition, subtraction, multiplication and division – on fractions. It is important
to be comfortable with all of these operations, so let’s take a look at how each
4
one works.

Multiplication

Multiplication is the easiest operation to perform on fractions. To multiply

a series of fractions, one multiplies all of the numerators and then all of
the denominators.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
In the abstract, we get 𝑏 × 𝑑 = 𝑏𝑑.

For example:
1 2 3 1×2×3 6
× × = =
4 5 7 4×5×7 140
3 2 5 3×2×5 30
× × = =
4 3 6 4×3×6 72

In both of these examples, we can reduce the answer (and should, to be

6
mathematically correct). In the first case, , both the numerator and the
140
3
denominator are multiples of 2, so we can reduce our answer to . In the second
70
case, both the numerator and the denominator are multiples of 6, so we can
5
reduce our answer to .
12

Another useful thing to remember is that it does not matter in which order we
multiply a set of numbers. Let’s see how that rule can help us simplify fractions.

Here is our question:

1 2 3 4 5
What is the product of the fractions , , , , and ?
2 3 4 5 6

Well, one way we could approach the question is to write it out as one big
1 2 3 4 5
product in the order given: × × × × . We could then multiply
2 3 4 5 6
1×2×3×4×5 120 1
= . Since 120 goes into 720, we’re left with .
2×3×4×5×6 720 6

However, reordering the numerators and denominators gives us the following

2×3×4×5×1
product: . As we can see, 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 is present in both the
2×3×4×5×6
numerator and the denominator and, accordingly, cancels out. This leaves us with
1
, the same answer using far less work!
6
5
Division

Many mathematical concepts are intertwined. One example is multiplication and

division, which are opposite ways of expressing the same idea.

As a result, an alternative to dividing by a number is to multiply by the

1
number’s reciprocal. The reciprocal of a number is or, more simply
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
put, the number flipped upside down. For integers, we have to remember there
2
is a hidden “1” in the denominator (for example, 2 is really ). So, the reciprocal
1
1
of any integer x is .
𝑥
1 1 1
For example, the reciprocal of 3 is ; the reciprocal of 5 is ; the reciprocal of
3 5 3
3 4 5
is ; (or simply 3); and the reciprocal of is .
1 5 4

So, when we divide by fractions, we invert the fraction in the denominator and
then multiply.
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
In the abstract, we get ÷ = × = .
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐

Here are some examples:

1 3 1 4 4 2
÷ = × = =
2 4 2 3 6 3
5 2 5 9 45 15
÷ = × = =
3 9 3 2 6 2
1 3 2 6
3÷ = × = =6
2 1 1 1
Addition and Subtraction

Before we can add or subtract fractions, we need to give them a common

denominator.
1 1
For example, there is no way to add and in their current forms. Before we
2 3
can do so, we need to convert each fraction so that it has the same number on
the bottom as the other.

The simplest way to find the common denominator of two fractions is to

multiply the denominators together. In our example, the denominators are 2 and
6
3. We can find a common denominator by multiplying 2 × 3, giving us 6.

However, our work is not done. If we are changing the denominator of each
fraction, we need to also change the numerators in the same way (otherwise, we
will be changing the value of each fraction). Since we multiplied the
denominators together, we need to cross-multiply the numerator and
denominator of each fraction to keep their values constant.
𝑎 𝑐
Here is the general rule using variables: if we are adding and , we are going
𝑏 𝑑
𝑎𝑑+𝑐𝑏
to end up with up with ; or, if we are subtracting, we are going to end up
𝑏𝑑
𝑎𝑑−𝑐𝑏
with .
𝑏𝑑

Let’s look at a couple of examples to make things more concrete.

2 3
+ : our common denominator is 5 × 4 = 20. For the top, we need to cross-
5 4
multiply the numerators and denominators, which gives us 2 × 4 and 3 × 5.
Since it is an addition problem, we add the results.
(2×4)+(3×5) 8+15 23
So: = = .
5×4 20 20

5 2
− : our common denominator is 6 × 7 = 42. For the top, we need to cross-
6 7
multiply the numerators and denominators, which gives us 5 × 7 and 2 × 6.
Since it is an subtraction problem, we subtract the results.
(5×7)+(2×6) 35−12 23
So: = = .
6×7 42 42

7
SECTION 2 – PERCENTS

Percents are very similar to fractions, with one difference - we’re

multiplying the end result by 100.
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
Here is the general formula for percents: percentage = × 100.
𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒

Here are some examples:

What is 25% of 40? We are being asked to solve for the part, so let’s rearrange
the general equation to get part = percentage × whole. If we call the part x, we
get x = 25% (40). On a calculator we can just plug in the numbers; without a
calculator, we want to convert 25% to either a decimal or a fraction. Since we
1
have been working with fractions so far, let’s change 25% to (knowing the
4
common fraction:decimal:percent equivalencies can make your life easier – and
1
they are provided a bit later in this lesson). Then multiplying × 40, gives us
4
our result of 10.

36 is what percent of 60? Here we are asked to solve for the percent, so we do
not need to rearrange the equation. If we let the percent be x, we get 𝑥 =
36 3 100%
× 100%. So, 𝑥 = × 100%. We remember that we can write 100% as ,
60 5 1
3×100% 300%
so when we multiply we get = = 60%.
5×1 5

SECTION 3 – DECIMALS

Decimals are perhaps the easiest form of numbers to work with if you
have a calculator at your disposal. The decimal form of a fraction is what
you get after you actually divide the numerator by the denominator. For
example:
2
= 2 ÷ 5 = 0.4
5
3
= 3 ÷ 8 = 0.375
8

8
As promised, here are some common fraction:decimal:percent equivalencies.

1
= 0.5 = 50%
2

1
= 0.333 = 33.3%
3

1
= 0.25 = 25%
4

1
= 0.2 = 20%
5

1
= 0.167 = 16.7%
6

1
= 0.142 = 14.2%
7

1
= 0.125 = 12.5%
8

1
= 0.111 = 11.1%
9

1
= 0.1 = 10%
10

1
= 0.05 = 5%
20

9
Chapter 2

Exponents and Radicals

Pre-Quiz

1. 24 =
2. If 𝑥 2 = 36, solve for x.
3. Simplify each of the following (i.e. do not calculate the answer, just combine
the components to form a new term – the first one is solved as an example):
a. 23 × 24 = 27
b. 35 × 34
c. 75 ÷ 73
d. (24)3
e. 24 + 25
4. √25 =

5. √36 + √49 =

6. Simplify Each of the following:

a. √75 ÷ √3
b. √240 ÷ √12
c. √18 × √8
d. (√75)2
1
e. (25)2
3
f. √125

10
Exponents and radicals (also known as “roots”) are most frequently seen in
statistical analyses. It is important to understand how they work to be able to
understand statistical data. For the purposes of the Rotman aptitude test, you will
need to know how to simplify expressions containing exponents and roots and to
solve quadratic equations (which we will learn about in the algebra section).

SECTION 1 – EXPONENTS

The most common exponent you will see on the exam is the square (or
power of 2). One key fact to remember about squares is that they have two
roots - one positive and one negative.

For example, if we know that 𝑥 2 = 25, x = 5 and x = −5 are solutions.

