Clean, Well-Lighted Sentences

Clean, Well-Lighted Sentences

A Guide to Avoiding the Most Common Errors in

Grammar and Punctuation
 Janis Bell

W. W. Norton & Company

NEW YORK LONDON
Copyright © 2008 by Janis Bell
All rights reserved
For information about permission to reproduce selections from this
book, write to Permissions, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.,
500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bell, Janis.
Clean, well-lighted sentences: a guide to avoiding the most common
errors in grammar and punctuation / Janis Bell.—1st ed.
p. cm.
ISBN: 978-0-393-07547-2
1. English language—Sentences—Problems, exercises, etc.
2. English language—Grammar—Problems, exercises, etc.
3. English language—Errors in usage. 4. English language—
Rhetoric.
I. Title.
PE1441.B43 2008
428.2—dc22
2008021345
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
500 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110
www.wwnorton.com
W. W. Norton & Company Ltd.
Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT
 To all the modifiers in my life who
positioned themselves right next to me
and never budged. I’m grateful for the
loyalty and definition.
 Contents

Preface

Grammar Terminology
Parts of Speech
Sentence Roles

Chapter 1: Case
Nouns
Pronouns
Your and You’re • Its and It’s • Whose and Who’s
Who and Whom
Reflexive Pronouns
Case before Gerunds
QUIZ ON CASE

ANSWERS TO QUIZ

Chapter 2: Agreement
Subject-Verb Agreement
 Subjects vs. other nouns
Vague subjects
Unusual noun forms
Mass nouns
Two nouns in subject position
Noun-Pronoun Agreement
Clear nouns hazy memories
Singular generic words avoidance of double
pronouns
Singular nouns representing groups
distracted focus
Common Mass Nouns
QUIZ ON AGREEMENT

ANSWERS TO QUIZ

Chapter 3: Verb Tense and Usage

Present
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Confusing Verbs
Troublesome irregular verbs
 Regular verbs with irregular requirements
Frequently misspelled verbs
QUIZ ON TENSE AND USAGE

ANSWERS TO QUIZ

Chapter 4: Verb Mood

Indicative Mood
Imperative Mood
Subjunctive Mood
As if and as though
If
Wish
QUIZ ON MOOD

ANSWERS TO QUIZ

Chapter 5: Modifiers
Compound Adjectives
Adjective Phrases
Phrases beginning with as
Phrases containing verbals
Adjective Clauses
Modifier Forms
Only
QUIZ ON MODIFIERS

ANSWERS TO QUIZ

Chapter 6: Connectives
Prepositions
Like I said
Considered as
Different than
Fascinated but afraid of
Something else about which to talk
Look forward to see, committed to keep, prone
to forget, on my way to buy
Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions
Conjunctive Adverbs
Connectives Leading to Examples or Explanations
Punctuation
 Usage
Confusing Pairs
If vs. whether
Then vs. than
Redundancies
Etc. after such as
Nor in the same clause as no or not
The reason why is because
QUIZ ON CONNECTIVES

ANSWERS TO QUIZ

Chapter 7: Punctuation
Commas
Separating items in a series of three or more
Surrounding an interruption
Ending an introduction
Beginning an afterthought or final qualifier
Semicolons
Joining two closely related complete thoughts
Separating items in a series when the items
contain commas or are unusually long
Colons
Dashes
Surrounding an interruption
Leading to an afterthought
Introducing a specific explanation
Hyphens
Parentheses
Double Quotation Marks
Surrounding words spoken or written by
someone else
Surrounding words used as terms
Surrounding words used sarcastically
Surrounding titles of chapters or articles
Single Quotation Marks
Apostrophes
Representing a missing letter within a
contraction
Making a noun possessive
Making an abbreviation, a letter, or a numeral
plural
Ellipses
Brackets
Slashes
Question Marks
Exclamation Points
Periods
QUIZ ON PUNCTUATION

ANSWER TO QUIZ
 Preface

Another grammar book? Why?

You’ve seen grammar books before—you may even own one that
you pull out now and again, when you’re uncertain about a sentence
you wrote. Chances are, however, that you close that book pretty
soon after you open it because you don’t find the answer to your
question. In fact, you can’t figure out even how to look for the answer
to your question because the text is comprehensive and filled with
terms you’ve long forgotten.

English is your native tongue. Or it’s not, but you know it well enough
to be dreaming in it. You don’t need a book that teaches grammar
from the ground up. All you need is a guide that answers the
questions you have from time to time, an explanation of the
problems that typically crop up when you’re writing sentences. Some
relate to grammar (Is it who or whom, will or would, it’s or its?);
some relate to usage (Is it lie or lay, affect or effect, everyday or
every day?); some relate to punctuation (What belongs here—a
comma or semicolon? Dash or hyphen? Single quotes or double?).
Whatever the question, this book answers it in a way that will make
sense to you.

How can I make that claim when I don’t know you and I’ve never
seen your sentences? Unless you’re very different from the
thousands of people I’ve taught over the last three decades in both
academic and business classrooms, I do know you and I have seen
your sentences. I know where your grammar and usage errors hang
out. I know where your punctuation gaffes live. I can tell you exactly

1
what these characters look like and the fragrances they wear. After
reading this text, you’ll be able to spot a mistake from around the
corner. You may even be able to smell it.

Of necessity, this book contains grammar terminology, but it defines

all terms in an introductory section and defines them again when
they appear in a chapter. It discusses each issue, rather than just
listing rules. It presents many sample sentences, incorrect and
correct, so that you can see the concepts in action. It asks—and
answers—the questions you’re likely to have. It gives you a quiz to
take at the end of each chapter, as well as answers to the quizzes,
so that you can see what you’ve learned and what you still need to
work on. It turns on the floodlights and even makes you laugh.

Finally, this book increases your confidence, which is key to writing

well. I wish I could just sprinkle some self-assurance on your cereal
in the morning and watch your sentences transform by the afternoon.
But, alas, there’s no such product on the market. We all have to
make it from scratch by strengthening our skills. That’s what you’ll be
doing as you work your way through this text.

Once you can produce clean, well-lighted sentences, you’ll approach

every writing project with a can-do attitude. I’m not promising that
you’ll ever like to write (few people do); I’m saying that you’ll be able
to write in a way that commands respect—from you and from your
readers.

C’mon now, turn the page, scan the terminology, and jump into a
chapter, any chapter. When you encounter one of your own
sentences there, you’ll wonder how many others slipped into this
book when you weren’t looking. It’s time to keep an eye on them,
don’t you think?

—Janis Bell

2
 Grammar Terminology

Parts of Speech

noun a word that names a person, place, or thing. Nouns

can be concrete (Josephine, Alabama, spinach) or
abstract (fear, integrity, attitude).
pronoun a word (she, he, it, they, who, that, which, myself) that
stands in for/refers to a noun
verb or a word (eat, ate) or group of words (has eaten, had
verb eaten) that depicts the action associated with a subject
package
modifier a general term for any descriptive word or group of
words (adjectives and adverbs)
adjective a word (delicious) or group of words (which is
delicious) that describes a noun or pronoun
adverb a word (quickly) or group of words (in two minutes) that
describes a verb (eat) in terms of how, when, where, or
why
preposition a word that often conveys direction or position (in, on,
to, from, under, over, between, among), but not always
(by, for, of). Prepositions combine with a noun,
pronoun, or noun equivalent to form a phrase (by the
way, to him, in writing).
gerund an action word ending in ing that functions as a noun
(eating is my favorite pastime; I enjoy eating). Gerunds
are noun equivalents.

3
infinitive the source from which all verbs come, beginning with
to and ending with an action word (to eat, to relax, to
converse). Even though infinitives look like verbs, they
don’t function as verbs. They do other jobs: they can
serve as nouns (to nibble is enjoyable; to scarf up is
divine), in which case they are noun equivalents; or
they can serve as adjectives (to finish this meal, one
must have a large appetite), in which case they are
part of a phrase that describes a noun or pronoun.
participle an action word ending in ing (debating) or ed
(digested) or an irregular form (forgotten). On their
own, participles do not function as verbs. They can be
part of a verb package, when preceded by an actual
verb (am eating, was digested, had been forgotten). Or
they can be adjectives, when placed next to a noun
(debating team, digested food, forgotten plan).

Sentence Roles

subject a noun, pronoun, or noun equivalent representing a

person, place, or thing connected to a verb (an action).
Usually, a subject is located to the left of a verb:
Josephine receives a lot of mail.
She is admired by her friends.
Talking on the phone is her favorite pastime.
Occasionally, a subject follows a verb (in sentences that
begin with prepositional phrases, for example):
On the line is Josephine.
At the center of the debate is Josephine.
Always, however, the subject is the answer to the question
“who or what?” before the verb. For instance, when you
ask “Who or what receives a lot of mail?” (in the first

4
 sample sentence), the answer is Josephine; when you
ask “Who or what is her favorite pastime?”(in the third
sample sentence), the answer is talking; when you ask
“Who or what is at the center of the debate?”(in the final
sample sentence), the answer is Josephine.
object a noun, pronoun, or noun equivalent that is not serving as
a subject. Although there are several kinds of objects, it’s
not necessary to distinguish among them; all you need to
know is that they are not subjects. (Being able to identify a
subject is key to achieving subject-verb agreement.)
verb or a word or group of words depicting the action associated
verb with the subject
package
clause a group of words containing a subject and verb. A clause
can be independent (meaning it is capable of standing
alone as a sentence) or dependent (meaning it isn’t
capable of standing alone as a sentence, even though it
contains a subject and verb).
Independent clause:
Josephine receives a lot of mail
Dependent clause:
Because Josephine receives a lot of mail
Dependent clause:
Josephine, who loves talking on the phone
phrase a group of words that does not contain a subject and verb
Prepositional phrase:
On the phone
Infinitive phrase:
To finish the conversation
Participial phrase:
Often dialing incorrectly

5
Clean, Well-Lighted Sentences

6
 Chapter 1: Case

Case refers to the form of a noun or pronoun. Remember, a noun is

a word that names a person, place, or thing—either concrete
(Josephine, Alabama, spinach) or abstract (fear, integrity, attitude). A
pronoun is a word that stands in for/refers to a noun (she, he, it,
they).
Nouns

Nouns don’t change form when they serve as subjects and objects.
Josephine, for example, remains Josephine, no matter where she
shows up:
Josephine eats anything that isn’t nailed down.

Food is irresistible to Josephine.

In the first sentence Josephine is a subject; in the second sentence

Josephine is an object. In both roles she remains Josephine,
because she’s a noun.

The only time that nouns change form is when they become
possessive, to show ownership. The possessive form of a noun
always involves an apostrophe, and it often (not always) involves an
s. To determine where to place the apostrophe and whether to add
an s, first type the noun. It may be singular or plural—that doesn’t
matter. Just type it:

7
 child

children

class

classes

You’ll notice that child and class are singular, while children and
classes are plural. Again, that doesn’t matter. What does matter is
the last letter of the word. Ask yourself, “Does this word end in the
letter s?” If it does not, you make the word possessive by adding an
apostrophe and an s:
child’s

children’s

If the word does end in an s, then you add only an apostrophe (no s)
at the end:
class’

classes’

If you follow this guideline all the time, you’ll never be wrong.

There is an alternative, however, when the noun in question is a

person’s name ending in the letter s. Some writers choose to add an
apostrophe and an s to make a noun like that possessive. The name
Charles, for example, can be made possessive in two ways:
Charles’

8
 Charles’s

That’s all you need to know when you’re making one noun
possessive.

What do you do when two nouns own something? If you’ve written

two nouns and each of them owns something separately, you need
to make each noun possessive:
Josephine’s and Charles’ opinions often conflict.

If two nouns own something jointly, you make only the second noun
possessive:
Josephine and Charles’ friendship has weathered many
differences of opinion.

Pronouns

Unlike nouns, pronouns do change form according to the roles they

play—subject, object, and possessive. For examples, let’s return to
Charles and Josephine:

Subjects: He eats to live, while she lives to eat.

Objects: To him, food points to life; to her, life points to food.
Possessives: His approach to food is practical; her approach is
passionate.

Here’s a full list of pronouns in subject form:

I

9
 you

he

she

it

they

we

who

Here’s how pronouns look in object form:

me

you

him

her

it

them

us

10
 whom

Note: You and it remain the same, in subject and object form; all
others change.

Usually, when you have to choose between the subject and object
form of a pronoun, the sentence contains all the words you need, to
help you make your decision. Inside comparative statements,
however, words are often missing (they are understood). Consider
these examples:
I am shorter than he.

There’s no one I look up to more than him.

Why is he correct in the first sentence and him correct in the

second? Because of what’s understood. The first sentence is an
abbreviated version of “I am shorter than he is.” The second
sentence is an abbreviated version of “There’s no one I look up to
more than I look up to him.”

A comparative statement can convey different meanings, depending

on the case of a pronoun. For example,
I like hummus more than he.

I like hummus more than him.

The first sentence means “I like hummus more than he likes

hummus.” The second sentence means “I like hummus more than I
like him.” You see the importance of using the right case?

11
The last part of this pronoun story concerns possessive case. When
pronouns become possessive, here’s how they look:
my

your

his

her

its

their

our

whose

Note: Possessive pronouns do not contain apostrophes.

Your and You’re • Its and It’s • Whose and Who’s

Your, its, and whose are possessive. You’re, it’s, and who’s are
contractions for you are, it is, and who is. If you typed you’re, it’s,
or who’s, ask yourself whether you mean you are, it is, or who is. If
not, drop the apostrophe and check the spelling.

The following sentences are correct:

You’re not thinking of adopting a cat, are you?

12
 Your action may have repercussions.

It’s not a good idea to own a cat if you have allergies.

Its fur will make you sneeze.

Who’s responsible for the allergy attack—you or the cat?

Whose fault is it that you are sneezing?

Who and Whom

When you need to choose between who and whom, you’re usually
at the beginning of a clause—that is, you’re about to write a group of
words that includes a subject and verb. Go ahead and write the
clause. Then, identify the verb (the action). Next, look to the left of
the verb, to see what the subject is (ask yourself “Who or what, to
the left of the verb, is connected to the verb action?”). If there’s no
word, other than who, doing the job of the subject, then keep who.
That’s what who does—it serves as a subject. If another word
serves as the subject, use whom.

