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Direckery nloy | fe | eas Ales | 1s — af De, 4 3 \o— "The dive ny en conan s File name cind address oF yeedane, block | Bach File has its own jndese bloc which US ay geri F disk blocle Addaessess, “Then! oney th the Inde bloug poloks bo the nth blot, of Pile”, —— To vead ox wale in _oth blog we use the. address of nth. indore blow... t ‘ Avarheoss i ted an? : P Dit suppoxr bokh seosahrer| ‘ + “Seveck: Ate method , ® No exelernal pega Dratiadeie, — Erdea spa ts Peaqudred foe indo Slous , OS ah fgg ee te 8Directory Structure A directory is a container that is used to contain folders and file. It organizes files and folders into a hierarchical manner. Directory D1 11 Diz p13 p14 FL F2 F3 Fa FS Fe FT FB Fo Files Sin; vel directory — Single level directory is simplest directory structure. Init, all files are stored in same directory which make it easy to maintain and understand. A single level directory has a significant limitation, however, when the number of files increases or when the system has more than one user. Since all the files aré in the same directory, they must have the unique name. ROOT DIRECTORY [| CROROTORS COISAdvantages: * Since itis a single directory, so its implementation is very easy. © Iffiles are smaller in size, searching will faster. © The operations like file creation, searching, deletion, updating are very easy in such a directory structure. Disadvantages: « There may chances of name collision because two files cannot have the same name (naming problem). + Searching will become time taking if directory will large: * In this cannot group the same type of files together means we can not make subfolders (grouping problem). 2. Tw el directory — © As, a single level directory often leads to:confusion of files names among different users hence the solution to this problem is to create a separate directory for each user. * In the two-level directory structure) each. user has their own user files directory (UFD). «The UFDs has similar structures, but each lists only the files of a single user. System's master file directory (MFD) is searches whenever a new user logged in, * The MFD is indexed by Username or account number, and each entry points to the UFD for that user. directory vy C=) Ge] C2) Td directory mm OLOIOE@IOIOAdvantages: + The main advantage is there can be more than two files with same name, and would be very helpful if there are multiple users. + Asecurity would be there which would prevent user to access other user's files. + Searching of the files becomes very easy in this directory structure. Disadvantages: + As there is advantage of security, there is also disadvantage that the user cannot share the file with the other users. + Unlike the advantage users can create their own files, users don’t have the ability to create subdirectories. = Scalability is not possible because one use can’t group the same types of files together. ‘ree-structured directory — ‘¢ Tree directory structure of operating system is most commonly used in our personal computers. User can create files and subdirectories too, which was a disadvantage in the previous directory structures. * This directory structure resembles a real tree upside down, where the root directory is at the peak. This root contains all the directories for each user. The users can create subdirectories and even store files in their directory. * Auser does not have access to the root directory data and cannot modify it. And, even in this directory the user do not have access to other user's directories. The structure of tree directory is given below which shows how there are files and subdirectories in each user's directory. Root i = oe Gear: pu biz bis pa directory Files and subdirectories [=] (=) eaeAdvantages: + This directory structure allows subdirectories inside a directory. + The searching is easier. + File sorting of important and unimportant becomes easier. + This directory is more scalable than the other two directory structures explained. Disadvantages: + As the user isn’t allowed to access other user's directory, this prevents the file sharing among users. + As the user has the capability to make subdirectories, if the number of subdirectories increase the searching may become complicated. + Users cannot modify the root directory data. + Iffiles do not fit in one, they might have to be fit into other directories. ik Organization: Aphysical structure of disk is amemory storage device which looks like this: track t arm assembly sector s cylinder ¢ platter rotation. Hard disk consists of a number of platters The platters rotate at a very high speed (5400 RPM to 10,000 RPM) Disk (read/write) heads move over the platter surface to read and write (magnetize) data bits The disk head can read or write data only when the desired disk surface area is under the disk head. Read-Write(R-W) head moves over the rotating hard disk. It is this Read-Write head that performs all the read and write operations on the disk and hence, position of the R-W head is a major concern. To perform a read or write operation on a memory location, we need to place the R-W head over that position. Some important terms must be noted here: 1, Seek time - The time taken by the R-W head to reach the desired track from it’s current position. 