There are certain rules to remember when performing the basic operations on
exponents:

𝑥 𝑎 × 𝑥 𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎+𝑏

(𝑥 𝑎 )𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎+𝑏

𝑥 𝑎 ÷ 𝑥 𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎−𝑏

Here are some concrete examples:

25 × 24 = 25+4 = 29

(25 )4 = 25×4 = 220

25 ÷ 24 = 25−4 = 21 = 2

11
Also, it is important to recognize that there is no easy way to add or subtract
exponents. So:

𝑥 𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑏 does not = 𝑥 𝑎+𝑏 ; and

𝑥 𝑎 − 𝑥 𝑏 does not = 𝑥 𝑎−𝑏

SECTION 2 – RADICALS

Radicals are the counterpoint to exponents; just as the square of 5 is 25,

the root of 25 is 5 (or possibly −5, if you remember the discussion above).

The radical sign, √ , means “the positive root of”. So, if you see 𝑥 = √25 on the
test, you know you only have to worry about the positive solution; in other
words, x = +5. Just like for exponents, there are some basic rules to remember
when simplifying or solving for radicals:

√𝑥 × √𝑦 = √𝑥𝑦

𝑥
√𝑥 ÷ √𝑦 = √𝑦

Here are some concrete examples:

√12 × √3 = √36 = 6

√54 ÷ √6 = √9 = 3

12
Sometimes we are asked to simplify a root that is not a perfect square. To do
so, we use one of our two basic rules. For instance:

Simplify √54.Well, 54 is not a perfect square. Sure, we could use our

calculator, but that is going to give us a precise value, not what the question
is asking for with the term “simplify” (if the test maker wanted a precise
value, they would have asked us to “solve” instead of simplify).We can only
simplify if we have a perfect square involved, so somehow we need to get
one in our expression.

From our first rule of radicals, we know that we can rewrite √𝑥𝑦 as √𝑥 × √𝑦. To
simplify a radical, we want to break it up into the product of two radicals, one of
which is a perfect square. So, we ask ourselves, what perfect square is a factor of 54?
The number 9 is both a perfect square and a factor of 54, so we can rewrite √54 as
√9 × √6 = 3√6, our final answer.

Simplify √75. Using the same method as above, √75 = √25 × √3 = 5√3

√180 √180 180

Simplify . Using our division rule, we know that =√ = √6
√30 √30 30

Similar to exponents, there is no easy way to add or subtract radicals. So:

√𝑥 + √𝑦 does not = √𝑥 + 𝑦; and

√𝑥 − √𝑦 does not = √𝑥 − 𝑦

13
Chapter 3

Algebra
Pre-Quiz
1. If 2𝑥 + 5 = 35, what is the value of x?

2. If −3𝑦 − 12 = −2𝑦 + 6, what is the value of y?

3. Isolate x in each of the following equations:

a. 2𝑦 − 3𝑥 = 15
b. 8𝑥+10𝑦 = 6
2𝑥
c. 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 3𝑧 − 8 + 5𝑥
4. If 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 10 and 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14, what are the values of x and y?

5. If 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12 and 5𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 39, what are the values of x and y?

6. If 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12 = 0, what are the possible values of x?

7. If 𝑦 2 − 12𝑦 + 20 = 0, what are the possible values of y?

8. Expand each of the following (the first is done as an example):

a. (𝑧 + 12)(𝑧 − 4) = 𝑧 2 + 8𝑧 − 48
b. (𝑐 + 4)(𝑐 − 4)
c. (2𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥 − 4)
d. (𝑥 + 4)(𝑦 − 2)
e. (𝑥 2 − 𝑥)(𝑥 + 4)

14
Algebra is one of the most pervasive topics in all of math. Whether we
are simplifying an expression, solving an equation or inequality or
digging our way through a complicated word problem, algebra is
involved. In this chapter we will start with the basics and work our way
up to the interesting stuff.

Manipulating Equations

There is one big rule to remember when solving an equation: you can do
pretty much anything you want, but whatever you do to one side of the
equation you also have to do to the other side.

Let’s start with a simple example:

If x + 10 = 25, what is the value of x?

If we are solving for a variable, our job is to isolate that variable - in other words, get
it by itself on one side of the equation. In our example, x is accompanied by 10. To
isolate x, we need to perform an operation that is the opposite of the current
relationship between x and 10. Here, 10 is being added to x. To remove 10 from the
left side of the equation, we are going to need to subtract it from both sides to
maintain the equivalence between both sides of the equation.

x + 10 = 25

x + 10 − 10 = 25 − 10 (note that we subtracted 10 from both sides)

x = 15

Mentally, you might think of the process as “moving the 10 over to the other side”
- and that is a perfectly acceptable way to visualize what you are doing. In more
complicated scenarios; however, making sure you repeat the operation on both
sides of the equation will vastly reduce the chance for error.

15
Let’s look at some more examples:

If 10x − 5 = 6x + 15, what is the value of x?

Our first step is to move every x to one side of the equation. Accordingly:

10x − 5 − 6x = 6x + 15 − 6x

4x − 5 = 15

Next, let’s get rid of that −5.

4x − 5 + 5 = 15 + 5

4x = 20

Finally, since x is currently being multiplied by 4, we need to do the opposite and

divide both sides by 4.
4x = 20
4 4

x=5
So far, we have only been looking at equations with one variable. Adding
a second (or third) variable might make things a bit trickier, but it will not change
the basic rules of the game.

If 3x + 4y = 15, what is the value of x?

3x + 4y − 4y = 15 − 4y

3x = 15 − 4y

15−4𝑦
𝑥=
3

4𝑦
𝑥 = 5−
3

16
 2𝑦+6
If = 5𝑦, what is the value of x?
3𝑥

2𝑦+6
× 3𝑥 = 5𝑦 × 3𝑥
3𝑥
(we always want to get our desired variable out of the denominator - to do so
here we need to multiply both sides by 3x)

2y + 6 = 15xy (now we want to isolate the x from the15xy, so let’s divide both
sides by 15y).

2𝑦+6 15𝑥𝑦
=
15𝑦 15𝑦

2𝑦 6
+ =𝑥
15𝑦 15𝑦

2 2
𝑥= +
15 5𝑦

Solving Systems of Equations

So far we have seen what happens when there is only one equation
involved. In more complicated problems; however, you are likely to see
multiple equations. Here is the big rule to remember:

To fully solve a system containing n variables, one requires n distinct

linear equations.

For example, if we are being asked to solve for the values of variables
x, y and z, we are going to need three distinct linear equations.

“Distinct” just means “different”. For example, the equations x + y = 10

and x + 2y = 25 are different; however, the equations x + y = 10 and
2x + 2y = 20 are not, as the second is just a multiple of the first.

“Linear” means “contains no exponent greater than 1”. x + y = 10 is a

linear equation; x2 = 25 is not.
17
There are two different methods of solving systems of equations:
substitution and combination. Each one is equally accurate, but in some
situations, one may be quicker than the other.

Substitution

In school, students learn substitution. In this method, we isolate the

variable that we want to eliminate (or, if we are solving for all the
variables, the one that is easier to isolate), then substitute that value back
into the other equation. Here is an example:

If x + 4y = 10 and x − 2y = −2, what is the value of y?

We want to solve for y; however, let’s start by isolating x. We subtract 4y from

both sides of the first equation and get:

x + 4y − 4y = 10 − 4y

x = 10 − 4y

Now, let’s plug in (10 − 4y) for x in our second equation. Accordingly, we get:

(10 − 4y) − 2y = −2

10 − 6y = −2

10 − 6y + 6y = −2 + 6y

10 = −2 + 6y

10 + 2 = −2 + 6y + 2

12 = 6y
12 6y
6 = 6

2 = y... voilà!

