Anatomy & Physiology I

Lecture notes

Tissues
A tissue is a collection of a large number of cells which are similar in size,
shape and function.
There are four major types of tissues; they include the following;
 Epithelial tissue
 Connective tissue
 Muscle tissue and
 Nervous tissue.

Epithelial tissue
This is a kind of tissue found covering the body and lining cavities, hollow
organs and glands.
Generally due to the structure of epithelium, epithelial tissues have the
following functions;
 Protection of the underlying structures from dehydration and danger.
 Secretion
 Absorption

In all epithelial tissues, the cells are arranged so close to each other, so that
the intercellular matrix is minimal. The cells sit on a connective tissue called a
basement membrane that is laid by the epithelial cells themselves.
There are two broad types of epithelial tissues, i.e
1. Simple epithelial tissue and
2. Stratified epithelial tissue.

Simple epithelial tissues

A simple epithelium is made up of a single layer of identical cells which are
closely held together and sit on a basement membrane. Because of the single
layer of cells, this epithelium is good for absorption and secretion. The
subtypes of simple epithelium are cording to the shape of the cells.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

N.B; the more active cells are, the taller the cells
i. Squamous (pavement) epithelium.
This is composed of a single layer of flattened cells that fit closely together like
flat stones to form a thin and smooth membrane. It is found in the following
sites.
 Heart
 Blood vessels
 Lymph vessels
 Alveoli of the lungs

ii. Cuboidal (Cubical) epithelium

The cells here are cube-shaped and they sit on a basement membrane. It is
found in the tubules of the kidney nephrons where it has a role in secretion
and excretion.
iii. Columnar epithelium
Here cells are rectangular in shape. It is found lining organs of the alimentary
canal, where it’s important in absorption of the products of digestion.
Some specialized cells called goblet cells produce mucus that helps in
lubrication.
iv. Ciliated epithelium.
It is very similar to a columnar epithelium, only that the free surface of the
columnar cells is lined with hair-like processes called cilia. It is found in the
uterine tubes and airways (respiratory tract), where the wave like motions of
the cilia help in propulsion of materials in one direction.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

Stratified epithelium
This consists of several layers of cells of various shapes that are closely held
together so that the intercellular matrix is minimal. The superficial layers grow
up from below. There is no basement membrane. Stratified epithelial tissues
protect underlying structures from mechanical stress (wear and tear).
There are two types of stratified epithelial tissues;
 Stratified squamous and
 Transitional epithelium

Stratified squamous epithelium

This consists of multiple cells of different shapes. The deeper cells are
columnar while the superficial cells are flattened and then they shed.
There are two types of stratified squamous epithelium, namely:
 Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium; which lacks keratin and
it protects wet surfaces of the body that are subjected to stress (wear and
tear). These surfaces include, mouth, oesophagus, pharynx, vagina and
conjunctiva.
 Keratinized stratified epithelium; which has keratin and it protects dry
surfaces of the body that are exposed to wear and tear.

Transitional epithelium
It consists of several layers of pear-shaped cells. It is found lining the urinary
bladder and it allows stretching as the bladder fills with urine.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

Summary of epithelial tissue

Epithelial tissue

Simple epithelium Stratified epithelium

Squamous
Columnar Stratified squamous Transitional epithelium
Cuboidal
Ciliated

Keratinized stratified squamous Non-Keratinized squamous

General characteristics of epithelial tissues

• It is composed of closely packed cells forming a protective cover

• It has one free surface outside but inside the cavity of

organs.

• It has thin matrix on which cells are lined up.

• It has no blood vessels but has lots of nerves.

Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

Connective tissue
This is the most abundant tissue in the body. It is also called supporting tissue
or communicative tissue. Unlike in epithelial tissues, here the cells are more
widely separated from each other so that the intercellular matrix between the
cells is considerably large in amount (i.e maximal).
There may or may not be fibres present in the matrix. If present, they are of
semi-solid jelly like consistency or dense or rigid depending on the position and
function of connective tissue. The fibres form a supporting network for the cells
to attach to.
Most types of connective tissue have a good blood supply.

