An Introduction to Grover’s

Search Algorithm

M. Grossi – IBM Quantum

In collaboration with F. Tramonto

M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 1

Grover’s Search Algorithm
Applications
• Searches in a non–ordered list
• Example: Search a phone book for a specifc number
Lov Grover
• Travelling salesman problem (TSP)

Speedup?
Classical search: ! " steps
Grover’s Algorithm search: ! " steps

M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 2

The problem
Given a boolean function !(#)
) 1, if # = # ∗
! # : 0,1 → 0,1 , ! # =,
0, if # ≠ # ∗
find the value of # such that ! # = 1, that is find # ∗ .

)
A remind: x ∈ 0,1 ⟷ x = 0, 1, 2, … 7 − 1 in binary with 7 = 2) (i.e. 9 = log = 7)

Classically: worst case à 7 steps

on average à 7/2 steps ⟹ O(7) steps

M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 3

The idea…
Step 0) Initial state: equal superpostion of the ! = 2$ basis states |0⟩, )1⟩, |2⟩, … |! − 1⟩

Step 1)
equal 1
amplitudes A black box operator, the
Oracle 1 marks |- ∗ ⟩ with a
-∗ minus sign

If we measure now equal probability for all states

⟹ we have to amplify |- ∗⟩ to have higher probability. How?

average of all
Step 2)
amplitudes Inversion about the mean

Repeat step 1) and 2) M times M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 4
Schematic Circuit
Hadamard
Transform

Step 0)
Grover
Operator G

" Step 2)
Inversion about the
Step 1) mean or Grover
Diffusion Operator
M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 5
Hadamard Transform
Step 0) Prepare all the basis states with equal amplitude, by applying the
⨂'
Hadamard transform to the initial state |0⟩= |000 … 0⟩ = |0⟩
1 /01
⨂'
( |0⟩ = + |2⟩ ≡ |7. ⟩
2 ' ,-.

( ⨂' 1
⨂'
1 /01
(⨂' |0⟩ = (|0⟩ ⨂' = |0⟩ + |1⟩ = + |2 ⟩
2 2' ,-.

Example with 2 qubits:

|0⟩ 1 1
(⨂4|00⟩ = (|0⟩ ⨂ (|0⟩ = |0⟩ + |1⟩ ⨂ |0⟩ + |1⟩ =
2 2
1 1
= |00⟩ + |01⟩ + |10⟩ + |11⟩ = |0⟩ + |1⟩ + |2⟩ + |3⟩
24 24
M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 6
 !
The Oracle
Oracle operator ! associated to the function "($) marks the state |$ ∗ ⟩ with a minus

! |$ ∗ ⟩ = − |$ ∗ ⟩
and leaves the other states unchanged |$ ⟩

! |$ ⟩ = |$ ⟩ if $ ≠ $ ∗
or more compactly

!|$⟩ = (−1)/(0) |$⟩

How? A way is by using an Oracle operator that exploits an ancilla qubit defined as
ancilla qubit !
| $ ⟩| 1 ⟩ |$⟩|1 ⊕ "($)⟩
1
−|0⟩ + |1⟩ , if " $ = 1 ($ = $ ∗ )
1 ! 2 1
|$ ⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩ |$ ⟩ = (−1)/(0) |$ ⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩
2 1 2
|0⟩ − |1⟩ , if " $ = 0 ($ ≠ $ ∗ )
2 M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 7
Inversion around the mean
(or Grover diffusion)
3 steps:

1) Hadamard Transform !⨂#

2) Conditional phase shift: |&⟩ → −(−1),-,/ |&⟩
3) Hadamard Transform !⨂#

step 2: the operator 2|0⟩⟨0| − 3 applied to |0⟩ it gives |0⟩

and to |&⟩ it gives −|&⟩ , if & ≠ 0

Combining all 3 steps: !⨂# 2|0⟩⟨0| − 3 !⨂# = 2|67⟩⟨67| − 3

With the Oracle the Grover operator G ≡ 2|67⟩⟨67| − 3 :

M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 8
Geometric representation |0 ⟩

|# ⟩ =
%
∑ |/ ⟩ |2.⟩
&'( *,, * -.
sum of states that aren’t solution
:/2
|# ⟩
%
|0 ⟩ = ∑ |/ ⟩ sum of states that are solution
( *,, * -%

|#⟩ and |0⟩ generate a 2-dimensional subspace 1 and |2.⟩ belong to 1 :

3−5 5
|2.⟩ = |# ⟩ + |0 ⟩
3 3 |0 ⟩
: :
|2.⟩ = cos |#⟩ + sin |0⟩
2 2
If apply > to a state of 1: |2.⟩
:/2
> ? |# ⟩ + @ |0 ⟩ = ? |# ⟩ − @ |0 ⟩ |# ⟩
the sign of the |0⟩ component changes >|2.⟩
M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 9
Geometric representation 2
&
By applying G ! |$%⟩ goes to an angle '
+ ) respect to |*⟩
|2 ⟩
at each iteration ! add an angle ) : ! |$%⟩
) )
! |$%⟩ = cos + ) |*⟩ + sin + ) |2⟩
2 2 ) |$%⟩
5 )/2
! 3 |$%⟩ = cos )3 |*⟩ + sin )3 |2⟩, )3 = 4 + ) |* ⟩
'
=|$%⟩
When stop the iterations?
7 5 7 |2 ⟩
Nearer possible to |2⟩ )3 ≃ 4≃ − 1
' ' &
! 3 |$%⟩
1 π
4 = CI −1 == >/@ )3
2 ) |$%⟩
)5
For calculation details see, for example, |* ⟩
Nielsen, Chuang – Quantum Computation and Quantum Information
M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 10
Now let’s apply the algorithm…

M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 11

M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 12
Example: 2 Qubits

M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 13

 %
| # ⟩| $ ⟩ |#⟩|$ ⊕ '(#)⟩
If |$⟩ = |0⟩
% |1⟩ , if ' # = 1 (# = # ∗ )
|# ⟩|0⟩ |# ⟩|'(#)⟩ = |# ⟩ ,
|0⟩ , if ' # = 0 (# ≠ # ∗ )
If |$⟩ = |1⟩

% |0⟩ , if ' # = 1 (# = # ∗ )
|# ⟩|1⟩ |# ⟩|1 ⊕ '(#)⟩ = |# ⟩ ,
|1⟩ , if ' # = 0 (# ≠ # ∗ )

3
If |$⟩ = |0⟩ − |1⟩
4
1
−|0⟩ + |1⟩ , if ' # = 1 (# = # ∗ )
1 % 2 1
|# ⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩ |# ⟩ = (−1)8(9) |# ⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩
2 1 2
|0⟩ − |1⟩ , if ' # = 0 (# ≠ # ∗ )
2

M. Grossi - IBM Italy -DO NOT DISTRIBUTE 14