18
Combination

Combination is an often-overlooked method for solving systems of

equations. Combination relies on our ability to add and subtract equations
to form new ones. When equations line up favourably, combination can be
much quicker than substitution.

Let’s revisit the previous question:

If x + 4y = 10 and x − 2y = −2, what is the value of y?

Again, we want to solve for y, so we want to make x disappear. This time,

however, we notice that each equation has the same number of x’s. As a result, if
we subtract the second equation from the first, x will completely vanish from the
question.

Let’s line up the equations, one on top of the other. To keep things positive, we
will put the equation with the greater number of y’s on top:

x + 4y = 10

x − 2y = −2

Now, we subtract the entire second equation from the first one:

x − x = 0x (or nothing)

4y − (−2y) = 6y

10 − (−2) = 12

So, we now have:

0x + 6y = 12 (or just 6y = 12)

6y 12
6 = 6

y=2
As you can see, when combination works, it requires a lot less time and effort
19
than substitution (yet it’s equally, if not more, elegant).

System of Equations Word Problems

In some cases, we are not given equations containing variables set up for us to
solve, rather we are given information relating two or more objects in sentence
form. When presented with a word problem, you first need to define the relevant
variables, then create the equations that reflect the information given in the
statement. Once the equations have been set up you can use combination or
substitution to solve for your unknowns.

Let’s look at an example.

Arun is three times as old as Becca. Eight years from now, Arun will be twice as
old as Becca. How old is Becca now?

First, we define variables to represent the ages of Arun and Becca now.

A = Arun’s age now

B = Becca’s age now

Next, we set up our equations. Remember that we need as many equations as we

have variables – in this case two.

Our first piece of information tells us the relationship between Arun and Becca’s
ages now. So,

A = 3B
(in other words, the value of Arun’s age now will be Becca’s age now times 3)

The next piece of information relates their ages eight years in the future, so the
relationship will apply to their current ages increased by 8.

(A + 8) = 2(B + 8)

We can then solve our two equations using either of the methods introduced
above – substitution will work well here by substituting 3B for A in our second
equation.

((3B) + 8) = 2(B + 8)

3B + 8 = 2B + 16

20
3B – 2B = 16 – 8

B=8

Therefore, Becca is 8 years old now.

Quadratic Equations
Quadratic equations, sometimes known as binomials, are those which contain a
squared term. For example, x2 + 7x + 10 = 0 or b2 − 5b − 24 = 0.

In general, you may be asked to do one of two things with a quadratic equation:
expand it or factor it out (and solve it). The two examples above are in expanded
form. In factored form, they would appear as (x + 5)(x + 2) = 0 and (b − 8)(b + 3)
= 0, respectively.

To expand a quadratic, we use the method you probably remember from high
school - FOIL. FOIL stands for “first, outer, inner, last”, referring to how one
can methodically multiply each part of the quadratic. Let’s do an example using
the FOIL method.

Expand (z + 10)(z − 5)

F means we multiply the first term of each bracket: z × z = z2

O means we multiply the outer term of each bracket: z × (−5) = −5z

I means we multiply the inner term of each bracket: 10 × z = 10z

L means we multiply the last term of each bracket: 10 × (−5) = −50

Put it all together and we get z2 − 5z + 10z − 50. Combine like terms and we
finally get z2 + 5z − 50.

21
To factor a quadratic, we use reverse FOIL. Going backwards can be a bit more
complicated, as there are a few extra steps to remember.

Factor z2 + 5z − 50

The first thing we look at is the coefficient (i.e. the number) in front of the
squared term. The vast majority of the time it is just going to be a “silent 1” (in
other words, no visible number). If that is the case, we can start each bracket
with the variable. So, thus far we have:

(z )(z )

Next, we look at the far-right sign (i.e. the one before the last term).
If that sign is positive, we know that we need to multiply either two positive
numbers or two negative ones. If that sign is negative, we know that we need to
multiply a positive by a negative. In our example, the last term is
−50; the only way we can get a negative product is to mix the signs in the
brackets. So:

(z + )(z − )

Now we need to figure out what our numbers are. The final term is 50, so we
need two numbers that multiply to 50.The middle term is +5z, so we need two
numbers that are 5 apart (since one is positive and one is negative – if both
numbers had had the same sign, we would have looked for two numbers that add
up to 5). So, which two numbers multiply to 50 and subtract to 5? 10 and 5!

Finally, we need to figure out which is positive and which is negative; since we
ended up with +5z, the bigger number has to be positive. Our final solution:

(z + 10)(z − 5)

22
Let’s try one more example (without all the verbiage):

Factor x2 − 8x + 12

Step 1: (x )(x )

Step 2: Second sign is positive, so both brackets will contain the same sign; we ended
up with −8x, so both signs must be negative.

(x − )(x − )

Step 3: Find two numbers that multiply to 12 and add up to 8: 6 and 2!

(x − 6)(x − 2)

Note: since both signs are the same, it doesn’t matter which number
we put in which bracket.

Let’s finish up this section by going one step further - actually solving a
quadratic equation.

If x2 − 8x + 12 = 0, what are the two possible values of x?

We picked the same example as above to speed up the process a bit. Using our
previous work, we can factor out the quadratic and get our new equation:

(x − 6)(x − 2) = 0

Now let’s think about a basic principle of multiplication: the only way to get a
product of 0 is to multiply by 0. So, if we know that xy = 0, we also know that
either x = 0 or y = 0.
The same principle applies to quadratics. If (x − 6)(x − 2) = 0, then either (x − 6)
= 0 or (x − 2) = 0. Accordingly, either x = 6 or x = 2.

So, if you are asked to solve a quadratic equation, always start by setting the
right side of the equation to 0 (you might have to manipulate the equation to do
so), then follow the steps outlined above.

23
Quadratic Formula by Completing the Square

You will have noticed that with a quadratic equation it may be difficult to isolate
x using basic operations on account of the x2 term. Isolating the x term is possible
using a more advanced mathematical method called completing the square. For
the purposes of the EDT this method is likely unnecessarily complex and solving
by factoring as shown above should be sufficient and we will not review the
details of the method here. However, there is a very useful result we can use
when we apply completing the square to a generic form of a quadratic equation
as given by,

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

When we isolate x in this generic equation, we arrive at a formula that allows us

to calculate x based on the coefficients of the three terms in our quadratic
equation – a, b and c. This formula is called the quadratic formula and is given
as,

−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

Sign of a Quadratic Function

When solving a quadratic equation – by factoring or using the quadratic formula

– you are finding the values of x where the function is equal to zero (hence
setting the right side of the equation equal to zero). We can extend this concept
to be able to characterize if a quadratic function is always positive, always
negative, or sometimes positive and sometimes negative depending on the value
for x.

If we wanted to know the sign of the quadratic function, f(x) = x2 − 8x + 12,

finding the values of x at which the function is zero (x = 6 and x = 2) tells us that
the value of the function changes from positive to negative as it passes through
one zero, and then changes from negative to positive as it passes through the
second zero.

Also, one can test the function with different values for x to see how the function
behaves.

For example, a value of x between the values of 2 and 6, such as 4, will yield a
24
negative result.

f(4) = (4)2 – 8(4) + 12 = 16 – 32 + 12 = – 4

Whereas a value of x outside the values of 2 and 6, such as 1, will yield a

positive result.

f(1) = (1)2 – 8(1) + 12 = 1 – 8 + 12 = 5

So, the function f(x) is positive or negative depending on the value of x.

The sign of a quadratic function and the way it changes or does not change will
be further illustrated when we consider the graphical representation of these
functions in the chapter on co-ordinate geometry.