In sum, use who when an upcoming verb needs a subject; use

whom when an upcoming verb already has a subject (a noun or
pronoun other than who). This guideline holds true for any situation
calling for who or whom. It doesn’t matter whether the sentence
ends in a period or a question mark. (It also doesn’t matter when the
group of words coming up contains no verb, which happens
occasionally. If there’s no verb, you can’t have a subject, which
means that who is out of a job and whom is in order.)

13
The following sentences are correct:
Josephine, who usually has strong opinions about everything,
gets confused at election time.

She never knows whom she should vote for.

Who will do the best job?

Whom do most people trust?

How does anyone know whom to believe?

In the first sentence, who is correct because the upcoming verb

has needs a subject.

In the second sentence, whom is correct because the upcoming

verb should vote for already has a subject (she).

In the third sentence, who is correct because the upcoming verb

will do needs a subject.

In the fourth sentence, whom is correct because the upcoming

verb do trust already has a subject (people).

In the last sentence whom is correct because there is no verb

coming up (to believe is not a verb; it’s an infinitive).

14
A confusing situation can arise if a who or whom clause contains
another clause within it. The embedded clause can be seen as an
interruption of the who or whom clause. Here are two examples:
Josephine is the one who I think should run for office.

She is someone whom most people feel they can trust.

The first sentence calls for who because the verb should run
needs a subject, regardless of the interruption I think.

The second sentence calls for whom because the verb can
trust already has a subject (they), regardless of the interruption
most people feel.

Although neither of those sample sentences requires punctuation,

it’s easier to see the grammar involved if commas are inserted
around the embedded clauses:
Josephine is the one who, I think, should run for office.

She is someone whom, most people feel, they can trust.

If you ignore the interruptions for a moment, you’ll see clearly that
who is the subject of should run and they is the subject of can
trust.
Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns—pronouns ending in self—are correct only

when they reflect the subject of the clause they are in. For example,
myself is correct only in a clause whose subject is I; yourself is

15
correct only in a clause whose subject is you; itself is correct only in
a clause whose subject is it (or a noun representing a thing).

The following sentences are correct:

I told myself that I would begin my project well before its due
date.

You must work on your project by yourself.

The project itself is not the problem; getting started is what’s so

difficult.

The typical mistake that people make is to use a reflexive pronoun

where a regular pronoun belongs. This error often occurs in clauses
that involve more than one person; it also occurs in phrases that
begin with like. For example,
Josephine and myself have been talking about this project for a
long time.

The task was originally assigned to Josephine and myself.

A seasoned analyst like myself should have no problem with the

work.

A newcomer like herself may need assistance.

Do you see the errors?

In the first sentence, myself should be I because it is part of the

subject.

16
 In the second sentence, myself should be me because it is part
of the object.

In the third and fourth sentences, myself and herself should be

me and her because they show up inside a phrase, not a
clause. Remember, for a self pronoun to be correct, it must
reflect the subject of the clause it appears in. How can it do that
if it’s not in a clause?

Case before Gerunds

Most often when an action word ends in ing, it is part of a verb

package (am writing, were revising, has been studying, will be
graduating, etc.) and there’s no reason to think about case (case
doesn’t pertain to verb packages). But action words ending in ing
can show up in other roles, one of which is the role of a noun. When
an action word ending in ing serves as a noun, it’s called a gerund.
Take a look at the gerunds in these sentences:
Writing can be gruesome.

Revising requires patience and stamina.

My grades do not reflect the studying I did.

I look forward to graduating.

Can you see that writing, revising, studying, and graduating are
serving as nouns? In the first two sentences, writing and revising
are subjects; in the third and fourth sentences, studying and
graduating are objects. Subjects and objects are roles filled by

17
nouns, right? It’s important that you recognize a gerund as a noun
because sometimes you’ll need to use a possessive word to the left
of it, and that won’t make sense unless you understand that you’re
dealing with a noun. Here are some examples:
Josephine’s name has been in the tabloids lately, mostly for her
going on dates with a popular screen star.

Josephine’s cavorting with a star could lead to her moving to

Hollywood.

It could also lead to his moving out of Hollywood.

Another way to understand why you need the possessive case

before these gerunds is to replace each gerund with the word
action:
Josephine’s name has been in the tabloids lately, mostly for her
action.

Josephine’s action with a star could lead to her action.

It could also lead to his action.

You may be thinking, “I don’t need to know this—I don’t write

sentences like those.” You don’t? How about these:
We will appreciate your returning the completed application to
us as soon as possible.

The work will not proceed without management’s signing the

contract.

18
 I am fascinated by the company’s earning significant profits four
years in a row.

The first sentence is saying “We will appreciate your action.”

The second sentence is saying “The work will not proceed

without management’s action.”

The third sentence is saying “I am fascinated by the company’s

action.”

Surely, these contexts are familiar to you. Now, you’ll know how to
handle them.

19
 QUIZ ON CASE

Below is a letter to Josephine, written by someone who just read this

chapter but didn’t quite understand all the material. Your job is to edit
the letter for case only. That is, look at all the nouns and pronouns to
see what form they are in. If they are correct, leave them alone; if
they’re not, fix them.

Dear Josephine:

1 I just finished reading a chapter whose focus is largely on you. I

feel I should know you well by now but, between you and I, you’re
still pretty much of a mystery.
2 I have several questions for you:
3 What exactly is your relation to Charles? Is he just some guy who
you like to eat and argue with? You say your shorter than him but
it’s not clear how tall he is. Is the movie star you’re cavorting with
taller than him?
4 Did you actually adopt a cat, despite everyone knowing how
allergic you are? Is it’s hair short? Shorter than Charles’?
5 The project your working on—what’s its title? And whom, may I
ask, is your assistant? If you and your assistant’s efforts pay off,
will you take all the credit for yourself?
6 Finally, what are Charles’ feelings about hummus? The chapter
leaves my fellow readers and I in the dark.
7 I will very much appreciate you answering my questions.

20
Ms. Led

P.S. I think your running for office is a good idea. You won’t have
to wonder whom to vote for.

21
 ANSWERS TO CASE QUIZ

Paragraph 1 is correct, except for between you and I in the

second sentence. That should read between you and me
because it’s a phrase, and phrases don’t contain subjects (the
pronoun I is a subject; the pronoun me is an object).

Paragraph 2 is correct.

Paragraph 3 contains four errors. In the second sentence, who

should be whom because this clause already has a subject
(you). In the third sentence, your should be you’re because the
writer means “you are” him should be he because the writer
means “shorter than he is.” In the fourth sentence, him should
be he because the writer means “taller than he is.”

Paragraph 4 contains two errors. In the first sentence, everyone

knowing should be everyone’s knowing because the writer is
speaking about everyone’s action (knowing is a gerund
requiring a possessive word before it). In the second sentence,
it’s should be its because the writer needs the possessive form
of it, not the contraction for it is.

Paragraph 5 contains two errors for sure, and possibly three. In

the first sentence, your should be you’re because the writer
means “you are.” In the second sentence, whom should be who
because the upcoming verb (is) needs a subject. The third
sentence can be considered correct if the meaning is “the efforts

22
belong jointly to you and your assistant.” But if the writer means
“you and your assistant own separate efforts,” then you should
be your.

Paragraph 6 contains one error. In the second sentence, I

should be me. After the verb leaves, you need an object, not a
subject (the subject of leaves is chapter). If you delete my
fellow readers for a moment, you’ll hear the mistake: the
chapter leaves…I in the dark.

Paragraph 7 contains one error. Instead of you answering, it

should read your answering because answering is a gerund
requiring a possessive word to the left. The writer is talking
about appreciating the reader’s action.

The P.S. contains no error.

23
 Chapter 2: Agreement

Agreement is a concept that applies, first of all, to subjects and

verbs: a singular subject must be followed by a singular verb form; a
plural subject must be followed by a plural verb form. The only time
you have to think about singular and plural verb forms is when you’re
using present tense; verbs in other tenses do not change form,
regardless of their subjects.

Agreement also pertains to nouns and pronouns: a singular pronoun

must refer to a singular noun; a plural pronoun must refer to a plural
noun.

That all sounds pretty reasonable, doesn’t it? Singular goes with
singular; plural goes with plural. Yet it’s not always easy to diagnose
the situation.
Subject-Verb Agreement

Subjects vs. other nouns

When a subject and verb are not far away from one another, it’s easy
to choose the right verb form. For example,
Cash purchases are valid.

24
 Cash purchases made in June are valid.

Cash purchases made in June or July of this year are valid.

The verb in each of those sentences (are) is plural because the

subject in each of those sentences (purchases) is plural. Even
though the verb drifts farther away from the subject in each sample
sentence, the subject remains memorable and the correct verb form
is therefore easy to select. Now, consider another sentence:
Only purchases made by an end-user customer or commercial
business from an authorized HP reseller in the United States
and U.S. territories are valid.

By the time you reach the twenty-third word of that sentence, you
can easily forget what the subject is. You’ve met so many nouns—
purchases, customer, business, reseller, United States,
territories—that it’s hard to know what to choose for a verb. Do you
end with is valid (singular) or are valid (plural)? The answer
depends on which of those nouns is the subject. You can find the
subject by asking “Who or what is valid?” The answer, purchases,
tells you that are valid (plural verb form) is correct.
Vague subjects

Another type of subject that can be difficult to diagnose is a vague

word—like any, either, neither, or none—followed by a
prepositional phrase. Here are some examples:
Any of these products falls within your budget.

Either of these products meets your software needs.

Neither of these products is going to solve your marital

difficulties.

25
 None of these products comes with a warranty.

As you may already understand from the singular verb forms in

those sentences, the vague words that begin the sentences are
singular. And they are subjects. What about the word products?
Why isn’t products a subject? Because it follows a preposition (of ),
and no word that follows a preposition is a subject.

It may be easier to remember that any, either, and neither are

singular if you realize that they stand for any one, either one, and
neither one. Here are the first three sample sentences again, with
the word one included:
Any one of these products falls within your budget.

Either one of these products meets your software needs.

Neither one of these products is going to solve your marital

difficulties.

How about the word none? You can remember that it’s singular by
considering it a contraction for not one. In other words,
None (not one) of these products comes with a warranty.

Speaking of one, what’s the difference between anyone and any

one? Or between everyone and every one? First, they are all
grammatically singular, regardless of meaning. But there is a
difference in meaning between the one- and two-word versions:
when you type anyone or everyone, you’re referring to people;
when you type any one or every one, you may be referring to
people, but not necessarily—it depends on what follows or what is

26
understood. For example, perhaps you mean “any one of the
customers” or “every one of the customers” (in which case you are
referring to people); or maybe you mean “any one of the petunias” or
“every one of the petunias” (in which case you are not referring to
people). In sum, any one and every one mean one of a group (of
people or things), rather than one person (anyone) or a bunch of
people (everyone).
Unusual noun forms

Some nouns in our language are spelled in an unfamiliar way

(because they are Latin) and therefore lead to agreement errors.
Criteria, media, and data, for instance, are plural. Therefore, when
they serve as subjects, any present-tense verb that follows must also
be plural. The following sentences are correct:
The criteria are not impossible to meet.

The media swarm over a scandal.

The data seem easy to interpret.

If you want the singular form of criteria, use criterion. If you want
the singular form of media, use medium. If you want the singular
form of data, find another way to say it (the singular of data is
datum, but it’s rarely used).
Mass nouns

Also related to agreement are the nouns in our language that do not
have a plural form, even though they may refer to a group of
elements. These are nouns like advice, equipment, furniture, and
jewelry. They are called mass nouns, and they never end in the
letter s. They are grammatically singular, which means that when
they serve as subjects, the upcoming verb must be singular. A list of
common mass nouns appears at the end of this chapter.

27
Two nouns in subject position

When do two singular nouns become a plural subject? Only when

they are joined by and. Here is an example:
Che and Fidel are about to start a revolution.

There are several words that sound equivalent to and but they do
not have the power to join two singular nouns into a double subject.
These include as well as, along with, together with, and plus.
When two singular nouns are connected by any of these words, the
result is a singular subject.

Consider the following sentences:

Che, as well as Fidel, believes in equal opportunity for all.

Che, along with Fidel, has captured the hearts of his

countrymen.

Che, together with Fidel, gratefully acknowledges his loyal

following.

Che, plus Fidel, never shows up without a cigar.

What happens when two singular nouns are joined by or? The result
is a singular subject because now you’re talking about one noun or
the other noun, not both:
Che or Fidel is the one to ask about socialism.

The same is true of two subjects joined by either…or or neither…

nor:

28
 Either Che or Fidel is supposed to sign autographs at the rally.

Neither Che nor Fidel has a pen.

If a singular and a plural noun, joined by and, appear at the

beginning of a sentence, place the singular noun first and make the
verb plural. For example,
Fidel and his cigars have become famous throughout the world.

Noun-Pronoun Agreement

It’s common sense that you need a singular pronoun to refer to a

singular noun and you need a plural pronoun to refer to a plural
noun. Everyone knows that. But not everyone remembers the noun
when it comes time to choose a pronoun. Or a person may
remember the noun but doesn’t want to burden his/her sentence with
a double pronoun (like his/her). Or the noun in question looks
singular but represents many. So errors in noun-pronoun agreement
crop up.
Clear nouns hazy memories

Sometimes a faulty pronoun reference occurs simply because

someone doesn’t remember the noun she wrote or remembers it
inaccurately (she assumes it’s plural when, in fact, it’s singular, or
vice versa). The resulting error looks pretty bad:
Fidel signed the papers and then buried it under a mango tree.

The solution is to match the pronoun to the noun:

Fidel signed the papers and then buried them under a mango
tree.

Singular generic words avoidance of double pronouns

29
A faulty pronoun reference can also occur when someone doesn’t
want to use a double pronoun reference (he/she, him/her, his/her)
even though the generic word it refers to is singular:
Anyone can find those papers if they have a bloodhound and a
shovel.

There are three ways to fix this error.

You can use he/she, if you need it only once (it becomes
awkward when repeated):

Anyone can find those papers if he/she has a bloodhound and a

shovel.

You can use he or she by itself, as long as you use the

alternative pronoun somewhere else in your document:

Anyone can find those papers if he has a bloodhound and a

shovel.