General functions of connective tissues are:

 Binding and structural support
 Protection
 Transport
 Insulation e.g. by adipose tissue.

Cells of connective tissue

Except blood, all connective tissue is found in all organs supporting the
specialized tissue. The different cells found in the connective tissue include,
fibroblasts, fat cells, mast cells, leukocytes and macrophages.
 Fibroblasts.
These are large flat cells with irregular processes. They produce collagen and
elastic and an extracellular matrix material. Very fine collagen fibres, also
called reticulin fibres. These fibres are found in very active tissues like liver
and lymphoid tissue.
Fibroblasts are particularly vital in tissue repair (wound healing) where they
bind between the cut surfaces of the wound using a substance called
granulation tissue that forms after tissue destruction.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

 Fat cells.
These are also called adipocytes. They occur either singly or in groups in
many connective tissues but more abundantly in adipose tissue. Their size and
shape vary according to the amount of fat they contain.
 Macrophages
These are irregularly shaped cells with granules in the cytoplasm. Some are
fixed while others are mobile. They are involved in body defense mechanisms
as they are actively phagocytic. They engulf and digest cell debris, bacteria and
other foreign bodies.
 Leukocytes
These are normally found in small numbers in healthy connective tissue, but
they increase in significant numbers during infection, a process called
leukocytosis, which is an important process in tissue defense.
 Mast cells
These are found in loose connective tissue and under the fibrous capsule of
some glands e.g the liver, spleen and around blood vessels. These cells are
similar to basophil leukocytes. They produce granules that contain heparin,
histamine and other substances that play a role in inflammation following
tissue damage or injury.

Types of connective tissue

 Loose (Areolar) connective tissue
It is the most generalized type of connective tissue, whose matrix is
described as semi-solid. It consists of many fibroblasts and some fat cells,
mast cells and macrophages which are widely separated by elastic and
collagen fibres. It is found in most parts of the body especially those that
require elasticity and tensile strength. It also provides connectivity and
support e.g under the skin, between muscles, in blood vessels and in the
alimentary canal.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

 Adipose tissue
This consists of cells called adipocytes (fat cells) which contain large fat
globules in a matrix of areolar tissue. There are two types of adipose tissue,
namely;
 White adipose tissue, which makes up to 20-25% of body weight in
well-nourished individuals. It’s amount depends on the balance
between energy intake and expenditure. It is found supporting the
kidneys, eyes, under the skin, and also between muscle fibres.
N.B. under the skin, it acts as a thermal insulator and store of energy.
 Brown adipose tissue, which is present in the new born. It has a
more capillary network than white adipose. It produces more energy
than white adipose tissue when metabolized while white adipose
tissue provides more of insulation than brown adipose tissue.

 Dense connective tissue

This contains more fibres and fewer cells compared to loose connective
tissue.
It includes;
 Fibrous tissue; which is made up of packed bundles of collagen
fibres with little matrix in between. It is found in ligaments, in outer
covering of some organs like kidneys, lymph nodes and the brain. It is
also found in muscle sheaths as muscle fascia, which extends beyond
the muscle to become the tendon that attaches the muscle to the
bone.
 Elastic tissue; this is capable of considerable extension and recoil. It
contains fewer cells, and the matrix consists mainly of elastic fibres
which are secreted by fibroblasts. It is found in organs where
alteration of shape is required e.g enlarged blood vessels, epiglottis,
trachea, bronchi, the lungs and outer ear.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

 Lymphoid tissue
This has a semi matrix with fine branching reticulin fibres that contain
monocytes and lymphocytes. They are also found in blood and lymph
tissues like lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, appendix and peyers patches.