Absolute Values

An absolute value looks at the value of a number or algebraic expression

irrespective of the sign (i.e. positive or negative). In other words,

|5| = 5, and

|−5| = 5

Another way to conceptualize the absolute value is to consider the distance of

both values from zero. Both 5 and –5 are the same distance from zero and
have equivalent absolute values.

When absolute values are found in algebra equations, they require special care
as two cases result. For example,

|𝑥 + 1| = 2𝑥 − 3

Similar to our simple example above, we can see the expression contained
within the absolute value brackets can be equal to (2x – 3), or –(2x – 3).
Therefore, we need to consider both cases:

𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑥 − 3, and
25
𝑥 + 1 = −(2𝑥 − 3)

2
Solving these two equations gives 𝑥 = 4, and 𝑥 = respectively.
3

However, once we solve these two cases, we need to verify if the solutions
satisfy the original equation. Taking our first solution 𝑥 = 4 yields the
following:

|(4) + 1| = 2(4) − 3

|5| = 8 − 3

|5| = 5

Since this is a true statement, we know that 𝑥 = 4 is a valid solution to our

equation.

2
Taking our second solution of 𝑥 = yields the following:
3

2 2
|( ) + 1| = 2( ) − 3
3 3

2 3 4 9
| + |= −
3 3 3 3

5 5
| |=−
3 3

2
Since this statement is not true, we know that 𝑥 = is not a valid solution to
3
our equation. Absolute value equations can have one, two, or possibly even
zero solutions.

Inequalities
Just as in life, not everything in math is equal. Sometimes, instead of solving an
equation, we are asked to solve an inequality. Unlike equations, which have
specific numbers as solutions, inequalities have a range of numbers as solutions.

Here is an example:
26
If z + 14 > −5, what is the possible range of values for z?

For the most part, we treat inequalities exactly the same as equations (with one
very important exception, which we’ll discuss below). So, since we are being asked
to solve for z, we need to isolate it. This example is pretty simple.

z + 14 − 14 > −5 − 14 (remembering to do the same thing to both sides)

z > −19

The big exception to treating inequalities identically to equations occurs

when we multiply or divide both sides of the inequality by a negative
number. When that happens, we need to remember to swap the inequality.
For example:

If −3x − 10 > 11, what is the possible range of values for x?

We start the same way as always - isolate x. So:

−3x − 10 + 10 > 11 + 10

−3x > 21

In our next step; however, we are going to divide both sides by −3. We must
change the direction of our inequality.
−3𝑥 21
> → 𝑥 < −7
−3 −3
It is important to remember this key difference between inequalities and
equations.

27
Chapter 4

Co-ordinate Geometry
Pre-Quiz
1. What are the y-intercept, x-intercept and slope of the following lines?
a. y = 2x − 10
b. y = 9x + 18
1
c. x = y − 9
2
d. 2y + 3x = 16
1
2. What is the equation of the line with a slope of − 2 that passes through
the point (2,4)?

3. Find the equations of the lines that pass through each of the following pairs of
points:
a. (−2, 1) and (4, −1)
b. (2, 2) and(4, 8)
c. (3, 4) and (7, 8)
d. (0, 2) and (−4, 14)

4. What is the distance between the points (−8, −4) and (−4, −1)?

5. Graph the following:

a. y = 4x − 2
b. 4y = 2x – 16
c. x = 1y + 4
2
d. y = x2 – 2x – 3

28
Co-ordinate geometry involves mapping points, lines and functions in an x-y plane.
For the Rotman aptitude test, you need to understand how to find the equation of a
line and how to graph linear and quadratic functions.

The x-y Plane

The figure above represents the standard x-y co-ordinate plane. Each point
on the plane is described in the form (X, Y), where X is the horizontal co-
ordinate and Y is the vertical co-ordinate. When assigning values to the
points, “right” and “up” are considered positive and “left” and “down” are
considered negative.

For example, point A above is two points to the right of (0, 0) (also known
as the origin) and one point above (0, 0), so we would call point A (2, 1).
Along the same lines:

Point B is two points to the right of the origin and one point down, so
we would call point B (2, −1).

Point C is two points to the left of the origin and one point down, so
we would call point C (−2, −1).

Point D is two points to the left of the origin and one point up, so
we would call point D (−2, 1).

29
Lines on the Co-ordinate Plane
The equation of a line on the x-y plane is commonly written in the form

y = mx + b, where

m = the slope of the line; and

b = the y-intercept of the line.

To find the equation of a line, one needs either two points on the line or
one point on the line and the slope.

Slope
Slope is sometimes referred to as “the rise over the run”. In other words, the
slope measures how steep the line is. The slope of a line is,

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Mathematically speaking, if we want to calculate the slope of a line that contains

the points (1, 3) and (4, 15), we would divide the change in y by the change in x.
So:
𝑦1 −𝑦2 3−15 −12
= = = 4 Therefore, the slope of this line is 4.
𝑥1 −𝑥2 1−4 −3

Let’s examine one more example:

What is the slope of the line passing through points (4, 2) and (−2, 4)?
𝑦1 −𝑦2 2−4 −2 1
= = =−
𝑥1 −𝑥2 4−(−2) 6 3

30
The y-intercept
The y-intercept of a line is the value of y where the line crosses the y-axis; in
other words, the value of y when x = 0.

To solve for the y-intercept of a line, we need the slope of the line and at least
one point. To illustrate, let’s go back to two points for which we have already
determined the slope, (1, 3) and (4, 15).

From our previous work, we know that the slope of the line containing these two
points is 4. So, we can plug 4 into our generic equation for a line and get:

y = 4x + b (remember, b is our y-intercept)

Now, to solve for b, we need values for x and y. Since we know that the point (1,
3) is on the line, we can plug in x = 1 and y = 3. Now, our equation reads:

3 = 4(1) + b; or simply

3=4+b

Going back to our basic rules of algebra, we can solve for b as follows: 3

−4=4+b−4

−1 = b (or, if you prefer, b = −1)

Now that we have the value of b, we can write our equation of the line in
its final form:

y = 4x − 1

31
Plotting Functions
In some questions you may be asked to graph a function. These functions can be
linear or quadratic functions. As the name implies, plotting a linear function
results in a line, whereas plotting a quadratic function results in a parabola. We
will review each of these in turn starting with a line.

Graph 3 = 12x − 3y.

To do so, the first step is to rearrange the equation that you are given
into the standard y = mx + b form. In other words, we want to solve for y. Using
the above example:

3 = 12x − 3y

3 + 3y = 12x − 3y + 3y

3 + 3y = 12x

3 + 3y − 3 = 12x − 3

3y = 12x – 3
3𝑦 12𝑥−3
=
3 3

y = 4x − 1

Now that we have our equation, we start by plotting the y-intercept. We

have a value for b of −1, so we know that the line crosses the x-axis at
(0, −1).

32
Next, we use the slope of the line to find another point. Since the value
of m is 4, we know that the line goes up 4 points for every 1 point that
it goes right. So, counting off the points on our diagram, we see that 1 to
the right takes us to x = 1 and 4 up takes us to y = 3. Our next point is,
therefore, (1, 3). Now we draw the line of infinite length (or as much of
it as we can fit on the paper) that passes through our two points (0, −1)
and (1, 3) and we are done.

33
The second type of function we need to plot is a quadratic function. To
do so, we first need to understand the characteristics of the shape of a
quadratic plot – commonly referred to a s a parabola.