You can change the singular generic word to a plural word and
then keep your plural pronoun:

30
 People can find those papers if they have a bloodhound and a
shovel.

Singular nouns representing groups distracted focus

A faulty pronoun reference can result from focusing on the meaning

of a noun rather than on its singular form. Many nouns (committee,
jury, company, firm, team, university) are singular while representing
many components. Rather than recognizing and dealing with this
discrepancy, people often leave the noun in singular form and follow
it with a plural pronoun:
The new government wanted to see the papers Fidel had
signed, but they never thought to dig under a mango tree to find
them.

There are two ways to fix this inconsistency.

If you need to keep the plural pronoun they because the

singular pronoun it sounds illogical (it never thought to dig
under a mango tree, for example), then find a way to make the
noun plural:

The new government officials wanted to see the papers Fidel

had signed, but they never thought to dig under a mango tree to
find them.

If a singular pronoun sounds fine because the noun is acting as

one unified entity, then leave the noun singular and change the
pronoun to it:

31
 The new government wanted to see the papers Fidel had
signed, but it didn’t pursue the matter.

Achieving agreement, whether between subjects and verbs or nouns

and pronouns, is a matter of remembering what’s already on the
page while continuing to write. People tend to focus exclusively on
the word they’re about to type, rather than bearing in mind the words
they already typed.

Forgetting what happened earlier in a sentence can result not only in

agreement errors but also in illogical statements. Take a look at the
following sentence.
People riding bicycles, instead of driving cars, is good for their
health as well as their environment.

When reduced to its basic components (subject, verb, and key words
that complete the meaning), that sentence says, “People…is good
for health and environment.” What the author meant to convey, of
course, is that riding bicycles is good for health and environment. If
the writer had kept in mind what she wrote at the beginning of the
sentence (People), she wouldn’t have continued with is; she would
have chosen are. And, with People are clearly in mind, she wouldn’t
have completed her sentence with good for their health as well as
their environment; she would have apprehended the nonsense
before it hit the page.

In a case like this—when the balance of a sentence contains the

right message, but it makes no sense with the subject—the best
remedy is to change the subject:

32
 Riding bicycles, instead of driving cars, is good for people’s
health as well as their environment.

To ensure both agreement and logic in all of your sentences, think of

your words as musical notes. They may be clear and beautiful on
their own, but are they in harmony with the others? Keep your ears
open.

Common Mass Nouns

(no s on the end)
admiration

advice

aggravation

anger

anticipation

appreciation

assistance

awareness

baggage

bravery

cash

compliance

33
comprehension

concentration

confusion

consciousness

consideration

correspondence

darkness

devotion

diligence

empathy

energy

entertainment

enthusiasm

envy

equality

equipment

evidence

feedback

34
fitness

flattery

furniture

garbage

gossip

grammar

gratitude

hardware

hate

health

heat

help

hesitation

homework

honesty

honor

hospitality

hostility

35
humanity

humility

illiteracy

imagination

immorality

implementation

independence

information

integrity

intimidation

jargon

jealousy

jewelry

justice

knowledge

literacy

litigation

logi

36
cluck

luggage

mail

management

manipulation

merchandise

morale

nonsense

offspring

oppression

optimism

participation

pay

perseverance

pessimism

police

pride

privacy

37
proof

propaganda

prudence

public

punctuation

rage

recovery

reliance

respect

revenge

reverence

shame

sheep

slang

software

stamina

starvation

stimulation

38
stuff

support

training

trash

understanding

valor

vehemence

violence

warmth

waste

weather

39
 QUIZ ON AGREEMENT

Below is a letter to Che from Fidel. Your job is to edit the letter for
agreement. That is, look at all the present-tense verbs to see
whether they agree with their subjects, and inspect all pronouns to
see whether they agree with the nouns they’re referring to. If the
sentence is correct, leave it alone; if it’s not, fix it.
Dear Che:

1 I want you to know how excited and optimistic I am about the

revolution we are planning. For a long time I have wanted to
change things in this country so that all the people—regardless of
race, creed, or smoking habit—has equal access to health care,
education, and cigars. (I have also longed for a sizeable audience
to listen to my speeches. My family hear my ideas, but there’s only
eight of them and they walk away after five minutes. I want a large
group that stay transfixed for hours.)
2 Now, we need to think about practical matters. For example, who
will run the military, once we take over? My brothers are
interested, but none of them have a neat appearance. We need
someone who at least shines their shoes.
3 And what about the economy? If we shut down the casinos, where
will the money come from? Producing enough sugar and tobacco
to satisfy our people and to export abroad are extremely
important.
4 Public opinion is important, too. We want to create a good image
to ensure that the media presents us in a positive light. If another
country thinks we have a worthy cause, they may consider lending

40
 a helping hand. Speaking of hands, we’ll need to shake many in
the near future, which pose a health risk. Maybe we should stick
to passing out cigars.
5 So much to think about, eh? Let me know your feedbacks soon.

Fidel

41
 ANSWERS TO AGREEMENT QUIZ

Paragraph l contains four errors. In the second sentence, the

verb has should be have, to agree with its plural subject all the
people. In the fourth sentence, the subject family should be
reworded as plural (family members, for instance) so that the
upcoming plural verb (hear) agrees; also in this sentence,
there’s should be there are, to agree with eight. In the fifth
sentence, stay should be stays, to agree with its singular
subject group.

Paragraph 2 contains two errors. In the third sentence, the verb

have should be has, to agree with the singular subject none. In
the fourth sentence, the pronoun their should be his, to agree
with the singular word someone.

Paragraph 3 contains one error. In the third sentence, the verb

are should be is, to agree with its singular subject Producing.

Paragraph 4 contains three errors. In the second sentence, the

verb presents should be present, to agree with its plural
subject media. In the third sentence, the pronoun they should
be it, to agree with the singular noun country. In the fourth
sentence, the verb pose should be poses because its subject,
which, refers to the action of shaking hands (that action poses a
health risk).

42
Paragraph 5 contains one error. There should be no s on
feedback. That noun is always singular.

43
 Chapter 3: Verb Tense and Usage

Tense refers to the different forms that verbs assume, to indicate the
time zone of an action. Although there are many tenses in English
(past, present, future, past perfect, present perfect, future perfect,
and the continuous form of each of those six), only a few contexts
typically cause problems.
Present

It’s easy to choose present tense when the action is physically

happening at the moment (Natasha is waltzing down the hallway) or
when it occurs often (Natasha waltzes down the hallway every
morning). It’s not so easy to choose present tense when you’re
discussing a text you finished reading, a film you saw, or a
conversation you had. Take a look at the following sentences:
The article indicated that Natasha has been dancing since she
was born.

Natasha showed me a videotape that proved the article right.

Natasha said that she still loved to dance.

In the first sentence, indicated should be indicates. Whenever the

subject is any kind of text—article, book, chapter, memo, letter,
report, e-mail, passage, paragraph, sentence, phrase—the verb
should be present tense, since the text still exists. Even though you

44
read it in the past, it is still conveying the information you’re referring
to.

In the second sentence, proved should be proves. Even though

Natasha showed me a videotape in the past, that tape is still proving
the article right.

In the third sentence, loved should be loves. What Natasha said, in

the past, is that she still loves to dance, in the present. You need to
separate the time zone in which the person spoke from the time
zone that the person spoke about. The two are not always the same.

Here are the previous sample sentences in correct form:

The article indicates that Natasha has been dancing since she
was born.

Natasha showed me a videotape that proves the article right.

Natasha said that she still loves to dance.

Present Perfect

This tense involves have or has as a helping verb, plus a past

participle (asked, danced). It represents action that began in the
past, continued over time, and extends to the present moment. For
example,
I have often asked Natasha how old she is.

45
 She has danced around the question more than once.

Have asked and has danced are correct because those verbs
represent past action that happened intermittently between a past
moment and the present moment.

The problem with present perfect is not that people don’t use it when
they should; it’s that people use it when they shouldn’t. Specifically,
they use it when they should be using simple past tense, to refer to a
completed past action that happened once. Here are some
examples of the typical mistake:
I have received Natasha’s most recent letter, in which she has
described the proper way to do the two-step. I have decided to
read it when I have more energy.

Three verbs in that paragraph (have received, has described, and

have decided) should be simple past tense (received, described,
and decided) because they refer to completed past actions that
happened once.
Past Perfect

This tense involves had as a helping verb, followed by a past

participle (asked, danced). It represents a past action that happened
earlier than a nearby past action. In other words, when you are
writing about something that occurred in the simple past, and you
also refer to something that occurred before that point, you need
past-perfect tense. The following sentences are correct:
Natasha said that she had applied for a dance scholarship to
kindergarten.

She did not receive a scholarship because she had not revealed
her true age on the application.

46
 She had claimed that she was five when, in fact, she was
thirteen.

Her parents had kept her out of school until she could manage
to sit still.

Do all those tenses make sense to you? In the first sentence, had
applied is correct because that action happened before said. In the
second sentence, had not revealed is correct because that action
happened before did not receive. In the third sentence, had
claimed is correct because that action took place at the same time
as had not revealed (in the previous sentence). And in the fourth
sentence, had kept is correct because that action happened before
could manage.

The problem with past perfect is that people don’t use it when they
should. Instead, they express chronological past actions in the same
tense, as if they had all happened at the same time. Here are the
four sample sentences again, with all verbs in simple past tense:
Natasha said that she applied for a dance scholarship to
kindergarten.

She did not receive a scholarship because she did not reveal
her true age on the application.

She claimed that she was five when, in fact, she was thirteen.

Her parents kept her out of school until she could manage to sit
still.

47
If those sentences sound fine to you, that’s because you are used to
hearing the error. “If the mistake sounds right,” you may ask, “why do
I need to avoid it?” Because there are times when the error can lead
to misunderstanding. For example,
Natasha said that she felt cheated.

That sentence means that Natasha felt cheated at the same moment
that she said it. If she means that she felt cheated when she was in
kindergarten, then the second verb should be past perfect:
Natasha said that she had felt cheated.

Confusing Verbs

In this category are some irregular verbs, some regular verbs with
irregular requirements, and some verbs that people just don’t spell
right.
Troublesome irregular verbs

A verb is called regular when it takes ed on the end to become past

tense or a past participle. For example,
Yesterday Natasha beamed as she was cheered by the crowd.

She was thrilled because she had finally graduated from

elementary school.

A verb is called irregular when it takes an ending other than ed to

become past tense or a past participle. People handle most irregular
verbs correctly without batting an eyelid. For example, they
automatically turn think into thought and sink into sank. But when
it comes to lie and lay, people rarely get it right.

48
Lie, as in to lie down, is conjugated like this:
lie
lay
lain

In other words,
Today Natasha lies on the couch; yesterday she lay on the
couch; and before that she had lain on the couch.

Lay, as in to lay an egg, is conjugated like this:

lay
laid
laid

In other words,
Today Natasha lays her dancing shoes to rest; yesterday she
laid them to rest; and before that she had laid them to rest.

Besides the different ways in which lie and lay are conjugated,
there’s a grammatical difference: lie cannot be followed immediately
by any noun or pronoun; lay must be followed immediately by a
noun or pronoun. We do not lie something down; we lay something
down. We do not lay down (not in present tense, anyway); we lie
down.

How can you remember this? If you’re referring to putting your own
body on a couch or a bed, you need lie, lay, lain. If you’re referring
to putting another entity somewhere, you need lay, laid, laid.

Thoroughly confused? Lay this book aside and lie down for a while.

49
Another verb that people don’t handle very well is drink. Here’s how
it’s conjugated:
drink
drank
drunk

In other words,
Today Natasha drinks tea; yesterday she drank tea; before that
she had drunk tea; and, in fact, she has drunk gallons of tea this
week.

People tend to avoid using drunk where it belongs. They write, for
example, “I have drank a lot of water today.” Perhaps they don’t use
drunk because they associate the word with too much alcohol.
Drunk refers to alcohol when it shows up after am, is, are, was,
were, etc. But after has or have, drunk simply indicates the time
zone in which any drinking action took place.

Maybe because people avoid drunk, they also shy away from
shrunk. They write, for example, “Even before the commercial
announcement, the audience had shrank significantly.” That
audience had not shrank; it had shrunk.
Regular verbs with irregular requirements

After verbs like request, recommend, suggest, or demand, you

must use a noun, gerund, or noun clause (a clause beginning with
that). For example,
Natasha requested a diploma from her elementary school.

50
 I recommend giving her that diploma.

Her mother demands that the diploma be issued with honors.

Mistakes tend to happen after recommend, in particular. The error

typically looks like this:
I recommend you to apply for your diploma.

That sentence is wrong because the author is not recommending a

person; he is recommending an action. So the sentence should look
like this:
I recommend applying for your diploma.

or
I recommend that you apply for your diploma.

Don’t think that recommend someone is always wrong. You can

recommend someone—for something (a job, a role, an honor, an
award); you just can’t recommend someone to do something.
Frequently misspelled verbs

recur When something occurs again, it recurs (not

reoccurs).
lose When something slips away from you, you lose it
(not loose it; loose is the opposite of tight).
ensure When you want to make sure that something
happens, you want to ensure (not insure) that it
takes place.
assure When you want to comfort people, you assure them
that everything will be all right.
insure When you want to ensure that you’ll be reimbursed

51
 for lost property (and assure yourself that you’ll be
able to buy it again), you insure your belongings.
Insure relates to insurance.
affect When you’re writing about how something will
influence the situation, you’re referring to how it will
affect the situation (not effect; effect is a noun
meaning “consequence” or “outcome”).
let’s If you mean to say “let us” (as in let us be honest),
type let’s, not lets. Let’s is a contraction for let us.
Lets is a verb (meaning “allows/permits”) that needs
a subject to the left of it, as in Natasha lets the dog
in when she needs a dancing partner.
accommodate This word contains two c’s and two m’s (not one m).

Here are four more verbs that are often misrepresented:

imply When your words contain an underlying message, you are

implying something.
infer When you detect an underlying message in someone else’s
words, you are inferring something.
lend When you allow someone to borrow something, you lend it
(not loan it; loan is a noun that refers to what you lent).
try to When you attempt to do something, you try to do it (not try
and do it).

Verbs are the very hearts of your sentences, pumping life into an
otherwise inert body of people, places, things, descriptions, and
glue. Because verbs are so critical to the vitality of your writing, you
need to select them with care and monitor them closely.

Monitor them for what?

52
 As you learned from the previous chapter, verbs must agree
with their subjects (in terms of number) and make sense with
the words around them.