2. Rotational latency - Time taken by the sectorto come under the R-W head. 3. Data transfer time - Time taken to transfer the required amount of data. It depends upon the rotational speed. 4. Controller time - The processing time taken by the controller. 5. Average Access time - seek time + Average Rotational latency + data transfer time + controller time. Alogical structure The traditional head-sector-cylinder ( HSC) numbers are mapped to linear block addresses by numbering the first sector on the first head on the outermost track as sector 0. Numbering proceeds with the rest of the sectors on that same track, and then the rest of the tracks on the same cylinder before proceeding through the rest of the cylinders to the center of the disk. In modern practice these linear block addresses are used in place of the HSC numbers for a variety of reasons: 1, The linear length of tracks near the outer edge of the disk is much longer than for those tracks located near the center, and therefore it is possible to squeeze many more sectors onto outer tracks than onto inner ones.2. All disks have some bad sectors, and therefore disks maintain a few spare sectors that can be used in place of the bad ones. The mapping of spare sectors to bad sectors in managed internally to the disk controller. 3. Modern hard drives can have thousands of cylinders, and hundreds of sectors per track on their outermost tracks. These numbers exceed the range of HSC numbers for many ( older’), operating systems, and therefore disks can be configured for any convenient combination of HSC values that falls within the total number of sectors physically on the drive. © There is a limit to how closely packed individual bits can be placed on a physical media, but that limit is growing ‘increasingly more packed as technological advances are made. * Modern disks pack many more sectors into outer cylinders than inner ones, using one of two approaches: Y With Constant Linear Velocity, CLV, the density of bits is uniform from cylinder to cylinder. Because there are more sectors in outer cylinders, the disk spins slower when reading those cylinders, causing the rate of bits passing under the read-write head to remain constant. This is the approach used by modern CDs and DVDs. Y With Constant Angular Velocity, CAY, the disk rotates at a constant angular speed, with the bit density decreasing on outer cylinders. ( These disks would have a constant number of sectors per track on all cylinders. )Raids £Disk: RAID, or “Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks” is a technique which makes use of a combination of multiple disks instead of using a single disk for increased performance, data redundancy or both. Why data redundancy? Data redundancy, although taking up extra space, adds to disk reliability. + This means, in case of disk failure, if the same data is also backed up onto another disk, we can retrieve the data and go on with the operation. * On the other hand, if the data is spread across just multiple disks without the RAID technique, the loss of a single disk can affect the entire data. Standard RAID levels Mirroring provides reliability but is expensive; Striping improves performance, but does not improve reliability. Accordingly there are a number of different schemes that combine the principals of mirroring and striping in different ways, in order to balance reliability versus performance versus cost. These are described by different RAID levels, as follows: Raid Level 0 - This level includes striping (divides large data into no. of small blocks) only, with no mirroring. RAIDO stRaid Level 1 - This level includes mirroring (copy data into other disk) only, no striping. RAID 1 Mirroring o1sx 1 oss Raid Level 2 - This level stores error-correcting codes on additional disks, allowing for any damaged data to be reconstructed by subtraction from the remaining undamaged data. RAID2 o1sKo rsx 1 o1sK2 rsn3 ork o1sxs ok Raid Level 3 - This level is similar to level 2, except that it takes advantage of the fact that each disk is still doing its own error-detection, so that when an error occurs, there is no question about which disk in the array has the bad data. As a result a single parity bit is all that is needed to recover the lost data from an array of disks.RAID 3 Parity on separate disk rsx 1 isk 2 o1sx3 ors Raid Level 4 - This level is similar to level 3, employing block-level striping instead of bit-level striping. The benefits are that multiple blocks can be read independently, and changes to a block only require writing two blocks ( data and parity ) rather than involving all disks. RAID4 o1sK 0 isk 1 isk 2 isk 3 Raid Level 5 - This level is similar to level 4, except the parity blocks are distributed over all disks, thereby more evenly balancing the load on the system. For any given block on the disk(s), one of the disks will hold the parity information for that block and the other N-1 disks will hold the data. Note that the same disk cannot hold both data and parity for the same block, as both would be lost in the event of a disk crash.RAID 5 gas oso 1s o1sx2 osx Raid Level 6 - This level extends raid level 5 by storing multiple bits of error- recovery codes, for each bit position of data, rather than a single parity bit. RAID 6