A parabola is a symmetric curve that is either oriented opening down

and has a maximum value, or up and has a minimum value. The point at
which we have this extreme value (maximum or minimum) is called the
vertex and it sits on the axis of symmetry.

To plot a parabola, we need to identify the intercepts (both x and y), the
location of the axis of symmetry and the vertex. Let’s look at an
example.

Graph y = x2 + 2x – 3

The first point to identify is the y-intercept and can be calculated by

solving for y when x = 0.

y = (0)2 + 2(0) – 3 = – 3 → The y-intercept is at (0, –3).

34
Next, we want to find the x-intercepts by solving for x when y equals
zero. Notice that this step results in solving a quadratic equation as seen
in Chapter 3.

(0) = x2 + 2x – 3

(x – 1)(x + 3) = 0

x = 1, and x = – 3 → There are two x-intercepts at (1, 0) and (– 3, 0).

The final point we would like to plot is the vertex, which we know lies
on the axis of symmetry. We can identify the x value for the axis of
symmetry by identifying the midpoint between our two x-intercepts, or
by using the following equation.

35
 −𝑏
𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑑 = , where a and b are found in the quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0.
2𝑎

−(2) 2
So, 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑑 = = − = −1 → The axis of symmetry is at x = −1.
2(1) 2

The y-coordinate for the vertex can be found by solving for y at the
value of xmid.

y = (–1)2 + 2(–1) – 3 = 1 – 2 –3 = –4 → Vertex is at (–1, –4).

We complete plot of the parabola by plotting the vertex and drawing the
curve.

36
Chapter 5

Sequences and Summations

Pre-Quiz
1. If S is the sequence of numbers defined by the equation Sn+1 = 2Sn − 4 and if
S1 = 6, solve for the value of:
a. S2
b. S3
c. S4

2. If R is the sequence of numbers defined by the equation Rn+1 = nRn − 7 and if

R4 = −16, solve for the value of:
a. R3
b. R2
c. R1

3. Set Q is defined as the numbers generated by the rule “Q n+1 = (Q n − 3)2 − 6”

for 1 ≤ n ≤ 4. If Q1 = 6, find the summation of set Q.
5
2
4. Given ∑ 𝑛 − 3𝑛 + 7 , write out the expression and evaluate it.
n=2

Sequences
A sequence is an ordered list of values defined by an equation. Most commonly,
a sequence is defined by showing the relationship between the nth and n+1st
terms.

For example:

xn+1 = xn + 3, for all values of n > 1. In this sequence, each term is 3

more than the previous term.

xn+1 = 3xn − 5, for all values of n > 1. In this sequence, each term is 3
37
times the previous term minus 5.

xn+1 = 4xn + 2, for all values of n > 1. In this sequence, each term is 4
times the previous term plus 2.

To solve for a term in a sequence, one needs to know the defining rule
and at least one term of the sequence; just knowing the rule is not enough, since we
have no idea where the sequence begins. To illustrate this point, let’s expand on
two of our examples above:

xn+1 = xn + 3, for all values of n > 1.

If xn = 5, then the sequence is going to be the infinite set of numbers

{5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ...}.

If, on the other hand, xn = 10, then the sequence is going to be the infinite set of
numbers {10, 13, 16, 19, 22, ...}.
Let’s look at a test-like question:
In the infinite sequence B, Bn+1 = 2Bn − 3, for all n ≥ 1. If B1 = 5, what is the value of
B4 ?
We know the value of B1, so we can plug n = 1 into our rule and get the following:
B2 = 2B1 − 3.
Replacing B1 with 5, we get B2 = 2(5) − 3 and, finally,
B2 = 7
Of course, we are not done, since the question asks us to solve for B4. We need to repeat
the above steps twice more.
Now we know the value of B2, so we can plug n = 2 into our rule and get:

B3 = 2B2 − 3

Replacing B2 with 7, we get B3 = 2(7) − 3 and, finally:

B3 = 11
38
 We now have the value of B3, so we can plug n = 3 into our rule and get:

B4 = 2B3 − 3

Replacing B3 with 11, we get B4 = 2(11) − 3 and, finally, our answer:

B4 = 19.

Series

Series are the summations of finite (i.e. fixed number of terms) sequences. In other
words, a series is the sum of all of the terms of a sequence.

Like many other abstract concepts, series are best understood by reviewing a
concrete example.

1. The set Y is defined as the numbers generated by the rule

Yn+1 = (Yn)2 − 5 for 2 ≤ n ≤ 5. If Y2 = 3, what is the summation of set
Y?

First, we need to solve for the terms in the sequence. We know that Y2 = 3, so
we can solve for Y3 through Y5 using the methods described earlier in this
chapter.

Y3 = (Y2)2 − 5

Y3 = (3)2 − 5

Y3 = 9 − 5 = 4

Y4 = (Y3)2 − 5

Y4 = (4)2 − 5

Y4 = 16 − 5 = 11

Y5 = (Y4)2 − 5

39
Y5 = (11)2 − 5

Y5 = 121 − 5 = 116

So, our set is {3, 4, 11, 116} and our summation is:

3 + 4 + 11 + 116 = 134.
It is common to see summations introduced by the symbol ∑ with the first term listed
on the bottom of the symbol and the final term listed on top. Here is an example:
62
Given ∑ 𝑛 + 4𝑛 − 5, write out the expression and evaluate it.
n=3
To solve, we rewrite the expression for each value of n. So:
for n = 3, we get 9 + 12 − 5 = 16;

for n = 4, we get 16 + 16 − 5 = 27;

for n = 5, we get 25 + 20 − 5 = 40; and

for n = 6, we get 36 + 24 − 5 = 55.

We were asked for the summation, so we add our set of values to get:
16 + 27 + 40 + 55 = 138.

40
Chapter 6

Logarithms
Pre-Quiz
1. Solve for x in the following:
a. log416 = x
b. log381 = x
c. logx25 = 2
d. logx32 = 5
e. log6x = 3
f. log2x = 6
g. log100 = x
h. logx = 5

2. Express each of the following as a single term:

1
a. log210 + log2(2 )
b. log1000 + log100
c. log3108 − log34
d. log1000 − log100

Logarithms
Logarithms are very similar to exponents and the properties of logarithms can be
expressed using the properties of exponents. While logarithms can get quite
complex, for the Rotman aptitude test one only needs to be able to solve fairly
basic logarithm questions.

Logarithms are usually expressed in the form:

logaM = x

41
This relationship is identical to the following:

ax = M

In other words, a logarithm is just a different way of expressing an exponent. Here are
some concrete examples to make this relationship clearer:

log216 = 4 (24 = 16)

log39 = 2 (32 = 9)

log5125 = 3 (53 = 125)

If a logarithm is written with no subscripted number between the word “log”

and the M, there is an implied base of 10. For example:

log100 = 2 (log10100 = 2, since 102 = 100)

log1000 = 3 (log101000 = 3, since 103 = 1000)

Let’s try a couple of simple questions:

If log5N = 4, what is the value of N ?

Rewriting our equation in exponent form, we get: 54 = N

5×5×5×5=N

N = 625

42
If log981 = x, what is the value of x?

Rewriting the equation in exponent form, we get: 9x = 81

x=2

Logarithm Rules
Just as it is possible to combine exponential terms (under the right
circumstances), it is also possible to combine logarithms. There are two basic rules
that tell us when and how to combine logarithms.

1. Product Rule for Logarithms: the log of the product of two terms is
equal to the sum of the individual logs. In other words,

logaMN = logaM + logaN.