As you learned from this chapter, verbs must reflect the

appropriate time zone, standard usage, and dictionary spelling.

Is that all? Almost. The next chapter explains the last issue you need
to understand to form all of your verbs correctly.

53
 QUIZ ON TENSE AND USAGE

Below is a letter to Natasha from her elementary school. Your job is

to edit the letter for tense only. That is, look at all verbs to see
whether they are correct in terms of time zone and usage. If the
sentence is correct, leave it alone; if it’s not, fix it.
Dear Natasha:

1 We have recently received your request for a diploma from our

elementary school. Given the amount of time that has elapsed, we
wondered why we didn’t hear from you sooner. In response to
your inquiry, we have carefully reviewed your records.
2 Your report cards indicated that while you attended our school,
you performed extremely well in math problems involving numbers
one through four. You had trouble dealing with numbers five
through nine because, as you once told your teacher, no dance
step involved counting beyond four.
3 Your performance in English seemed to be satisfactory. Although
you read superficially, leaping over much of the text, you were on
your toes during exams.
4 P.E. was another story. Lets just say that your behavior was
unusual. For example, during softball practice you pirouetted in
the outfield, made yourself dizzy, and never caught a ball.
Furthermore, you laid down and fanned yourself frequently. When
an inning was over, you bowed to the empty bleachers and waited
around for a bouquet.
5 It’s fortunate that we didn’t loose your records. Documentation
ensures us that you did attend a graduation ceremony. But there

54
 was no evidence of any diploma.
6 We have decided to consult with the district superintendent on this
matter. If she recommends us to issue you a diploma at this late
date, we will gladly do so.

Your old principal

55
 ANSWERS TO TENSE AND USAGE QUIZ

Paragraph l contains three errors. In the first sentence, have

received should be received. Received is a completed past
action that happened once, calling for simple past tense. In the
second sentence, didn’t hear should be hadn’t heard because
this action happened before wondered; or wondered should be
wonder, which will make sense with didn’t hear. (The question
here is whether the school officials wondered in the past or are
wondering now.) In the third sentence, have reviewed should
be reviewed because the reviewing action is complete. (Even
though it happened over time, it doesn’t extend to the present
moment.)

Paragraph 2 contains two errors. In the first sentence, the verb

indicated should be indicate. Present tense is in order because
the subject of this verb is report cards—written documents that
still exist and still indicate something. At the end of the second
sentence, the verb involved should be involves because what
Natasha told her teacher is still true—that no dance step
involves counting beyond four.

Paragraph 3 contains one error. In the first sentence, seemed

should be seems because Natasha’s performance of many
years ago presently seems satisfactory to the author of the
letter. (If the author were talking about how Natasha’s teachers
viewed her performance in the past, then seemed would be
correct.)

56
Paragraph 4 contains three errors. In the first sentence, was
should be is because the story that the author refers to still
exists. (The opening sentences of paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 are
alike in that each tells what the author presently concludes.) In
the second sentence, Lets should be Let’s because the author
means “let us.” In the fourth sentence, laid should be lay
because the author needs the past tense of lie.

Paragraph 5 contains three errors. In the first sentence, loose

should be lose. In the second sentence, ensures should be
assures. In the third sentence, was should be is because the
author is talking about evidence that still doesn’t exist.

Paragraph 6 contains two errors. In the first sentence, have

decided should be decided. Decided is a completed past
action that happened once, not something that happened over
time and extends to the present. In the second sentence, us to
issue should be issuing or that we issue (the verb
recommends must be followed by a noun, gerund, or noun
clause).

57
 Chapter 4: Verb Mood

Like tense, mood refers to verb form. Instead of indicating the time
zone of an action, however, the mood of a verb tells whether the
action is real or not.
Indicative Mood

If you’re writing an action that did occur, is occurring, or will occur,

you’re using indicative mood.

Examples:
Rover entered the room as soon as I turned on the TV.

He is lying on the couch, hoping to watch Animal Cops.

I will ask him to move over so that I can have a seat.

Imperative Mood

If you’re writing an action that commands the reader to do

something, you’re using imperative mood.

Examples:

58
 Move over, Rover.

Please don’t take up the whole couch.

And stop chewing on the remote control.

Subjunctive Mood

If you’re writing an action that isn’t happening or isn’t true, yet the
sentence speculates about it, you’re using subjunctive mood.

Examples:
Rover yawned when I asked him to move over, as if I had been
talking about the weather.

If Rover had any manners, he would make room for me on the

couch.

I wish Rover were more considerate.

Indicative and imperative moods don’t cause problems; people

handle them correctly without thinking. Subjunctive mood, however,
is challenging. Special verb forms are necessary when you’re
speculating about actions that aren’t happening or aren’t true—i.e.,
when you’re making hypothetical points, projecting what could have
been or what would be. There are several contexts that require
subjunctive mood, as well as a few different ways to express it. What
follows is a discussion of some key words that should put you on
subjunctive alert.
As if and as though

59
Whenever you’re using as if or as though, you’re at the beginning of
a clause that may or may not require subjunctive mood. How you
treat the verb in that clause depends on what you want to convey—
that an action is true or possible, or that an action isn’t true or
possible.

If you mean that something is true or possible, you don’t need to use
subjunctive mood—you choose normal verb forms that depict the
time zone you’re talking about.

Examples:
Rover bounded into the room as if he expected a treat.

He chews on the remote control as though he is hungry.

In those sentences, the verbs that follow as if and as though are

what I’m calling normal—they are past tense for a past moment and
present tense for a present moment, to convey that the actions are
possibly true. (In the first example, it is possible that Rover expected
a treat when he bounded into the room; in the second example, it is
possible that he is hungry as he chews on the remote control.)

When, on the other hand, you want to indicate that an action is not
true or possible, you need to apply a special treatment to the verb
that follows as if or as though. Specifically, you need to use past-
tense verb forms that don’t literally depict the time zones you’re
talking about.

60
Examples:
Rover monopolizes the couch as if it were his property.

He acts as though he had purchased it with his hard-won

allowance.

In the first example, the verb following as if is simple past tense, to

convey that a point about the present is not true.

In the second example, the verb following as though is past-perfect

tense, to convey that a point about the past did not happen.

Do you see the pattern? To communicate that an action isn’t true or

happening, you step one rung down the tense ladder: for a point
about the present, use past tense; for a point about the past, use
past-perfect tense.

“Yes,” you may say, “but why does the first example contain were
when the subject is it? Shouldn’t it be ‘as if it was his property?’” No,
it shouldn’t—not when you’re talking about an action that isn’t
presently true or happening. If you need a verb that comes from to
be, choose were, no matter what the subject is.

More examples:
I choose to watch Judge Judy, as if Rover were interested in it.

61
 Rover looks at me as though I were nuts.

In those as if and as though clauses, the subject changes (from

Rover to I), but the verb remains were.

When people need the past tense of other verbs, they have no
problem because they have no choice: every verb, except to be, has
only one form of simple past tense. Only to be has two—was and
were. That’s why people get confused. They know to use past tense;
they don’t know to use were.

Here are the previous sample sentences again, this time containing
the prevalent was mistake:
I choose to watch Judge Judy, as if Rover was interested in it.

Rover looks at me as though I was nuts.

If I mean to convey that Rover is not interested in Judge Judy and

that I am not nuts, then I need to use were to show that what I am
speculating about isn’t true.
If

When you’re using if to speculate about a situation that is possible,

you automatically use normal verb tenses throughout the sentence
(past, present, or future, depending on the time zone you’re
discussing).

Examples:

62
 If Rover already watched Animal Cops earlier in the day, he may
let me see a bit of Judge Judy now.

If Rover insists on watching Animal Cops now, I will have to give

in.

If I don’t give in, I will be in the dog house.

When you’re using if to speculate about a situation that is not

possible, you need to use subjunctive mood throughout the sentence
—in the clause that starts with if and in the other clause as well. (In
this regard, sentences involving if are different from those involving
as if or as though: in sentences containing if, both clauses are
speculating about something; in sentences containing as if or as
though, only one clause is speculating.)

Here are some examples of present subjunctive mood inside

sentences involving if:
If Rover really cared about me, he would let me watch Judge
Judy.

I would ignore Rover’s program preference, if he weren’t so big.

If I got into a fight with Rover, he would surely win.

Note that all the verbs in those sentences are past tense, to convey
a present situation that isn’t true or happening.

Here are some examples of past subjunctive mood inside sentences

involving if:

63
 If I had known about Rover’s penchant for Animal Cops, I would
never have bought a TV.

I would not have bought the TV anyway if it hadn’t been on sale.

If Rover had had his way, I would have purchased two TVs.

Note that the verbs inside those sentences are in more complicated
forms of past tense, to convey a past situation that wasn’t true or
happening. The verbs inside the if clauses all contain had plus a
past participle.1 The verbs inside the independent clauses start with
would have and end in a past participle. That’s how we
communicate that a past action we’re speculating about did not take
place.

In sentences like these, would always means that what you’re

talking about is not true, not happening, or not likely.2 You need to
watch your use of would so that it doesn’t sneak into sentences that
otherwise convey possibility. Look at the following mixed messages:
If I get rid of the TV, I would have to get rid of Rover.

I would be miserable if I have no one to argue with.

Those sentences represent a common error: implying possibility in

one clause and impossibility in the other. You can’t do that. You need
to decide what you want to communicate—that something is
possible or not—and then make your verbs consistent throughout
the sentence. Here are some ways to revise the previous sample
sentences:
If I get rid of the TV, I will have to get rid of Rover. (possible—
may happen)

64
 If I got rid of the TV, I would have to get rid of Rover. (impossible
—not going to happen)

I will be miserable if I have no one to argue with. (possible—may

happen)

I would be miserable if I had no one to argue with. (impossible—

not going to happen)

Wish

Whenever you use wish (as a verb, not a noun), you need
subjunctive mood in the clause(s) that follow.3 The verb wish, by
definition, introduces actions that are not presently true and not likely
to happen.

Examples:
I wish that Rover were a Pomeranian so that there would be
room for me on the couch.

I wish that Animal Cops were aired only in Switzerland.

Rover wishes that I were better trained.

Again, the verb were follows Rover, Animal Cops, and I because
those clauses express present impossibilities (that Rover is a
Pomeranian, that Animal Cops is aired only in Switzerland, and that I
am better trained). Note that would be occurs in the last clause of

65
the first example, to indicate another present impossibility—that
there is room for me on the couch.

The common error in this type of sentence is our old pal was:
I wish that Rover was a Pomeranian…

I wish that Animal Cops was aired…

Rover wishes that I was…

Never use was after wish. It is always wrong.

If the opening clause does not contain wish—i.e., if the sentence

depicts a past action that may have occurred—then, was is correct,
of course.

Examples:
Rover hoped that I was too tired to watch TV.

He looked as if he was sure I’d give up on Judge Judy.

If he was nervous, he wasn’t showing it.

Feeling overwhelmed by the was/were challenge? Here’s a

reminder to lighten your mood: no other verb in our language has
two forms of simple past tense. What if you had to think twice about
every verb that follows as if, as though, if, and wish? Would you

66
move to Switzerland (where they have three languages and no
Animal Cops)?

67
 QUIZ ON MOOD

Below is a letter from Rover to his owner. Your job is to edit the letter
for mood. That is, look at all the verbs to see what they imply: that
the action is true/possible or untrue/impossible. If the verb form
conveys the right message, leave it alone; if it doesn’t, fix it.
Dear Owner:

1 When I selected you as an adoptive guardian, I had no idea what I

was getting myself into. You looked clean, you smelled good, you
didn’t bark or growl. You acted as if you’ve been around the block
a few times.
2 After living with you for three months, I can see that you need a
few pointers. For example, do you think it’s polite to stand around
glaring at me while I watch TV? Why don’t you sit on the floor, like
a good girl, and just look at the images? Even if you don’t
understand the story, you can act as though you did.
3 Also, being a dog’s best friend doesn’t mean that you have to sit
right next to me on the couch. What do you think they make rugs
for? Obviously, we don’t need them for walking. And, if there were
a tree or fire hydrant around, we don’t need them when nature
calls, either. So they must be for sitting.
4 Let me clarify something: rugs are for sitting if the sitter has a little
meat on her bones. Someone like you, for example, with built-in
padding, wouldn’t need more than a thin rug under her. Someone
in leaner shape—like me, for instance—would need a cushion or
two. If you insist on sharing the couch, you’d need to buy a bigger
one.

68
5 Finally, I wish I was free to enjoy my favorite program without all
that grumbling you do. If you want to watch a different show, you
could always get another TV.
6 I think our next walk should be to an electronics store. You can sit
outside and wait patiently for me while I shop.

Rover

69
 ANSWERS TO MOOD QUIZ

Paragraph l contains one error. In the third sentence, ’ve (short

for have) should be ’d (short for had), since Rover is talking
about a past action that didn’t happen—that is, his owner had
not been around the block a few times.

Paragraph 2 contains no error. The final verb in the fourth

sentence (did) is the one in question, since it occurs after as
though. Did is correct because the sentence already set the
condition even if you don’t understand…, so the final clause
refers to something that isn’t true (as though you did).

Paragraph 3 contains one error. In the fourth sentence, were

should be is because Rover means to convey the possibility that
a tree or fire hydrant is around. (The verb in the next clause,
don’t need, correctly conveys possibility.)

Paragraph 4 contains three errors. In the second sentence,

wouldn’t need should be doesn’t need because Rover is
stating what he believes to be true. For the same reason, in the
third sentence, would need should be needs. In the last
sentence, the verb in the second clause, ’d need, should be ’ll
need. ’D need is short for would need, which is subjunctive;
the verb in the previous clause, insist, is indicative. Indicative is
the correct mood for both clauses because Rover means to
convey possibility—i.e., that if his owner insists…, she will need
to buy….

70
Paragraph 5 contains two errors. In the first sentence, was
should be were because it follows the verb wish. In the second
sentence, could should be can because Rover is talking about
a possibility. (The verb in the previous clause, want, conveys
possibility; therefore, the verb in the second clause should do
the same.)

Paragraph 6 contains no error.

71
 Chapter 5: Modifiers

Modifiers are words that describe. They come in various forms

(word, phrase, clause) and they can change the shape of anything
you write, defining and refining it to the degree you want.

Example, no modifier:
David moved.

Example, a few modifiers:

David, my dear brother, moved to Timbuktu, where he has many
friends.