 Blood
It is an important fluid tissue, whose details will soon be covered.
 Cartilage
This is firmer than any other any other connective tissue. It contains
cells called chondrocytes, which are less numerous. These cells are
imbedded in a matrix that is reinforced by elastic and collagen fibres.
There are three types, namely;
 Hyaline cartilage; this is a smooth bluish-white tissue, where
chondrocytes are arranged in the matrix that is solid. It is found
on bone surfaces that form joints for movements, at sites of
attachment of ribs to the sternum as costal cartilages, also forms
part of the larynx, trachea and bronchi.
 Fibrocartilage; it consists of a dense mass of white collagen in a
matrix similar to that of hyaline cartilage with the cells being held
widely separated, it is tough, partly flexible and supportive tissue.
It is found as parts between vertebral bones i.e interveterbral discs,
also between articulating surfaces of the bones of the knee joint
called semilunar cartilages as ligaments that join bones.
 Elastic cartilage; this is a flexible tissue that consists of a yellow
elastic fibre lying in a solid matrix. The cells lie between the fibres.
It forms the pin or lobe of the ear, the epiglottis and part of the
muscle wall of blood vessels (tunica media).
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

Figure 1: showing the various cartilages and failure to management one

 Bone
This connective tissue contains cells that include osteocytes, osteoclasts
and osteoblasts, which are suspended in a matrix of collagen fibres that is
strengthened by inorganic salts mainly calcium and phosphorous. These
properties provide the bone with the characteristic properties of
strengthened rigidity.
A bone also has considerable capacity for growth in the first two decades of
life, and for generation throughout life.
There are two types of bones;
 Compact bone, which has a solid/dense appearance.
 Spongy bone, which has a spongy appearance.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

Muscle tissue
There are 3 types of muscle tissue, namely;
 Skeletal muscle
 Smooth muscle
 Cardiac muscle.
NOTE; Muscle tissue is able to contract and relax, providing movement within
the body and of the body itself. Muscle contraction requires an adequate blood
supply to provide sufficient calcium and nutrients plus oxygen and to remove
waste products.

Skeletal muscle (striated/voluntary)

It is called skeletal because it forms muscles that move bones of the skeleton. It
is also called striated muscle because it has strips (striations) on microscopic
examination. It is also called voluntary because it is under the conscious
control.
Skeletal muscles form the flesh of limbs and the trunk by which the skeleton is
moved.
Each skeletal muscle consists of a large number of muscle fibres and the entire
muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called epimysium. Within
the muscle, there are many bundles called fasciles and each fascile is covered
by a sheath called perimysium. each fascile contains multiple muscle
cells/fibres, each of which is wrapped in a connective tissue called
endomysium. The epimysium, perimysium and endomysium all collect
together as a single sheath at the end of a muscle where they form a single
tissue called a tendon, which attaches the muscle to a bone.
Each muscle cell/fibre is called myofibril and it is the smallest functional unit
of a muscle. Under microscopy, the individual myofibrils lie parallel to each
other and each is roughly cylindrical. Each fibre has alternating light and dark
bands, hence the name striated muscle. The area which is having light and
dark areas consists of the single unit called sarcomere.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

Smooth muscle
They are also called non-striated because, they have no striations or
involuntary muscle because it’s control is not under conscious level. Smooth
muscle has the intrinsic ability to contract and relax. Additionally, autonomic
nerve impulses, some hormones and local metabolites stimulate contraction.
However contraction of smooth muscle is slower and more sustained than
skeletal muscle.
Smooth muscles are spindle-shaped with only one nucleus. Each cell is
surrounded by a membrane and the fibres collectively lie together to form
sheets of muscle.
It is found in walls lining hollow organs or visceral organs where it;
 Regulates the diameter of blood vessels and some parts of the respiratory
tract.
 Propels contents from the uterus, exocrine glands and the alimentary
canal.
 Expels contents of the urinary bladder and the uterus.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

Cardiac muscle
This type of muscle is only found in the heart wall. It is not under conscious
control, but when viewed under a microscope, it consists of cross-strips
(striations) which are characteristic of skeletal muscle. Each fibre cell has a
nucleus and one or more branches.
The ends and branches of adjacent cells lie in close contact and these are
joined at sites called intercalated discs.