Here is an example of how we would apply this rule:

8 3
Solve for log2( ) + log2( ).
3 2

8 3
log2( ) + log2( )
3 2

8 3
= log2( × )
3 2

24
= log2( )
6

= log2(4)

If we let log24 = x, then 2x = 4. Therefore, x = 2.

2. Quotient Rule for Logarithms: the log of M divided by N is equal to the log of M
minus the log of N. In other words,
𝑀
loga( 𝑁 ) = logaM − logaN.

Here is an example of how we would apply this rule:

Solve for log5(1000) − log5(8).

43
log5(1000) − log5(8)
1000
= log5( 8
)

= log5(125)

If we let log5125 = x, then 5x = 125. Therefore, x = 3.

44
Chapter 7

Logic
Pre-Quiz
1. Translate each of the following into an if-then statement:
a. All people in Toronto are in Ontario.
b. Bob will win the race only if Sheila does not enter.
c. Sam will get the promotion if Mary leaves the company.
d. Yuko and Phillipe never go to the movies together.
e. Sabrina and Juan never go to the movies apart.
f. At least one of Hassan and Dietrich is always on vacation.
g. Every time it rains or snows I get a headache.

2. Form the contrapositive of each of the above statements.

3. Kat is attending a sale at a local store. There are six items for sale:
a bookcase, a chair, a desk, an encyclopedia, a fez and a grand piano. The
following rules govern what she will buy:

If Kat buys the desk, she also buys the chair.

If Kat buys the encyclopedia, she also buys the bookcase.

If Kat doesn’t buy the fez, then she won’t buy the grand piano. Kat won’t

buy both the chair and the bookcase.

45
 i) If Kat buys the bookcase, which of the following must be true?
a. She buys the fez.
b. She buys the encyclopedia.
c. She buys the chair.
d. She doesn’t buy the desk.
e. She doesn’t buy the grand piano.

ii) What is the maximum number of items that Kat can buy?
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5
e. 6

On the Rotman aptitude test, you will be asked to solve a logic puzzle. While it is
often possible to solve these types of puzzles intuitively, knowledge of the basics of
formal logic can make solving them much simpler. In this chapter, we will review
translating formal logic statements and combining such statements.

Translating Formal Logic Statements

The basic unit of formal logic is the if-then statement. Not surprisingly, these
statements have two parts: the if clause (also known as the trigger) and the then
clause (also known as the result).

For example: If that animal is a dog, then it is a mammal.

The above statement might seem straightforward and intuitively easy to

understand. In general, when learning new concepts, the best way to proceed is
to start with something that makes sense and then work your way up to more
complicated scenarios.

46
So, let’s take apart our example and see exactly what we are saying from a
logical perspective.

A trigger is a fact that guarantees a certain result. Whenever you see a

trigger in a logic puzzle, you know with certainty that if the trigger happens,
the result will happen. In other words:

Trigger ➔ Result

Based on our statement, if we know that something is a dog, it is

guaranteed to be a mammal as well.

There are many different forms in which the same formal logical idea can be
expressed. Here are some common English sentences that are all logically
equivalent (i.e. they have the same meaning):

• If it is a dog, then it is a mammal.

• All dogs are mammals.

• Every dog is a mammal.

• It is a dog only if it is a mammal.

• Only mammals are dogs.

• It is not a dog unless it is a mammal.

• If it is not a mammal, then it is not a dog.

The final translation is of particular interest. In formal logic terminology, it is

called the contrapositive of the original statement.

47
The Contrapositive
Every formal logic statement has a contrapositive, which is just another
way of expressing the same idea. To form the contrapositive, we go
through two (or occasionally three) steps:

1. Reverse all of the terms.

2. Negate each term.

3. Swap the ands and ors in the statement (if applicable).

Let’s go through the steps for our original statement: If it is a dog, then it is a
mammal.

1. If it is a mammal, then it is a dog.

2. If it is not a mammal, then it is not a dog.

3. (No and/or in the original statement, so skip this step.)

To clarify, we can take a step back from formal logic and just think about what we
are saying:
We know that anything that is a dog has to be a mammal. In other words,
being a mammal is a requirement of being a dog. So, since all dogs have to
be mammals, if we know that something isn’t a mammal, then there’s no
way it could possibly be a dog.

Another way we could have described ifs and thens is as sufficient clauses
and necessary clauses. Being a dog is sufficient for being a mammal, since knowing that
something is a dog is enough to know that it is also a mammal; being a mammal is
necessary for being a dog, since knowing that something isn’t a mammal is enough to
know that it isn’t a dog.

48
So, to summarize in abstract terms:

Trigger ➔ Result

Lack of the Result ➔ Lack of the Trigger

One other important point to mention - just like in math, double negatives
cancel out to become positive. Let’s look at a statement that contains a negative
and see how this rule affects the contrapositive:

All athletes are not fat.

Using our translation table above, we turn this statement into if-then form: If an

athlete, then not fat.

Following the two steps to form the contrapositive (no need to use step 3 here),
we get:

1. If not fat, then an athlete; and

2. If not not fat,then not an athlete.

Since double negatives cancel out, our final product is: If fat,

then not an athlete.

49
 Complex if-then Statements
Above we discussed a possible step 3 to forming the contrapositive. Step 3 is used
when our original statement doesn’t have just one trigger or one
result; rather it has multiple triggers or results. Let’s look at a few examples:

• If it rains or snows, then I will catch a cold.

• If I study hard and get a good night’s sleep, then I will pass the test.

• If I sleep in, then I will miss my bus and be late for work.

• If I go out for dinner, then I will have pasta or pizza.

As you can see, complex if-then statements include the word and or the word or
and consequently contain multiple triggers or results.

Let’s see how we would form the contrapositive of each of these statements:

• If I do not catch a cold, then it did not rain and it did not snow.
Notice that we added in step 3 to the process - the or in the original became
and in the contrapositive. Also, notice that we negated each
of the three terms. If we had just put not in front of the entire second part of the
sentence (to get “then it did not rain and snow”), then we would have had a
sentence with a different meaning.

So, knowing that I did not catch a cold is sufficient to know that:

1. It did not rain; and

2. It did not snow.

50
• If I do not pass the test, then I did not study hard or I did not get a good night’s
sleep.

What must have happened if I failed the test?

Either:

1. I did not study hard; or

2. I did not get a good night’s sleep.

This is a good spot for a discussion of one of the major differences between formal
logic language and regular English. Normally when we use the word “or”, we use
what is called an exclusive or. In other words, if we
say “you can have fish or beef for dinner”, we mean you can have fish, or beef,
but not both.

In formal logic, we use what is called an inclusive or. In other words, there is
always an implied “or both” at the end of every or statement.

So, there is a third possibility to add to our list of results:

3. I did not study hard and I did not get a good night’s sleep.

On to our final two examples:

• If I do not miss my bus or I am not late for work, then I did not sleep in.
Sleeping in would have definitely led to both missing my bus and being late for
work. So, if either of those things did not happen, then there is no possible
way that I could have slept in.

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• If I do not have pasta and I do not have pizza, then I did not go out for dinner.
We know that if we had gone out for dinner, we definitely would have had either
pasta or pizza (or possibly both, if you remember our discussion of or above). So, if
we do not have pizza and we do not have pasta, then there is no possible way we
could have gone out for dinner.