Example, several modifiers:

After doing a lot of serious thinking about his life, my dear
brother, David, who had lived comfortably in San Francisco for
many years, recently moved to Timbuktu, a well-known word but
a little-known town.

The first example doesn’t tell you much because it contains only
subject and verb.

The second example tells you something about David (he is a

brother), about brother (this brother is dear and he belongs to me),

72
about moved (where he moved), and about Timbuktu (he has many
friends there).

The third example tells you more about David (he did some thinking,
he is my brother, and he had lived in San Francisco); about the kind
of thinking he did (it was a lot, it was serious, and it was about his
life); about brother (he is dear and he is mine); about how, when,
and where he had lived (comfortably, for many years, and in San
Francisco); about when and where he moved (recently and to
Timbuktu); about Timbuktu (it is a word and a town); about word (it
is well known); and about town (it is little known).

Some of the modifiers in the third example are simple adjectives

(words describing nouns) and adverbs (words describing verbs) that
are easy to recognize and easy to handle. No one would have any
difficulty, for example, with serious thinking, my dear brother,
lived comfortably, or recently moved. The adjectives are one word
each and they appear directly before the nouns they describe; the
adverbs end in ly (as well-behaved adverbs do) and they appear
before or after the actions they describe, sounding fine in either spot.

Other modifiers in the third example are not as easy to recognize

and handle. When a modifier shows up as a compound unit, as a
phrase, or as a clause, it raises issues about punctuation and
placement. This chapter discusses those issues, as well as some
common errors related to modifier forms.
Compound Adjectives

A compound adjective is two or more words acting as one unit to

describe someone or something. The unit is hyphenated when it

73
appears to the left of the noun it describes.

Examples:
well-prepared attorney

flea-ridden blanket

three-year-old child

odd-numbered rooms

paid-for vacation

on-the-spot decision

up-to-date report

first-come-first-served basis

left- and right-handed players

first- and second-grade teachers

Those modifiers are hyphenated because none of the descriptive

words is acting on its own; it requires the other word(s) to create the
intended meaning. Specifically, the first example is not referring to a
“well attorney” or simply a “prepared attorney” the second example is
not referring to a “flea blanket” or a “ridden blanket” the third

74
example is not referring to a “three child,” a “year child,” or an “old
child” and so forth.

The last two examples contain hyphens after left and first because
those two words will eventually hook up with handed and grade.
The spaces after left- and first- tell the reader that it will take a
moment before the second half of the modifier appears. If we didn’t
have this technique, we’d have to repeat handed and grade:
left-handed and right-handed players

first-grade and second-grade teachers

The repetition isn’t wrong, but it’s clunky. Why repeat when you don’t
have to?

Now you know to hyphenate when descriptive words to the left of a

noun depend on each other for meaning. What if the same
descriptive words appear to the right of a noun? In that case, don’t
hyphenate.

Examples:
The attorney is well prepared.

The child is three years old.

The vacation is paid for.

The decision was made on the spot.

75
 The report is up to date.

The basis is first come, first served.

Once you understand this concept, the only word that can trip you up
is an adverb ending in ly. If the first word in a string of modifiers is
one of those ly tricksters, do not hyphenate.

Examples:
highly regarded staff

quickly written document

hastily planned vacation

minimally achieved success

lightly tossed salad

rarely used word

barely audible voice

slowly cooked rice

significantly higher rates

76
 Adjective Phrases

A phrase (a group of words with no subject and verb) serves as an

adjective when it describes somebody or something. There are two
kinds of phrases that provide this service: prepositional and verbal.
Most prepositional phrases don’t create a problem; the only ones
that pose a challenge are those beginning with as. Verbal phrases,
however, are widely mishandled because people don’t know what
they are.
Phrases beginning with as

When a phrase begins with the preposition as (meaning “in the

capacity of”), that phrase is describing someone or something—i.e.,
it is doing the job of an adjective. Therefore, it must be placed next to
whatever it’s describing.

Examples:
As a world traveler, David will easily adapt to a new
environment.

His Timbuktu friends fear that David, as a newcomer to their

city, won’t understand their customs.

In both examples, the as phrase is placed next to David, the person

it describes. It doesn’t matter whether David appears before or after
the phrase, as long as he’s next to it. The common error occurs
when people do not realize that an as phrase is an adjective and
they place it next to the wrong noun or pronoun.

Examples:

77
 As a world traveler, I think that David will easily adapt to a new
environment.
(means that I am the world traveler)

As a newcomer to their city, David’s friends fear that he won’t

understand their customs.
(means that David’s friends are the newcomer)

While a reader will probably understand the second example (logic

tells us that David’s friends are not the newcomer to their own city), it
doesn’t feel right—something seems wrong as soon as we read
David’s friends.

The first example is troublesome because it makes a connection that

could be true—that I am a world traveler. How can a reader know
what the writer is thinking?

The point is this: whenever you write a phrase beginning with as,
you have an adjective on the page. Be careful to place it next to the
person or thing you want it to describe.
Phrases containing verbals

First of all, what is a verbal? It’s a word that comes from a verb but
isn’t doing the job of a verb. You met one of them earlier in this book
(the gerund, an action word ending in ing that does the job of a
noun). Now it’s time to meet the rest of the verbal family:

Present participles—action words ending in ing. Examples:

planning, anticipating, getting, arriving

78
 Past participles—action words ending in ed (if they’re regular)
or in various other ways (if they’re irregular). Examples: bored,
excited, known, understood

Infinitives—action words preceded by to. Examples: to

prepare, to adapt, to welcome, to accommodate

On their own (when they’re not preceded by am, is, was, were, etc.)
participles serve as adjectives. And when placed next to somebody
or something, infinitives also serve as adjectives. Take a look at the
following sentences.
The planning document is in the drawer.
(planning describes document)

Planning a trip to Timbuktu, David is understandably nervous.

(Planning describes David)

His bored demeanor camouflages his true feelings.

(bored describes demeanor)

Bored with life in San Francisco, David looks forward to

Timbuktu.

(Bored describes David)

To prepare for his trip, David bought many new suitcases.

(To prepare describes David)

To prepare for his arrival in Timbuktu, David’s friends cooked up

a feast.

79
 (To prepare describes David’s friends)

In the first and third examples, the verbals planning and bored are
serving as simple adjectives to describe document and demeanor.
This should be easy for you to see. But in all the rest of the
examples, the verbals are not so easy to see as adjectives because
they are part of introductory phrases. The purpose of those phrases
is to describe someone or something. That makes each phrase an
adjective. And adjectives must be placed next to whatever they are
describing.

This is where the common error comes in: people write sentences
that open with verbal phrases, but they don’t follow them with
appropriate subjects. Look what can happen when you don’t know
you’re dealing with an adjective:
Anticipating a new adventure, all the suitcases were fully
packed.

Excited about beginning a new life, David’s friends tried their

best to be helpful.

To accommodate his initial needs, some sacrifices were

required.

All of those sentences open with adjective phrases, yet none of them
contains an appropriate subject:

The first sentence says that all the suitcases are anticipating a
new adventure. Now, this could be true in a children’s story that
attributes human characteristics to things. But we’re talking
about a dear brother who’s moving to Timbuktu, remember?

80
 The second sentence says that David’s friends are excited
about beginning a new life. This could also be true, since their
lives will change once David arrives in their city. But that’s
probably not what the writer meant to convey.

The third sentence says that some sacrifices tried to

accommodate David’s initial needs, which is quite a stretch.
Either David tried to accommodate his own needs by making
sacrifices, or his friends tried to accommodate his needs by
making sacrifices. Who knows? The meaning of the sentence is
up for grabs.

You can avoid all this trouble by

remembering what participles and infinitives look like

remembering that they are doing the job of adjectives

placing them next to whatever you want them to describe.

Adjective Clauses

A clause (a group of words containing a subject and verb) can also

serve as an adjective. Anytime you mention somebody or something,
no matter where it occurs in your sentence, you can always add
some description to it by creating an adjective clause. Adjective
clauses begin with the words who, whom, whose, which, that,
where, and when.

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Examples:
David, who recently moved to Timbuktu, is now looking for a job
there.
(who clause describes David)

He has recommendations from his friends, whom he is staying

with until he gets a job.
(whom clause describes friends)

His friends, whose apartments are small, are praying that David
finds employment soon.
(whose clause describes friends)

David is seeking a position whose responsibilities are few.

(whose clause describes a position)

The job he interviewed for yesterday, which doesn’t pay very

much, is located outside Timbuktu.
(which clause describes the job he interviewed for
yesterday)

David prefers a job that he can walk to.

(that clause describes a job)

He’d like to work in a restaurant, where he can have a free meal

now and then.
(where clause describes a restaurant)

Ideally, his shift will end at 7:00 p.m., when he is ready for
dinner.
(when clause describes 7:00 p.m.)

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At first reading, you shouldn’t notice anything unusual about those
examples. Upon closer inspection, you may have a few questions:

How can whose describe a position? Doesn’t whose always

refer to people?
Whose refers to people and things. It’s the only possessive
word in the bunch.

Why are some adjective clauses set off by commas and

others are not?
It all depends on the word being described—i.e., the noun or
pronoun to the left of the adjective clause. How specific is that
word? If it is already specific (for example, David or his
friends), then there’s a comma after it, to indicate that the
upcoming adjective clause gives extra information. If the noun is
not specific (for example, a position or a job), there’s no
comma after it because the upcoming adjective clause is now
necessary, to make that noun specific. This guideline for using
commas applies to all adjective clauses, except those beginning
with which or that.

What’s the story with which and that?

Which and that are designated drivers, so to speak. Which
must drive a clause that gives extra information (because the
noun before it is already specific). That must drive a clause that
gives essential information (because the noun before it is
general). So which clauses are set off by commas, while that
clauses are not.

Examples:

83
 David’s job search, which continued for eight months, wore him
out.

A job search that lasts for eight months can wear anybody out.

There’s one more point to make about a that clause: don’t use it to
describe people. Use a who or whom clause instead.

Typical error:
The man that finally hired David is pleased to have a trustworthy
new employee.

David is the kind of worker that employers can depend on.

Corrections:
The man who finally hired David is pleased to have a
trustworthy new employee.

David is the kind of worker whom employers can depend on.

Modifier Forms

There are several modifiers that people tend to form incorrectly—

they make them plural when they should be singular; they use
adverb form when they need adjective form; they type them as one
word when they should be two; and they confuse them with words
that have similar spellings but different meanings. Following are
some prevalent examples.

in regards to The s is wrong. The expression is in regard to. (If

you want be more concise, you can use

84
 regarding.)
more Drop the ly. What you’re trying to say is that your
importantly upcoming point is more important than your
preceding point.
I feel badly Badly is incorrect. What you feel is bad. You
wouldn’t say, “I feel goodly,” would you?
good vs. well Good is always an adjective (as in good car). Well
is usually an adverb, describing an action (as in
the car runs well). The only time that either word
fits in the same slot is after a verb coming from to
be or to feel: I am good, I am well; I feel good, I
feel well. (The difference is in meaning—well
refers to health.) In all other situations, use good
to describe people, places, and things; use well to
describe actions.
a vs. an Use a or an, depending on the sound of the
upcoming word. If the word sounds as if it begins
with a consonant (young, university), use a before
it. If it sounds as if it begins with a vowel (egg,
MBA), use an.
less vs. fewer Less is correct before a mass noun (less money,
less love). Fewer is correct before a countable
noun (fewer items, fewer expenses).
due to vs. Due to means “caused by” (the accident was due
because of to reckless driving). If caused because of by
doesn’t fit, use (I was late because of heavy
traffic).
complimentary Complimentary means “free/no charge,” as in
vs. complimentary tickets. It complementary also
Complementary means “flattering” or “favorable,” as in
complimentary reviews. Complementary refers to
the second half of a whole—a remaining part that
completes what’s missing, as in complementary
angles.

85
everyday vs. Everyday is an adjective that should appear to
every day the left of a noun—as in everyday activity. People
tend to misuse this one-word form in situations
calling for two words. Every day is an adverb
telling when an action takes place—as in I swim
every day.
alot vs. a lot This expression is always two words. The one-
word version doesn’t exist, except as an error.
sometime Sometime translates into “a day in the future” (I’ll
sometimes see you sometime). Sometimes means “every
sometimes now and then” (I swim sometimes). Sometime
means “a block of time” (I need some time with
you).

Only

This versatile modifier deserves to be discussed separately because

it is unusual and because people don’t understand how important its
placement is.

The unusual thing about only is that it can—and will—modify any

noun, verb, phrase, or clause that comes after it. It changes in a
flash from an adjective to an adverb and back again, altering the
meaning of a sentence every time it moves. Take a look at these
examples:
Only David is visiting Timbuktu in July because the days are
warm then.
(no one else is visiting Timbuktu)

David is only visiting Timbuktu in July because the days are

warm then.
(he’s just visiting—not staying forever)

86
 David is visiting only Timbuktu in July because the days are
warm then.
(Timbuktu is the sole place he’s visiting in July)

David is visiting Timbuktu only in July because the days are

warm then.
(he’s visiting in no month except July)

David is visiting Timbuktu in July only because the days are

warm then.
(he has one reason for visiting)

David is visiting Timbuktu in July because only the days are

warm then.
(the days are warm—not the nights)

David is visiting Timbuktu in July because the days are only

warm then.
(the days are merely warm—not hot)

David is visiting Timbuktu in July because the days are warm

only then.
(there’s no other month when the days are warm)

Isn’t it amazing how the meaning changes every time only hops to
the right? (Now, that’s the kind of modifier I’d like to marry—it has no
problem relocating, it finds a new job immediately, and it loves the
one it’s with.)

87
The problem with only is that people tend to throw it into their
sentences too soon, rather than waiting for the precise word(s) they
want to highlight. They need to understand that only influences
whatever comes next. It sheds light to the right, singling out what
follows, altering its meaning. When only is misplaced, the focus is
fuzzy; when only is in the right spot, the focus is sharp.

What if someone writes, for example,

You should only get married if the right modifier comes along.

Do you understand what that means? Of course you do. Is the

sentence correct? No. It should read,
You should get married only if the right modifier comes along.

What that sentence is trying to say is that there is only one condition
under which you should tie the knot: if the right modifier comes
along. So only needs to appear directly before the if clause, not one
word sooner. Placing it earlier doesn’t cause misunderstanding, but
putting it in the right spot creates exactly the right emphasis.