Structure of a cardiac muscle

This arrangement gives the cardiac muscle the appearance of a sheet of muscle
rather than a very large number of individual fibres. The end-to-end continuity
of muscle cells ensures that a wave of contraction spreads from cell to cell
across intercalated discs so that individual cells do not need to be stimulated
individually. The heart has an intrinsic pace maker system that initiates the
heart’s own contractions, without external nerve stimulation, although the rate
at which it beats is influenced by autonomic nerve impulses, some hormones,
local metabolites and other substances.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

Nervous tissue
This forms the electrical system of the body. It consists of 2 kinds of cells;
i). Neurones; being the major excitable cells found in the nervous tissue.
ii). Supporting cells called neuroglia, which are non-excitable and form just a
supporting network of neurons. They are also called glial cells.

Membranes
1. Epithelial membrane
These are sheets of epithelial tissue with supporting connective tissue. They
cover many internal surfaces or cavities. They mainly include mucous
membrane, serous membrane and the skin (cutaneous membrane).
2. Mucous Membrane
This is the most lining of the alimentary tract, respiratory tract and the genitor-
urinary tract. It is commonly called mucosa. The surface consists of epithelial
cells fitting on the basement membrane and these cells secrete fluid called
mucus, which is discharged on the surface to produce lubrication. These cells
that produce mucus are specifically called goblet cells.
Functions of mucus membranes include:
i). Preventing the membrane from drying.
ii). Providing lubrication to aid movement of substances along tracts.
iii). In the respiratory tract, it traps inhaled foreign particles, preventing them
from entering the alveoli of the lungs.
3. Serous membrane
This is also called serosa. It secretes a watery fluid called serous fluid. A
serous membrane consists of a double layer of loose areolar connective tissue
that is lined by a simple squamous epithelium. There are two layers/forms i.e.
parietal layer which lines cavities and a visceral layer which lines/surrounds
organs within a cavity.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

These two layers are normally separated by a potential space that contains
small amount of fluid called serous fluid. Serous membranes are mainly found
in three sites in the body;
 In the thoracic cavity and the lungs, where it forms what is known as the
pleura.
 In the pericardial cavity and surrounding the heart, where it forms what
is referred to as the pericardium.
 In the abdominal cavity and surrounding the abdominal organs where it
is called peritoneum.
The serous fluid provides lubrication between the visceral and parietal layers
so that organs can glide freely within their cavities, without being damaged by
friction between them and adjacent organs.
4. Synovial membrane
This membrane lines the cavities of movable joints and the surrounding
tendons that can easily be injured during rubbing against bones, for example
over the wrist joint. It is not an epithelial membrane, but instead consists of
areolar connective tissue and elastic fibres.
Synovial membrane secretes a clear, oily and sticky fluid called synovial fluid,
which lubricates and nourishes joints.

Glands
A gland is a group of epithelial cells that produce a specialized secretion. There
are two types of glands; namely.
Exocrine glands
These discharge their secretions onto the epithelial surface of hollow organs
either directly or through ducts. Examples are; salivary glands and pancreas
which secrete saliva and pancreatic juice respectively.
These glands pour their secretions into blood through ducts. They are therefore
ducted glands, and their secretions are called enzymes.
Anatomy & Physiology I
Lecture notes

Exocrine glands vary considerably in size and shape, giving rise to different
names e.g. tubular, acinar, saccular, branched tubular and branched acinar
glands.

Assignment
Draw simple diagrams of the above mentioned names of exocrine glands.

Endocrine glands
These discharge their secretions directly into blood and lymph without the use
of ducts. They are therefore called ductless glands. Their secretions are called
hormones.