One phrase that can be tricky to translate is “neither X nor Y”. In formal logic,
“neither X nor Y ” translates as “not X and not Y”. For example:

• If Bob goes to the party, then neither Fred nor Nancy will go to the party Could
be translated as:

If Bob goes, then Fred does not go and Nancy does not go. Or, if

you prefer to symbolize:

If B ➔ not F and not N

52
Combining if-then Statements
In most formal logic puzzles, you are presented with a number of if-then statements and
your task is to make deductions from them. There are two common ways to combine
if-then statements to make deductions.

The first type of deduction is formally known as a deductive syllogism.

Fortunately, we do not need to know the technical terms for the test; we just
need to know how to make the deduction. Here is the basic form of the
deductive syllogism:

All A are B;

x is an A;

Therefore, x is a B.

(Remember, “All A are B” is just another way of saying “If A, then B”.)

To make this abstract concept more concrete, we can revisit our old friends the dogs
and the mammals:

All dogs are mammals;

Fido is a dog;

Therefore, Fido is a mammal.

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So, the basic elements required to make this kind of deduction are:

1. An if-then statement; and

2. An entity (Fido, in our example above) that matches the trigger.

The second type of deduction is formally known as a hypothetical syllogism. To

make this kind of deduction, we combine multiple if-then statements. Here is the basic
form:

A ➔ B;

B ➔ C;

Therefore, A ➔ C.

Here is an example:

If I am in Toronto, then I am in Ontario. If I

am in Ontario, then I am in Canada.

Therefore, if I am in Toronto, then I am in Canada.

The basic element required to make this type of deduction is:

1. Two if-then statements in which the result of one statement is

identical to the trigger of the second statement.

54
Putting It All Together
To better illustrate these formal logic concepts, we can tackle a puzzle
together. A typical puzzle will have four to six rules and be followed by three
to five questions. Here we go:

Alice is throwing a party. Alice will invite at least two boys and at
least one girl. The boys that she is considering inviting are Bob, Carlos,
Dimitri, Edgar and Frank. The girls that she is considering inviting are Gina,
Harriet, Ingrid, Jasmine and Kiku. Alice will adhere to the following
guidelines:

There has to be an equal number of girls and boys at the party

(including Alice).

If she invites Bob, she has to invite Ingrid.

If she doesn’t invite Jasmine, she cannot invite Kiku. She

will invite Dimitri only if she invites Carlos.

She cannot invite Gina unless she invites Frank.

If she invites Frank, then she must invite Kiku and Bob.

The first step is to understand the basic framework of the game. Here, the basic
scenario is someone sending out invitations to a party. We have
two major numbers restrictions: we need at least two boys and one girl and the
number of boys has to equal the number of girls. Numbers rules are often key to
solving logic puzzles, so be on the lookout for these rules
in both the opening paragraph and the rule set.

55
 Our next step is to make a list of entities and to translate the rules into basic if-then
format. To avoid confusion later on, it is a good idea to use different symbols for
different kinds of entities. For this puzzle, we can use uppercase letters for the boys
and lowercase letters for the girls.

Boys: B, C, D, E, F

Girls: g, h, i, j, k

What other girl should we jot down?Why? Alice, of course! We are told that Alice
counts as one of the girls for the party, so when we check to make sure that the
number of girls is equal to the number of boys we have to remember that Alice is
always at the party, no matter who else we choose.

Now we can translate the rules, using our translation guide from earlier in this
chapter. It is also an excellent idea to jot down the contrapositive of each rule:

•B➔i
Not i ➔ Not B

• Not j ➔ Not k
k➔j

• D➔C
Not C ➔ Not D

• g➔ F
Not F ➔ Not g

• F ➔ k and B
Not k or not B ➔ Not F

56
If you have trouble with any of these translations, then it is worth revisiting the chart
above. Learning the most common formal logic translations will make the puzzles
go much more smoothly.

At this point we recognize that there are probably a lot of deductions that we can
make based on these rules. However, since we are only answering a few questions, it
is really not worth checking every possible deduction.
Instead, we are better off making sure that we understand the numbers limitation of each
individual rule and then jumping into the questions.

Here is a sample question from this game:

1. If Alice invites Gina, who else does she have to invite to the party?

Whenever we get new information, we want to use it to set off a chain of

deductions.We do so by scanning the triggers of our if-thens. After such a scan,
we see that g is a trigger in our second-last rule:

g➔F

So, we immediately know that we need to have Frank at the party. However, our work
is not necessarily done - we now need to see if F is a trigger in any rules. Sure
enough, wespot:

F ➔ k and B
Frank triggers both Kiku and Bob, so we need to add both of them to our
invitation list. For now, we are up to F, k, g and B. Now we need to check for k and
B as triggers.You should have seen:

B➔i

and k

➔j

So, both Ingrid and Jasmine have to come as well. Once we include these two, we
have B, F, g, i, j and k on our list. One more scan for i and j as triggers shows us
57
that we are finally out of new results.

However,does this mean that we have our final answer? Not necessarily - we have
to remember our numbers rule.

So far we have only two boys on our invitation list, B and F, but four girls, g, i, j and k.
Also, we have to remember to include our fine hostess, Alice. Since we have five
girls attending, we need five boys. Since there are only five boys in total, that means
all five of them have to attend! After adding C, D and E to our list, we need to do a
quick check of the rules to make sure that we don’t have any contradictions (for
example, if a rule had said that Dimitri and Edgar never get invited to the same
parties, then we would
be in trouble). Adding C, D and E does not lead to any conflicts, so our final guest list is:

Bob, Carlos, Dimitri, Edgar, Frank, gina, ingrid, jasmine, kiku and, of course, alice
herself.

Only poor, lonely Harriet gets left off the list.

Ordering Problems

Another type of logic problem you could encounter focuses on how different
items are ordered or sequenced in time or space. For example, you could be
asked to solve a problem looking at which days of the week certain household
activities are scheduled, or at which houses in a row different people live.

Information for these types of problems will not necessarily employ conditional
logic clues as discussed above, rather they will have relative position
information. For example, Javier will mow the lawn later in the week than the
day he completes groceries, or Fiona lives directly to the east of Aliya.

Problems of this type usually benefit from the use of a matrix or table to organize
information.

58
Let’s look at an example:

A teacher is hanging six paintings on the wall in a straight line. The paintings
were made by six students: Ahmed, Benjamin, Ciara, Delilah, Eduardo and
Faith. The order in which the paintings are hung must conform to the following
restrictions:

Benjamin’s painting must be either first or last.

There must be exactly one painting between Ciara’s and Faith’s.

Ciara’s painting must come after Ahmed’s but before Faith’s.

If Eduardo’s painting is hung fourth, what is a possible arrangement of the

paintings? (There may be more than one valid answer; however, you only need
to show one.)

As noted above, a matrix would be useful to track which paintings can be hung,
or not hung in different positions. We will place the artists initials down the side
of the matrix and the positions for the paintings across the top.
1 2 3 4 5 6

Next, we want to look at each restriction and place that information in the matrix.
We will place an ‘X’ in any cell that we know is not a possible match and a ‘✓’
when we confirm a specific requirement. For example, the first clue tells us that
Benjamin’s painting must be hung either first or last. From this we can infer that
his painting will never be in positions 2 through 5.

59
 1 2 3 4 5 6

B X X X X

The next clue does not yield direct information we can place in our matrix with
what we currently know. If there must be exactly one painting between Ciara’s
and Faith’s, we first need information about the position of one of their
paintings. For now, let’s make a note as a reminder that there is a restriction
linking these two paintings.
1 2 3 4 5 6

B X X X X

C* *C-?-F or F-?-C

F*

Since Ciara’s painting comes after Ahmed’s but before Faith’s, we know that
Ciara’s painting can be neither first nor last, and we can refine our note to
eliminate the option of having Faith’s painting before Ciara’s.