Are there any other modifiers like only? Yes. Words like primarily,
merely, specifically, just, and mainly are similar in that they belong
directly to the left of what you want them to affect.

For example, don’t write

I am primarily interested in meeting a rich, eligible modifier

if what you mean is

I am interested primarily in meeting a rich, eligible modifier.

88
If you want a bright future with modifiers, you have to treat them
right: get to know what they look like, what jobs they can do, where
to place them, and how to punctuate them. In return, they’ll enhance
every sentence you ever write.

89
 QUIZ ON MODIFIERS

Below is a letter to David from his new employer in Timbuktu. Your

job is to edit the letter for modifiers. How are they formed, placed,
and punctuated? If the modifiers are correct, leave them alone; if
they’re not, fix them.
Dear David:

1 After searching for quite sometime, it is my pleasure to have you

as the new server at my restaurant. I was getting tired of handling
all the tables myself. A man like me who is no spring rooster
shouldn’t be running around after all the hens, if you know what I
mean.
2 I want to warn you that our long-term customers are often short-
tempered. If you bring them a dish which they did not order, they
may scream at you. Don’t feel badly if this happens; bear in mind
that you are new and can only handle a few things at a time. In
regards to tips, don’t worry—I’ll give you some cash if I ever run
into any.
3 While your job primarily involves serving, you may be asked to
cook some times. You mentioned that you know how to prepare
certain foods, like rice, beans, and corn. While preparing these
delicacies, what ingredients are involved? Do I need to procure
any exotic-American spices? I already have an abundant supply
of salt and pepper, which may come in handy.
4 As a one man team, your job may sometimes feel overwhelming.
If this happens, we can consider shortening your shifts to half hour
increments. For example, breakfast can be from 8:00 to 8:30,

90
 lunch from 12:00 to 12:30, and dinner from 3:00 to 3:30. That
schedule will most likely discourage many of our customers from
eating here and you will have more time to relax.
5 I want you to feel welcome in Timbuktu where the people are
friendly, the weather is warm, and the salt and pepper are
plentiful. More importantly, I hope you decide to make this your
permanent home. We need people, who are willing to work in
various capacities and in half hour shifts.
6 I look forward to seeing you everyday.

Your new employer

91
 ANSWERS TO MODIFIERS QUIZ

Paragraph 1 contains three errors. In the first sentence,

sometime should be two words; the subject of the clause
should be I, not it (the opening verbal phrase, After
searching…, is an adjective that must be followed by the
person it describes). In the third sentence, there should be
commas around the who clause because that clause provides
extra information.

Paragraph 2 contains five errors. In the first sentence, short-

tempered should not be hyphenated because it follows the
noun it describes. In the second sentence, which should be
that because it introduces an essential clause (the noun before
it, a dish, is general). In the third sentence, badly should be
bad; only should appear before a few things, not before
handles. In the fourth sentence, regards should be regard.

Paragraph 3 contains four errors. In the first sentence, primarily

should appear before serving, not before involves; some
times should be sometimes. In the third sentence, the subject
following the opening descriptive phrase should be you, not
ingredients (While preparing… describes a person, not
ingredients). In the fifth sentence, there should be no hyphen in
exotic-American.

Paragraph 4 contains three errors. In the first sentence, one

man should be hyphenated; the subject of the clause should be

92
you, not your job (the As phrase describes a person, not a
job). In the second sentence, half hour should be hyphenated.

Paragraph 5 contains four errors. In the first sentence, there

should be a comma after Timbuktu (the where clause is extra,
not essential, after the specific noun Timbuktu). In the second
sentence, more importantly should be more important. In the
third sentence, there should be no comma after people (the
who clause is necessary after the generic word people); half
hour should be hyphenated.

Paragraph 6 contains one error. The last word should be two

words: every day, not everyday.

93
 Chapter 6: Connectives

So far, you’ve learned a few things about people, places, and things
(nouns and pronouns); about actions (verbs); and about descriptions
(modifiers). What’s left? Glue and road signs. To hold ideas together,
we use words that can join (glue). To show where a discussion is
headed next, we use words that indicate a change in direction (road
signs). All of these words are referred to, in general, as
connectives. Specifically, they are prepositions, conjunctions, and
adverbs.
Prepositions

Prepositions are usually small words that indicate position (in, on,
under, over) or relationship (of, for, to, from).

If your native tongue is not English, prepositions are a major

challenge since their use is as various as the words they
accompany. It’s not easy, for example, to remember that the noun
discussion is followed by the preposition about (we had a
discussion about bananas), yet the verb discuss requires no
preposition (we discussed bananas); similarly, the noun request is
followed by the preposition for (we submitted a request for
bananas), yet the verb request requires no preposition (we
requested bananas). It’s also not easy to understand why we get on
a bus, on a train, on a plane, yet in a car. Or why we are on a team
and on a committee but in a group. Often there’s no logic behind our
use of prepositions; there’s only the use itself to take note of.

94
If your native tongue is English, you manage most prepositions
correctly without thinking about it. Your ear is your guide, and
typically it’s a good one. There are a few things, however, that your
ear may need to hear about.
Like I said

People handle like correctly when it’s a verb (as in I like bananas or I
would like a banana). They don’t always use it correctly as a
connective.

Common error:
Like I said, bananas are popular around the world.

Correct:
As I said, bananas are popular around the world.

You need to use as when a subject and verb are coming up. Like is
a preposition; prepositions introduce phrases. As, in this case, is a
conjunction; conjunctions introduce clauses. Here are some more
sentences, to help you understand the difference between like and
as.

Examples:
Eating fruits like pomegranates requires time and patience.

Like many a primate, I prefer bananas.

95
 As any monkey knows, bananas are quite agreeable.

Pomegranates, as I told you, are demanding.

Considered as

Whenever you’re saying that someone or something is considered

a certain way, don’t use as.

Common error:
She is considered as honest.

The Taj Mahal is considered as an architectural wonder.

Correct:
She is considered honest.

The Taj Mahal is considered an architectural wonder.

Different than

The connective to use after different is from, not than. Than is

correct after a comparative word—for example, taller than, younger
than, more complicated than, less expensive than. Different is not a
comparative word. When you’re classifying something as different,
you’re not saying it is more than or less than; you’re saying simply
that it is not the same. So one thing is always different from another.
Fascinated but afraid of

96
Sometimes two words in a sentence need to be followed by two
different prepositions. When that happens, be sure to include them
both.

Common error:
The child was fascinated but afraid of lizards.

Correct:
The child was fascinated by but afraid of lizards.

Something else about which to talk

Contrary to what a well-meaning teacher may have told you in

elementary school, there is nothing wrong with ending a sentence in
a preposition. Furthermore, there never has been anything wrong
with doing so. If a sentence ends in a word that requires a
preposition after it, use that preposition. Don’t look for some other
way to say it; what you wind up with may sound stuffy.

Stuffy:
We need to find something else about which to talk.

Natural:
We need to find something else to talk about.

Look forward to see, committed to keep, prone to forget, on my way

to buy

97
Many people misunderstand the grammar of these four expressions:
they treat to as if it were the beginning of an infinitive (to see, to
keep, to forget, to buy). It isn’t. It’s a preposition that must be
followed by an object—i.e., a noun or a gerund. No one makes a
mistake when they need a noun (I look forward to lunch or I am
committed to monogamy); they err when they need a gerund—an
action word ending in ing.

Common error:
I look forward to see you.

I am committed to keep my promise.

I am prone to forget what I say.

I am on my way to buy roses for you.

Correct:
I look forward to seeing you.

I am committed to keeping my promise.

I am prone to forgetting what I say.

I am on my way to buying roses for you.

Conjunctions

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Conjunctions are words with glue on them, meaning that they have
the capacity to join. There are three types of conjunctions—
coordinating, subordinating, and correlative. Even though they all do
the job of gluing sentence parts together, their roles and their effects
vary. So do the problems that people have with them.
Coordinating conjunctions

These are the most common and versatile glue words in our
language, the ones you first learned to use: and, but, yet, so, nor,
or, and for. (For, in this instance, means “because,” as in I was late
to work, for there was a lot of traffic.)

Coordinating conjunctions can join anything—words, phrases, or

clauses. Whatever they join, the result is a list—items in a series.
When you write items in a series, you need to make sure they match
each other in terms of form. This is the rule of parallel structure.

Common error:
I like bananas because they are delicious, nutritious, and they
help me fall asleep.

You can buy bananas at the supermarket, the farmers’ market,

or from roadside vendors.

Bananas taste good, they are good for you, but won’t help you
stay awake.

Correct:
I like bananas because they are delicious, nutritious, and
conducive to sleep.

99
 You can buy bananas at the supermarket, at the farmers’
market, or from roadside vendors.

Bananas taste good, they are good for you, but they won’t help
you stay awake.

It doesn’t matter how many items are involved or what part of speech
they are; it also doesn’t matter whether the items are marching
across the page or down the page. What matters is that they are
parallel—all the same kind of word, the same kind of phrase, the
same kind of clause. Once you understand this rule, your ear can
help you write items in a series that sound alike.

Another issue that crops up here is punctuation. How do you

punctuate items joined by coordinating conjunctions? The answer
depends on the number and the type of items.

If the number is two and the items are not independent clauses, you
do not punctuate.

Examples:
After eating several bananas, I feel happy and drowsy.

Bananas are good at home or at the office.

If you’re working, you may want to avoid a fruit that tastes good
but puts you to sleep.

100
If the number is three or more, you place a comma after each item in
the series, even the item before the conjunction.

Examples:
After eating several bananas, I feel happy, drowsy, and full.

Bananas are good at home, at the office, or at the beach.

If you’re working, you may want to avoid a fruit that tastes good,
fills you up, but puts you to sleep.

If a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, you

have four punctuation options.

Examples:
I eat a lot of bananas and I’ve recommended them to my
friends.

My friends like bananas, but they can live without them.

Bananas won’t disagree with your stomach; nor will they talk
back.

I never met a banana I didn’t like. Yet some are rather spoiled, I
must admit.

The last two punctuation options are possible because a

coordinating conjunction doesn’t affect the independence of a

101
clause. That is, independent clauses that begin with coordinating
conjunctions are still independent, which means that they can take a
semicolon or period to the left of them.

Why would you want to punctuate like that? For effect. You may want
to convey that the upcoming clause is the second half of a two-part
story. Or you may want to give it maximum attention by making it a
new sentence.

Why, then, would you need the conjunction? For meaning.

Conjunctions carry meaning as well as glue. They tell how the
upcoming clause is related to the previous clause. (When a reader
sees yet, for example, he knows that contrast will follow; when he
sees so, he knows that a result is coming; when he sees or, he gets
ready for an alternative; and so forth.)

The way you punctuate depends on how you want your second
clause to be perceived:

If you want the second clause to be read without a pause, don’t

punctuate.

If you want a slight pause after your opening clause, use a

comma.

If you want your two clauses to appear as two halves of a whole,

place a semicolon between them.

If you want your second clause to receive maximum attention,

type a period, to make a new sentence out of it.

102
Subordinating conjunctions

There are many more subordinating conjunctions in English than

there are coordinating. Here are the most common: although, even
though, whereas, while, because, since, as, in that, in order
that, as long as, if, unless, provided that, once, until, when,
whenever, before, after, as if, as though.

Because they are conjunctions, subordinators carry glue. What they

most often glue together are clauses. When they do this job, the
result is one major clause and one minor clause—that is, one
independent clause and one dependent clause. The dependent
clause is the one beginning with the subordinating conjunction.

Examples:
I’m still writing about bananas, even though they’re starting to
bore me.

My mind is stuck on bananas as if there were no other topic.

If I change topics now, you may miss the bananas.

You’ll notice that, besides making one clause dependent on the

other, subordinating conjunctions differ from coordinating in terms of
positioning: they can join two clauses by showing up in the middle of
them or by appearing at the beginning of a sentence.

103
You’ll also notice that, when a subordinate clause is involved, your
punctuation options are limited. If you look back at the last three
examples, you’ll see either a comma or no punctuation. (You won’t
see a semicolon or period because there aren’t two independent
clauses.)

The comma is optional when the subordinate clause follows the

independent clause (first and second examples).

The comma is customary when the subordinate clause

introduces the independent clause (third example).

Correlative conjunctions

Despite their fancy name, these word pairs are quite familiar to you.
They are the two-part conjunctions you use when you want special
emphasis as well as glue:
either…or

neither…nor

not only…but also

not…but

The only problem that people have when using these connectives is
that they don’t place them in the right spot for parallel structure. Each
double conjunction can join any two elements within a sentence
(words, phrases, or clauses); but the elements being joined must

104
match each other. (This is the same rule that pertains to items in a
series joined by coordinating conjunctions.)

Common error:
Chiquita either eats bananas at home or on the road.

Neither are they her favorite food nor part of the low-carb diet
she should be following.

She not only eats them because they are convenient but also
free.

Chiquita is not interested in the weight she should lose but in the
money she can save.

Correct:
Chiquita eats bananas either at home or on the road.

They are neither her favorite food nor part of the low-carb diet
she should be following.

She eats them because they are not only convenient but also
free.

Chiquita is interested not in the weight she should lose but in the
money she can save.

In all of those examples (erroneous and correct), the words following

each conjunction are underlined. If you compare the underlined
items in the first set of sentences, you’ll see that they don’t match:

105
 eats and on the road

are they her favorite food and part

eats and free

interested and in the money.

If you compare the underlined items in the second set of sentences,

you’ll see that they do match:
at home and on the road

food and part

convenient and free

in the weight and in the money.

The issue here is placement, rather than form. When using double
conjunctions, people usually form their items correctly but don’t know
where to put the connectives. The connectives must appear directly
to the left of the items they’re meant to join. You can’t toss them in
before your sentence is ready for them.

When Shakespeare wrote, “Ripeness is all,” he must have been

thinking about correlative conjunctions. Or maybe he was thinking
about bananas.
Conjunctive Adverbs

106
Conjunctive adverbs are very common—you see them all the time
and you use them frequently. Here’s what they look like:
however, nevertheless, rather, instead,
otherwise, on the other hand, alternatively

furthermore, moreover, besides, additionally,

similarly

therefore, thus, consequently, hence

previously, now, initially, presently, then,

next, still, meanwhile, subsequently, finally,

afterward

indeed, in fact, of course, accordingly, anyhow,

anyway, frankly, certainly

Several of these words end in ly, reminding you that they belong to
the adverb family. But how can you remember that all of these words
are adverbs? And why should you?

