Module 3 HF, UHF and Microwave Antennas

Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical

antenna. Yagi-Uda antenna, Frequency independent
antennas - spiral and log periodic antenna - Aperture
antennas – Horn antenna, Parabolic reflector antenna
–Microstrip antenna
 Long wire antennas - Theory

• Consider a thin wire of length L is horizontally placed at a height from

ground plane. At one end – a RF source is connected and other end is
terminated by the characteristics impedance of the wire Z0.
• When the wire is excited with a sinusoidal signal, the wave should travel
along one direction and will not create any standing wave – so called
“Travelling waves”.
• We are gonna see the expression for electric field at a point P - located at a
distance of R from the wire and angle of θ with respect to the length of
wire.
L
Wave direction
Z0
d

Ref : Krauss
 Travelling wave structure – E field
The retarded current in the wire shall be described as
r − Z1 
I = I m sin t −
 C v 
Where:
v = p.c or p = v /c
Z1 A point on the conductor
“p” is Relative phase velocity, the ratio of the velocity along the conductor v to the
free space velocity. P
r1
r r2

 L

Z1 Wave direction
Z0
d

Z-axis
 Radiation pattern
• We can find the radiation pattern as similar to the dipole case, will result:

E =
I 0p  sin   wL 
(1− p cos ) cos max  1− 0.37

 .sin 
2R 1 − p cos  2 pc  L

• Here, η is wave impedance.

θmax

Pattern Maximum angle

Length, L
For 3λ and 5λ
 Bidirectional long wire antenna
• The maxima direction oriented with the direction of wave in the wire, so –
by introducing wave on both the direction – we can introduce “Bi-
directional radiation”.
• This can be possible by “Open circuited long wire” or “Un-terminated”, so
called “Stand wave antenna”.

P
R

θ
Wave direction

L (feet)= 492(n-0.05) / f(MHz)

 Loop Antenna
RF Current carrying conductor turn into a loop.
Current through this is in phase and magnetic
field perpendicular to the conductor
Common Band of Application:
• HF(3-30 MHz) • Used in RFID devices
• Used in MF, HF and short wave
• VHF(30-300 MHz) receivers
• UHF(300-2GHz) • Used in aircraft receivers for direction
finding
• Microwave bands • Used in UHF transmitters
 Loop Antenna
Small loop – known as magnetic loop and it is
less resonant L=/10.
Used in receivers
• Low resistance, resistance can be increased by
using ferrite
• Low efficiency due to high loss
• Construction simple small size and less weight
• Large Loop – Resonant, L= , High radiation
efficiency
 Loop Antenna
Advantages
• Compact size
• High directivity
Disadvantages
• Impedance matching not always good
• Has very high resonance quality factor
Applications
• Used in RFID devices
• MF,HF and Short Wave receivers
• Used in aircraft receivers for direction finding
Helical Antenna

Ref: Balanis
 Helical Antenna
• A lengthy wire (of length Ln) is winded to n turn with
spacing between each wind of S to get a Helix of length
A.
• So Total Length of the antenna(Axial Length) L=S×N
• Total Length of the wire is Ln=N L o
where Lo is the length of the wire between each turn
Lo = S2 +C2
• Each wind take L length, can be calculated by
circumference C (C=πD, D is diameter)
• The pitch angle α of helix

Note that when S = 0 ( = 0°), the helix

reduces to a loop antenna, and when D = 0
( = 90°), it reduces to a linear antenna.
 How It works
• Each turns has it’s reflection with respect to ground plane, will
form dipole at different lengths.
• This dipoles are almost zero phase shifted, will create a
broadside array.

GND
 Normal Mode (Broadside)
• Normal mode condition NL0<<λ. Therefore phase-
shift between elements will be very less.
• helix diameter is small compared to a wavelength.
• Fields can be derived as
kIo Se− jkr
k
2
(D / 2)
2
I oe − jkr E = j sin 
E =  sin  4r
4r
• The polarization of field is depending on Axial Ratio
(AR) E 2S
AR = =
E (D)2
0  AR  
• If AR=0, will result in linearly polarized wave of
Horizontally polarization.
• If AR=∞, will result in linearly polarized wave of
vertical polarization.
• Special case AR = 1,
 Axial or End-fire mode
J. D. Krauss’s Major work