But that is not all. Since we now know that there is exactly one painting
separating Ciara’s and Faith’s, we know Ciara’s painting cannot be fifth.
1 2 3 4 5 6

B X X X X

C* X X X *C-?-F

F*

60
But that is still not all! Valuable information is available for the position of both
Ahmed’s and Faith’s paintings. Since Ahmed’s painting must come before
Ciara’s; and Ciara’s is followed by one painting then Faith’s, we can infer that
Ahmed’s painting must have at lest three paintings after it. Therefore, it cannot
be in positions 4, 5, or 6.

1 2 3 4 5 6

A X X X

B X X X X

C* X X X *C-?-F

F*

As for Faith, we similarly know that three paintings must precede hers, so her
painting cannot be in positions 1, 2, or 3.

1 2 3 4 5 6

A X X X

B X X X X

C* X X X *C-?-F

F* X X X

Now that we have placed all our restrictions, we can look at the question and
incorporate that information. We are asked for one possible configuration if
Eduardo’s painting is placed fourth.

61
If Eduardo’s painting is placed fourth, we can infer two useful facts. These are: if
Eduardo’s painting is fourth, no other painting can be fourth; and Eduardo’s
painting cannot be in the other positions.
1 2 3 4 5 6

A X X X

B X X X X

C* X X X X *C-?-F

D X

E X X X ✓ X X

F* X X X X

Since we gained new information, it is useful to review if there are any other
implications with our other restrictions. Since Faith’s painting can no longer be
hung in the fourth position, we know that Ciara’s cannot be in the second, and
her painting must be in the third. In turn this means that Faith’s painting must be
fifth, with Eduardo’s being the single painting that separates them.

1 2 3 4 5 6

A X X X X

B X X X X

C* X X ✓ X X X *C-E-F

D X X X

E X X X ✓ X X

F* X X X X ✓ X

We have now established the paintings that must be in positions 3 through 5

based on Eduardo’s being fourth. Since the question asks for a single
configuration of the paintings, we are free to select the remaining paintings from
the options contained in the matrix.

For example, Ahmed, Delilah, Ciara, Eduardo, Faith, Benjamin is one possible
sequence if Eduardo’s painting is fourth that complies with the other restrictions
we have been given.

62
Critical Reasoning Problems

The final type of logic problem you can encounter on the EDT is critical
reasoning problem. In these questions you will be asked to select a statement
from a list that best reflects the conclusion that can be drawn from a brief
statement or paragraph, or an assumption on which the statement or paragraph is
based. You must then support your answer.

For example:

Since the turn of the century, many of the brightest computer programmers have
sought to start and run successful businesses. However, due to the return on
investment demands of their investors, today’s programmers must focus on
developing products that generate profit. Consequently, computer programming
is no longer as creative as it once was.

Which of the following statements best reflects the assumption underlying the
preceding argument for the conclusion above to be drawn?

A) All computer programs must lack creativity to be well received.

B) Some computer scientists entirely disregarded creativity and chose

instead to pursue profit.

C) A program cannot be both creative and profitable.

D) Computer scientists are obsessed with the profitability of their work.

E) Non-profit institutions use large amounts of software.

The conclusion being drawn by the author of the statement is that ‘computer
programming is no longer as creative as it once was’.

The argument draws a distinction between creative programming and profitable

programming and views these aspects as mutually exclusive.

Therefore, the answer must be C), since if the author believed that it was possible
to write both creative and profitable software there would be no basis for the
argument that business and profitability drivers have reduced the creativity of the
computer programming field.

63
Pre-Quiz Answer Key
Chapter 1 – Arithmetic
13 1 4. a. 40
1. or 1
12 12
b. 40
1
2. − 10 c. 36
d. 125
3. a. 0.75 e. 175
b. 0.9 f. 250
c. 1.4 g. 162
d. 0.625 h. 12
e. 6.5 i. 64
f. 0.833

Chapter 2 – Exponents and Radicals

4. 5
1. 16
5. 13
2. x = +6 or −6
6. a. 5
3. a. 27
b. 2√5
b. 39
c. 12
c. 72
d. 75
d. 412
e. 3(24) e. 5
f. 5

64
Chapter 3 – Algebra
1. 16 2
5. x = 7 and y = −
3

2. y = −18 6. x = 2 or x = −6
2
3. a. x = (3)y – 5 7. y = 2 or y = 10
5
b. x = (2)y
8. a. z2 + 8z − 48
4
c. x = (3)y − z +
8 b. c2 − 16
3
c. 6x2 + x − 12
4. x = 6 and y = −2 d. xy + 4y − 2x − 8
e. x3 + 3x2 − 4x

Chapter 4 – Co-ordinate Geometry

1.
a. y-intercept = −10; x-intercept = 5; slope = 2
b. y-intercept = 18; x-intercept = −2; slope = 9
c. y-intercept = 18; x-intercept = −9; slope = 2
16 3
d. y-intercept = 8; x-intercept = ; slope = −
3 2

1
2. y = −(2)x + 5
1 1
3. a. 𝑦 = − (3) 𝑥 + 3
b. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 4
c. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1
d. 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 2
4. 5

65
5a 5b 5c
5 Y 5 Y 5 Y
4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 X 0 X X
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 12345 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 12345 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 12345
-1 -1 -1

-2 -2 -2

-3 -3 -3

-4 -4 -4

-5 -5 -5

5d

Chapter 5 – Sequences and Summations

1. S1 = 6 2. R4 = −16
a. S2 = 8 a. R3 = −3
b. S3 = 12 b. R 2 = 2
c. S4 = 20 c. R1 = 9

3. Q1+ Q2 + Q3 + Q4 = 6 + 3 − 6 + 75 = 78

4. (22 − 3(2) + 7) + (32 − 3(3) + 7) + (42 − 3(4) + 7) + (52 − 3(5) + 7)

= (4 − 6 + 7) + (9 − 9 + 7) + (16 − 12 + 7) + (25 − 15 + 7)
= 5 + 7 + 11 + 17 = 40

66
Chapter 6 – Logarithms
1. a. x = 2 2. a. log25
b. x = 4 b. log100000 = 5
c. x = 5 c. log327 = 3
d. x = 2 d. log10 = 1
e. x = 216
f. x = 64
g. x = 2
h. x = 100000

Chapter 7 – Logic
1. a. If a person is in Toronto, then he or she is in Ontario
b. If Bob wins the race, then Sheila does not enter.
c. If Mary leaves the company, then Sam will get the promotion.
d. If Yuko goes to a movie, then Philippe does not go.
e. If Sabrina goes to a movie, then Juan also goes; if Juan goes to a
movie, then Sabrina also goes.
f. If Hassan is not on vacation, then Dietrich is on vacation.
g. If it rains or snows, then I get a headache.
2. a. If a person is not in Ontario, then he or she is not in Toronto.
b. If Sheila enters the race, then Bob does not win.
c. If Sam does not get the promotion, then Mary does not leave the
company.
d. If Philippe goes to a movie, thenYuko does not go.
e. If Juan does not go to a movie, then Sabrina does not go; if Sabrina does
not go to a movie, then Juan does not go.
f. If Dietrich is not on vacation, then Hassan is on vacation.
g. If I do not get a headache, then it did not rain and it did not snow.
3. 1. d. She doesn’t buy the desk. 2.
c. 4

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