Actually, it’s not important what you call these words as long as you
know they are not conjunctions—i.e., they have no glue on them and
therefore can’t join anything with anything. They are transition words
that show how ideas are related. They serve as road signs. They
offer helpful information and add fluency to your discussion. But they
don’t join.

107
So if your sentence contains two independent clauses and the
second one begins with an adverb, you still need a joining technique.
A comma cannot do that job. What you need is a semicolon.

Common error:
Chiquita wears a hat filled with bananas, however, she manages
to keep her balance.

Correct:
Chiquita wears a hat filled with bananas; however, she manages
to keep her balance.

(You may also place a period between those clauses, but then you
won’t be joining them.)

Besides carrying no glue, adverbs differ from conjunctions in two

other ways:

Adverbs can introduce a clause, interrupt a clause, or end a

clause. (Conjunctions can only introduce a clause.)

Examples:
Chiquita is usually well mannered; however, sometimes she
eats out of her hat.

Chiquita is usually well mannered; sometimes, however, she

eats out of her hat.

108
 Chiquita is usually well mannered; sometimes she eats out of
her hat, however.

Adverbs are followed by commas. (No conjunction is followed by

a comma, even when it begins a sentence.)

Connectives Leading to Examples or Explanations

To tell your reader that you’re about to give an example or a full

explanation, you offer road signs: like, such as, including, for
instance, for example (e.g.), that is (i.e.), namely, specifically.

The problems people have with these connectives relate to

punctuation and usage.
Punctuation

The first three expressions—like, such as, and including—may be

preceded by commas (if the upcoming example isn’t essential), but
they are never followed by commas.

Common error:
I enjoy snacks like, bananas.

I enjoy snacks such as, bananas.

I enjoy a variety of snacks including, bananas.

109
Correct:
I enjoy snacks like bananas.

I enjoy snacks such as bananas.

I enjoy a variety of snacks, including bananas.

The last five expressions—for instance, for example, that is,

namely, and specifically—are always followed by commas, no
matter what punctuation sets them apart from the rest of the
sentence.

Examples:
There are some strange things in Chiquita’s hat—for instance,
bananas.

From her hat Chiquita retrieves a snack (for example, bananas).

There is something fruity about Chiquita’s hat—that is, bananas.

The contents of Chiquita’s hat (namely, bananas) are curious.

They’re wondering what they are doing in such a strange place

—specifically, a hat.

Usage

110
People often use the abbreviation i.e. without knowing what it
means. I.e. stands for id est, Latin words meaning “that is.” That is
must lead to a full explanation. The error occurs when people use
i.e. to mean “for example.”

The abbreviation that means “for example” is e.g. It stands for the
Latin words exempli gratia.

Finally, both of these abbreviations need to be punctuated correctly.

Each letter is followed by a period, and the second period is followed
by a comma. The periods indicate that the expression is an
abbreviation; the comma indicates that the expression is
introductory.

Examples:
Chiquita’s hat serves a practical purpose—i.e., it contains her
lunch.

Chiquita’s hat serves many purposes—e.g., it keeps her head

straight while everyone else is thinking about bananas.

Confusing Pairs

If vs. whether

If introduces a condition; whether introduces a choice. The common

error is that people use if when they mean whether—for example,
We need to determine if Chiquita’s hat is affecting banana sales

111
versus We need to determine whether Chiquita’s hat is affecting
banana sales.

One way to test your use of if is to say “or not” after it. If your
sentence makes sense when you insert or not, the connective you
need is whether. (You needn’t keep or not in your sentence—it’s
implied by whether.)

Here are some verbs that typically lead to whether: determine,

decide, know, wonder, find out, investigate, discern, learn, discover,
understand, question, see, ask, check.
Then vs. than

Then refers to time, as in now and then; than is for comparisons, as

in more than or less than.
Redundancies

Etc. after such as

If you introduce some examples with such as, don’t use etc. at the
end of the list. Such as means that your list contains examples, not
the full story. Etc. means the same.
Nor in the same clause as no or not

If you use no or not, don’t use nor within the same clause. Use or,
instead.

Incorrect:

112
 I don’t want a pomegranate nor a banana.

Correct:
I don’t want a pomegranate or a banana.

The reason why is because

Don’t follow reason with why or because—that’s saying the same

thing three times. Drop why; use that instead of because.

Incorrect:
The reason why I am late is because I paused to eat a
pomegranate.

Correct:
The reason I am late is that I paused to eat a pomegranate.

As you’ve seen, using connectives correctly is often tricky business.

It calls for awareness of many rules related to usage, form, grammar,
and punctuation. Is it worth it? Why not avoid all those troublesome
glue words and write only simple, elementary sentences?

The answer is that your sentences will wind up being, well…simple

and elementary. They’ll deliver main points but they won’t show
relationships, indicate chronology, or signal changes in direction.
Your reader will have to guess at the connections that you failed to
provide.

113
Take a look at a group of related sentences written without
connectives:
Chiquita wears a hat. The hat is filled. The filling is fruit. The hat
is heavy. It is difficult to balance. She can’t remove the hat. She
needs relief. She must unload the fruit. Wearing the hat is not
her preference. She must continue to wear it. She wants to keep
her job.

Those sentences should, of course, be combined—to avoid

repetition of key words and to show how the ideas relate to one
another. For example,
Chiquita’s hat is heavy and difficult to balance because it is filled
with fruit. She can’t remove it, to gain some relief, without first
unloading the fruit. Although wearing the hat is not her
preference, she must continue to do so if she wants to keep her
job.

Now, that paragraph won’t win any literary prize, but it’s a lot easier
to read than the original string of isolated sentences. The increased
fluency comes largely from adding five garden-variety connectives:
and, because, without, although, and if.

Connectives go a long way in enhancing the meaning and flow of

your text. They’re well worth including, with all their special effects
and idiosyncrasies.

114
 QUIZ ON CONNECTIVES

Below is a letter from Chiquita to her employer, the banana boss.

Your job is to edit the letter for connectives—words that serve as
glue or as road signs. Are they the right words? Are the sentences
punctuated correctly? If so, leave the text as it is; if not, fix it.
Dear Top Banana:

1 Because I have been representing the company for so many

years people think of me as a bunch of bananas. I had thought it
wasn’t bothering me until I began to see bananas whenever I
looked into a mirror.
2 Recently I saw a psychologist to find out who I really am—i.e., a
person or a logo. Surely you can understand my confusion: my
name is on every banana you sell, in every commercial you make
and every truck that transports your product. Furthermore, when
people see me they don’t look at my face nor my outfit; they stare
only at my hat. The reason why, of course, is the bananas. I am
considered as nothing more than a one-dimensional fruit. While
this is an understandable consequence of pervasive marketing;
I’m having trouble with it. But, like I said, I’m working on the
problem with my therapist as I’m committed to solve it.
3 I’m writing to suggest that either you add someone else’s name to
your product or add some other fruits to my hat. You could call the
product “Chiquita and Jean-Paul” for example, which may bring
you increased business in France. Or, you could throw a few
kumquats into my hat, to show that I’m more then just bananas.
4 Any change will take time to implement, however, the result will be

115
 worth it. Your customers will have something new to focus and talk
about. And I may be able to see my own face in the mirror again.
5 The problem I’m having is different than any I’ve ever known. It
bothers me not only during the day but also keeps me awake at
night. (Please don’t advise me to eat a banana before bedtime.)

Chiquita

116
 ANSWERS TO CONNECTIVES QUIZ

Paragraph 1 contains one error. In the first sentence, there

should be a comma after years because that marks the end of
an introductory subordinate clause. (In the second sentence, the
lack of punctuation after the opening clause is fine: a comma
isn’t mandatory when the first clause is independent and the
second is subordinate.)

Paragraph 2 contains ten errors. In the second sentence, there

should be a comma after the introductory adverb surely; there
should be a comma after make (the second item in a series of
three); the preposition on should precede every truck (to make
this third item parallel with the preceding two items). In the third
sentence, there should be a comma after me; nor should be or
(because it’s in the same clause as don’t). In the fourth
sentence, why should be deleted (because it’s redundant after
reason). In the fifth sentence, as should be deleted. In the sixth
sentence, the semicolon should be a comma (because the
opening clause is subordinate). In the seventh sentence, like
should be as; solve should be solving.

Paragraph 3 contains five errors. In the first sentence, either

should be moved two words to the right, so that it precedes
someone else’s name (the first of two choices); the second
mention of add should be deleted so that or precedes some
other fruits (the second choice). The result of this revision is
good parallel structure: …that you add either someone else’s

117
name to your product or some other fruits to my hat. In the
second sentence, the semicolon should be a comma, to mark
the beginning of an interruption. In the third sentence, there
should be no punctuation after Or; then should be than.

Paragraph 4 contains two errors. In the first sentence, there

should be a semicolon before however, not a comma. In the
second sentence, focus should be followed by on.

Paragraph 5 contains two errors. In the first sentence, different

should be followed by from, not than. In the second sentence,
not only should be moved to the left of bothers (for parallel
structure: not only bothers…but also keeps…).

118
 Chapter 7: Punctuation

Punctuation marks are to writing what vocal delivery is to speech.

Can you imagine talking in a monotone without pause? Your
audience would have difficulty making sense of your words, let alone
figuring out where emphasis and nuance belong.

If you drain the punctuation from your writing, you have no louds, no
softs, no expression, no innuendo. If you use only a few punctuation
marks, you seriously restrict your style. If you misuse punctuation
marks, you send your reader down the wrong road, maybe even up
a tree.

You need to understand exactly what each mark can and cannot do,
as well as the message it gives to your reader. There aren’t that
many marks—fifteen in all. And some are so familiar (periods,
question marks) or so seldom necessary (slashes, brackets, ellipses)
that the number you need to know by heart is only nine.

Nine is not a lot. But the benefits of understanding these nine are
countless.
Commas

119
Besides incidental jobs (like separating the day from the year in a
date), commas play four roles within a sentence:

1. they separate items in a series of three or more

2. they surround an interruption

3. they show where an introduction ends

4. they mark the beginning of an afterthought or final qualifier.

Separating items in a series of three or more

Examples:
New lockers, bins, racks, and shelves will be added to the ark.

We will hammer, nail, coax, and cajole until the construction is

complete.

The result will be a vessel that is logically designed, well

organized, and visually attractive.

COMMON QUESTIONS:

Is the comma necessary after the next-to-last item—the

item before and?

120
 While some professional publications (The New Yorker) include
it and others (Time Magazine) tend to leave it out, the rule is still
to place a comma after every item in a series of three or more.
This practice makes sense: with a comma after every item, each
gets equal treatment; no item looks more closely related to
another because of missing punctuation. Also, leaving out that
last comma can cause confusion. For example,

The ark-building manual gives information on analyzing and

solving construction problems, avoiding the hazards of welding
and staying afloat into old age.

How many topics does that book discuss—two or three? A

comma after welding makes it clear:

The ark-building manual gives information on analyzing and

solving construction problems, avoiding the hazards of welding,
and staying afloat into old age.

Are commas necessary after items in a vertical series?

Not really. When items are marching across the page, commas show
where one stops and the next begins. When items are marching
down the page, bullets (or numbers or letters) accomplish that job.
Why do it twice?
Example:

The renovated ark will boast many new features:

121
lockers for valuables

bins for trash

racks for equipment

shelves for books.

Note: There’s a period at the end of the final item, to mark the
end of the sentence.

What if each item in a vertical series is a complete thought?

Is punctuation or capitalization necessary?

How you punctuate and whether you capitalize depend on the

emphasis you want.

If you want each item to be seen as a continuation of the overall

sentence, don’t punctuate until the end of the last item and don’t
capitalize at all.

Example:

We are renovating the ark for several reasons:

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 valuables must be protected

trash must be contained

equipment must be organized and easy to find

books must be elevated.

If you want the items to receive maximum attention as separate

points, then treat each as a new sentence, capitalizing at the
beginning and placing a period at the end.

Example:

We are renovating the ark for several reasons:

Valuables must be protected.

Trash must be contained.

Equipment must be organized and easy to find.

Books must be elevated.

Surrounding an interruption

Examples:

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 Our new ark, finally, is a beautiful sight to behold.

This vessel, completely remodeled, is ready for passengers.

The number of passengers, which I’ve yet to determine, must be

even.

Note: An interruption can be a word, a phrase, or a clause.

COMMON QUESTION:

Are commas the only way to punctuate an interruption?

No, but they are the most common way. Commas give the
interruption normal attention. If you want to give an interruption
maximum attention, use a dash to the left and right of it. If you want
to give it minimum attention (if you want it to read like an aside
comment, as does this interruption), use parentheses around it.
Ending an introduction

Examples:
First, I’ll compose a passenger list.

Resisting the urge to include every single acquaintance,

I’ll limit the list to couples.

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 Although some couples may be odd, the number of
passengers will be even.

Note: An introduction can be a word, a phrase, or a clause.

Beginning an afterthought or final qualifier

Examples:
The gathering will be lively, surely.

The guests will chatter and squawk, getting to know one

another.

The event may go down in history, as long as someone

keeps a log.

Note: An afterthought or final qualifier can be a word, a phrase,

or a clause.

COMMON QUESTION:

Is a comma the only way to set off an afterthought or final

qualifier?

No. Here again, you may use a dash or parentheses to

distinguish nonessential material from a main idea. A dash gives
your final words maximum attention; parentheses give them
minimum attention.

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 Semicolons

Semicolons perform two jobs:

1. they join two closely related complete thoughts

(independent clauses)

2. they separate items in a series when the items contain

commas or are unusually long.

Joining two closely related complete thoughts

Examples:
Jonah reacts quickly and impulsively to situations; Job looks
before he leaps.

Patience is a virtue; it is also an art.

After being swallowed by a whale, Jonah had a lot of time to

think; he began to understand the wisdom of looking before
leaping.

Some impulsive acts are harmless; others have confining

consequences.

Separating items in a series when the items contain commas or are

unusually long

Examples:

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 This story involves Jonah, who becomes close with a whale;
Job, who loses his shirt; Adam, who covers for a fig leaf; and
Eve, who falls for a snake.

The plot gets complicated as Jonah gets to know his captor from
the inside out; as Job considers Zen Buddhism; as Adam cannot
find an alibi for the fig leaf; and as Eve, usually levelheaded,
accepts counsel from a cottonmouth.

Colons

A colon tells the reader that you’re about to specifically explain a

general statement. The general statement, to the left of your colon,
must be a complete thought (independent clause). The specific
explanation, to the right of your colon, can be in any form—a word, a
phrase, a clause, or a series of items.

Examples:
As a student, Noah had difficulty in one subject: trigonometry.

Trigonometry is easy for some people: those who understand

triangles.

Triangles perplexed Noah: no matter how he viewed them, he

couldn’t tell which end was up.

Noah tried valiantly to raise his trigonometry grade: he studied

more, he brought apples to his teacher, and he prayed a great
deal.

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Note: Don’t capitalize after a colon unless you’re writing an
independent clause—and, even in that case, capitalizing is optional.
Dashes

First of all, a dash is not a hyphen. It is twice as long (you need to hit
the hyphen key twice to create one dash) and it performs very
different functions.

Dashes do three jobs, each of which can be accomplished by

another punctuation mark. Why, then, use dashes? Because they
carry two messages—one related to the job they are doing and the
other related to emphasis, clarity, or formality. Here are the roles of
dashes:

1. they surround an interruption

2. they lead to an afterthought

3. they introduce a specific explanation.

Surrounding an interruption

Examples:
My daughter—Rebecca—has an imaginary playmate.

My neighbor’s children—Sima, Sarah, and Sam—interact with

the real kids on our block.

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Note: In the first example, the dashes give the interruption more
emphasis than commas or parentheses would. In the second
example, the dashes lend more clarity than commas would, since
the interruption contains commas.
Leading to an afterthought

Examples:
Rebecca speaks to her friend in a private language—one that I
don’t understand.

Her friend replies with abundant good humor—at least, that’s

the way it appears.

Note: Although in the first example a comma could lead to the

afterthought, the dash gives it more emphasis. In the second
example, the dash lends both emphasis and clarity (using commas
before and after at least would make it look like an interruption,
which it isn’t).
Introducing a specific explanation

Examples:
Rebecca has a name for her playmate—Stefan Stefanopolis.

Stefan has one great quality—he makes Rebecca laugh.

Note: While a colon or parentheses may also be used to distinguish

an explanation, the dash creates a different effect: it is less formal
than a colon; it gives more attention to the explanation than
parentheses.
Hyphens

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Hyphens connect multiple adjectives that appear to the left of a
noun. What is a multiple adjective? Two or more descriptive words
that need each other to create the meaning you want—for example,
blue-eyed boy: he is not a blue boy or an eyed boy; blue and eyed
must be linked, to make proper sense.

Furthermore, blue-eyed is hyphenated because it appears to the left

of boy. If it appeared to the right, it would not be hyphenated—for
example, the boy is blue eyed.

More examples:
nine-hole golf course

300-page book

no-nonsense approach

life-affirming goals

labor-intensive work

vine-ripened tomatoes

58-year-old senator

off-the-record comment

four- and six-part harmony

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Note: Don’t hyphenate when the first descriptive word is an adverb
ending in ly—for example, poorly written script or highly regarded
institution.
Parentheses

Parentheses are for surrounding background information, aside

comments, material of secondary importance. They de-emphasize
the text they contain; they prompt the reader to lower her voice until
she exits the parenthetical remark.

Parentheses can occur within a sentence, referring to a given word

or phrase; at the end of a clause, referring to the entire statement; or
around an upcoming new sentence. (In other words, they can
surround an interruption, an afterthought, or a sentence, like the one
you’re reading now.)

Examples:
Apparently, Stefan Stefanopolis (my daughter’s imaginary
playmate) is quite amusing.

He keeps Rebecca laughing throughout the day (and sometimes

into the night).

I’m a little worried that Rebecca doesn’t know what’s real and
what’s not. (This morning she asked me why I hadn’t served
Stefan any pancakes.)

Note: The second and third examples show that a period can go
either outside or inside the closing parenthesis, depending on what

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just ended—a sentence containing a parenthetical remark or a
separate sentence within parentheses.
Double Quotation Marks

Double quotation marks do four jobs:

1. they surround words spoken or written by someone else

2. they surround words used as terms (this purpose can also be

served by italics)

3. they surround words used sarcastically

4. they surround titles of chapters or articles (in contrast, titles

of books and periodicals are underlined or italicized).

Surrounding words spoken or written by someone else

Examples:
Patrick Henry said, “Give me liberty or give me death.”

When he mentioned “liberty,” was he, by any chance, married?

Note: In the first example, there’s a comma after Patrick Henry said
because those are introductory words leading to a quoted sentence.

In the second example, there is no punctuation after When he

mentioned because what follows is only one quoted word (not a
quoted sentence).

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Note: Periods and commas belong inside closing quotation marks,
no matter what. Don’t even think of placing them outside—just tuck
them in.
Surrounding words used as terms

Example:
What do you suppose “liberty” meant to Mr. Henry?
(meaning “the term liberty”)

Surrounding words used sarcastically (to achieve the effect of so-

called)

Example:
People in many countries enjoy the “liberty” of voting for the only
candidate on the ballot.

Note: Sarcasm is the effect you wind up with if you use quotes where
they don’t belong. Quotes are not for showing your discomfort with a
colloquial expression. Either make your peace with the idiom and
use it without quotes, or choose another way to say what you mean.

Incorrect:
Please don’t “beat around the bush.”

Correct:
Please don’t beat around the bush.

or

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 Please get to the point.

Surrounding titles of chapters or articles

Examples:
Did you read “Bush on Fire” in Time Magazine?

No, but I read “My Dungeon Shook” in The Fire Next Time.

COMMON QUESTION:

If commas and periods always belong inside closing

quotation marks, what about colons, semicolons, question
marks, and exclamation points? Do they belong inside or
out?

Colons and semicolons belong outside the closing quotation mark

because they belong to the overall sentence, rather than to the
words in quotes. (It wouldn’t make sense to stop a quote at a colon
or semicolon.)

Examples:
I think I know what Patrick Henry meant when he said, “Give me
liberty or give me death”: he was expressing a desire to be
single again.

Mr. Henry didn’t really mean “give me death” he meant that if he

couldn’t divorce, he’d move to New Jersey.

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Question marks and exclamation points belong either inside or
outside the closing quotation mark, depending on what they belong
to—the words in quotes or the overall sentence. In rare instances, a
question mark appears before and after the quote.

Examples:
Consider the song “What’s Love Got to Do with It?”

Do you agree that love is “a second-hand emotion”?

What’s the message within “What’s Love Got to Do with It?”?

It may be “A heart can be broken!”

It can’t be “Love is a sweet old-fashioned notion”!

Note: When a sentence that isn’t a question ends with a quotation

that is a question (Consider the song “What’s Love Got to Do with
It?”), don’t use a period. Even though the overall sentence is not a
question, it simply ends when that question mark shows up. No more
punctuation.
Single Quotation Marks

A single quotation mark (the same symbol used to create an

apostrophe) serves only one purpose: to surround a quotation that
occurs inside another quotation. Since double quotation marks
encompass the overall quote, you need another way to distinguish
the quote within.

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Example:
The instructor said, “Whenever I explain punctuation, someone
asks, ‘What’s the purpose of single quotes?’”

Note: The example ends with both a single and a double quote
because both quotations finish at the same time.
Apostrophes

Apostrophes serve three purposes:

1. they represent a missing letter within a contraction

2. they make a noun possessive

3. they make an abbreviation, a letter, or a numeral plural.

Representing a missing letter within a contraction

Example:
It’s acceptable to use contractions in business writing if you
want to achieve a conversational tone.

Making a noun possessive

The way to make a noun possessive depends on whether the noun

ends in the letter s. It doesn’t matter whether that noun is singular or
plural; what matters is its final letter.

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Here’s the rule: If the noun does not end in the letter s, make it
possessive by adding an apostrophe and an s. If the noun does end
in the letter s, add only an apostrophe.

Examples:
the mouse’s tail

the mice’s tails

the platypus’ bill

the platypuses’ bills

The first two examples are made possessive in the same way
(apostrophe s), even though one is singular and the other is plural.
The third and fourth examples are also made possessive in the
same way (only an apostrophe), even though one is singular and the
other is plural.

The only time you have the option of adding an apostrophe and an s
to a noun that ends in an s is when that noun is someone’s name—
e.g., Myers’s rum. Remember, that extra s is an option; it is also
correct to write Myers’ rum.
Making an abbreviation, a letter, or a numeral plural

Example:
The teaching assistants (TA’s) predicted several B’s on student-
grade reports and a few 10’s on instructor-performance
evaluations.

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Note: The apostrophe may also be omitted in the plural form of
abbreviations, letters, and numerals—for example, TAs, Bs, 10s.
Ellipses

An ellipsis (…) indicates that something has been deleted from a

quote. It doesn’t tell how much has been left out; it shows only that
the passage has been reduced to its pertinent parts.

Example:

Original “San Francisco’s American Conservatory Theater (ACT),

text: the nation’s only full-time resident repertory company, has
a considerably scaled-down season this year.”
Abridged “San Francisco’s American Conservatory Theater…has a
text: considerably scaled-down season this year.”

Note: If the ellipsis leads to the end of a sentence, follow it with a

space and then a final period.
Brackets

Brackets ([ ]) are the opposite of ellipses—they show that something

has been added to or changed within quoted material. They come in
handy when you want to clarify something for your reader.

Example:

Original “Millions of genes are arranged along the giant strands

text: of DNA in each human cell.”
Enhanced “Millions of genes are arranged along the giant strands
text: of DNA [commonly known as chromosomes] in each

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 human cell.”

Slashes

A slash ( / ) means “and or.”

Example:
She is the manager/maintenance person of this ark.

Question Marks

Besides ending an interrogatory sentence, a question mark can turn

a declarative statement into an inquiry.

Examples:
What do you do for relaxation?

You call exercise relaxing?

Exclamation Points

An exclamation point indicates enthusiasm or surprise.

Examples:
Congratulations on your promotion!

What a shock!

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Note: Use exclamation points sparingly, to preserve their effect. If
you use them liberally, they become meaningless. Also, when you do
use one, stop at that—don’t type two, three, or four in a row.
Periods

Besides ending a declarative sentence, a period punctuates an

abbreviation.

Examples:
Working for the C.I.A. would be a little too exciting.

I would rather work for the I.R.S.

Abbreviations may also be written with no periods—CIA and IRS.

Note: When your sentence ends in an abbreviation, don’t type an

additional period—the period at the end of your abbreviation also
ends your sentence.

Using correct punctuation is critical to communicating well with

readers. Even people who don’t always know how to punctuate
when they write do know what punctuation means when they read.
For example, they may not understand how to use a semicolon, but
when they see one, they know instinctively what it signifies: that one
clause has come to a halt and another is about to appear; that each
clause is half of a larger statement.

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How can it be that we are more knowledgeable as readers than we
are as writers?

First, we have a lot more experience with reading than we do with

writing. So our exposure to punctuation has been greater than our
production of it. Naturally, we are better at interpreting it than we are
at using it.

Second, what we know about punctuation resides largely in our

unconscious because we gained a good deal of our understanding
indirectly—from seeing the marks in action rather than from thinking
about what they do. The information we need, as writers, does not
always float to the surface on command.

Having conscious knowledge of punctuation is awfully convenient.

You’ll never have to scrap a sentence because you don’t know how
to mark it. And your readers will know what to do at every point in
your text.

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 QUIZ ON PUNCTUATION

Below is a letter from an adolescent Noah to his parents. Your job is

to edit the letter for punctuation. If a mark is wrong, correct it; if a
mark is missing, supply it; if all is correct, leave it as is.
Dear Mom and Dad:

1 As you know, I had been a pretty good student in all subjects until
I hit this stone wall called trigonometry. As hard as I try, I just can’t
seem to catch on. For many months I have been devoting five
minutes a day to studying triangles, yet I still don’t see the point.
(Actually, there are three points and I don’t see any of them.)
2 What is the use of learning trigonometry? Did either of you study it
when you were in school? What in your lives requires an
understanding of triangles? Is there something you haven’t told
me?
3 Okay, here’s what I propose: home schooling. I’ll get up in the
morning and I’ll stay home; you’ll get up in the morning and you’ll
stay home. We won’t even need to get out of our pajamas. I’ll sit
down; you’ll tell me everything I need to know—at least, whatever
you can remember. If it turns out that you know a little something
about triangles, then I’ll just have to hear it. How bad can it be?
4 The alternative is that I run away and live in the forest, where I’ll
be tutored by the animals. I’ll gather them around me, one by one,
maybe two by two—definitely not three by three, since that
number will always remind me of trigonometry.
5 I can just imagine what you’re thinking: “It’s happened—he’s
flipped. He’s always been a little strange, but this business about

142
 ‘Teach me at home or I’ll go live with a bunch of forest animals’ is
scary. Maybe we should call the school counselor.”
6 Mom, Dad, listen to me: the school counselor is also the
trigonometry teacher. You won’t get very far with her. Instead,
think about how nice it will be to sit around in our pajamas every
day, just (dare I say it?) the three of us.

Noah

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 ANSWER TO PUNCTUATION QUIZ

There are no errors in the letter from Noah to his parents. Even
though some of the marks are choices—colons can be replaced by
dashes, semicolons can be turned into periods or conjunctions,
parentheses can be deleted (in paragraph 1) or traded in for dashes
(in paragraph 6), and so on—they are all correct.

If you thought you spotted an error, perhaps it is a punctuation

choice you would not have made. Or perhaps you don’t fully
understand what a given mark can do. Read that part of this chapter
again.

Take a moment, every week for several weeks, to focus on the

punctuation in a well-written newspaper, magazine, or book. Study it;
see whether you can describe the job that each mark is doing.

Start using the marks you never used before (because you didn’t
know how they worked).

Get feedback on your ongoing progress from someone who knows

the subject well.

144
Don’t give up—don’t move to the forest. If you put your mind to it for
a while, punctuating excellently will become second nature.

145
1 In the third example, had had may look strange, but it’s correct. Had had occurs when
the helping verb is had and the participle comes from to have.
2 Could also implies improbability. Can is the alternative that says an action is possible.
3 If wish is followed only by a pronoun and a noun, as in I wish you luck, you needn’t think
about mood.