• This mode is excited by Diameter D and Spacing S must be large fraction of

wavelength.
• For Circular polarization C must be

• Spacing S=λ/4
• α should be 12o to 14o, N>3
• Ground Plane diameter atleast λ/2
 Design Equations of Helical antenna (Axial mode)
3 4
𝜆 < 𝐶 < 3 𝜆, 12° < 𝛼 < 14𝜊 and N>3
4
• Input impedance
Accurate to about 20%

Half Power Beamwidth

First Null Beamwidth

Directivity

Axial Ratio
John D Krauss’s Antenna
Helix Array
 Problems
3.2 A helical antenna was built with an overall length of 78.7cm,
diameter of 4.84cm and pitch angle of 11.7, center frequency of
operation is 1.7 GHz. Calculate the number of turns, directivity
in dB, half power beamwidth (degrees) and axial ratio of helix.
Ans: N=25, D= 17.44 dB, HPBW= 28.1, AR= 1.02
3.3 Design a 10 turn helical antenna to operate in the axial
mode. For an optimum design
Determine the
i. circumference (in 0), pitch angle (in degrees) and separation
between the turns (in 0)
ii. Half power beamwidth of main lobe (in degrees)
iii. Directivity
iv. Axial ratio
Ans: C = 0, S = 0.231 0, HPBW = 34.21, D = 34.65, 15.65dB
AR=1.05
 Yagi-Uda Antenna
A high frequency and high directive Parasitic array antenna
 Introduction
• Prof. S. Uda (Japan) invented this antenna by 1927, and collaborated with H. Yagi
– S. Uda, "High angle radiation of short electric waves". Proceedings of the IRE, vol. 15, pp. 377-385,
May 1927.
• After the invention, more than 40 researcher have studied on the improvement.

Shintaro Uda Hidetsugu Yagi

 Yagi Uda Antenna
• A folded dipole or ordinary half wave dipole is centered between two types of
parasitic elements, called:
• Directors and Reflectors.
• The coupling (capacitive) effect between the parasitic elements and active
element(dipole), the directional properties are improved with endfire pattern
• Reflector: about 5% greater length than the active element, will reflects the
power radiation at backward direction.
• Directors: 5% lesser length than the active element, will create a converging
mechanism and increase the directivity along the forward direction.
• Spacing between the directors and reflector depends on the optimality, in most
case, the spacing should from 0.3λ to 0.4λ (at 1927, the spacing was λ/10)
• 12 to 20 element yagi-uda antennas are optimum and have improved directivity
 Radiation properties
• Basically End-fire radiation pattern, with high directivity (less HPBW)
• Due to the ground and parasitic element, the pattern maxima at elevation will not be
at 90o (along the axis), but 45 to 60 degree elevated.
 Radiation properties
• We can show that, while increasing the directors, the gain and directivity
will improve, however the side lobs will degrade the performance by
attracting the noise in unwanted direction.
 Measurements

• Forward gain
• Backward gain (or back gain)
• Front to Back ratio (F.gain ~ B.gain)
• Magnitude of side lobes
• Input impedance
• Bandwidth, quality factor
Simulation – 9GHz Yagi Uda

Atleast 1 or 2 λ

Dipole=0.5λ
Director=0.45λ
Reflector=0.53λ
 Due to inductive effect at dipole
and capacitive effect at parasitic elements

fo=8.8GHz
@ 8.8GHz

θmax
 @ 8.8GHz θmax

Back gain

Approx=25dB Front gain

Approx=40dB

Front to back ratio=40-25 = 15dB

Back gain

Approx=17dB

Front gain
Approx=40dB

Front to back ratio=42-17 = 25dB

 Optimized Design of N-element Yagi-Uda
• For the frequency of operation f0, λ will be determined.
• Reflector: (mostly 1 element) length of 0.5λ with spacing
of 0.25 to 0.3λ from dipole.
• Dipole length (active element): 0.475λ
• Directors (N-2 elements) 0.405λ with spacing of 0.3 to 0.4λ
between each element.
• To match the dipole, usually the QWT section be utilized.
Yagi- Uda Antenna

Yagi-Uda antenna for Wi-Fi on Router

 Smallest Yagi Uda antenna

scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of a five-

element Yagi-Uda antenna consisting of a feed element,
one reflector, and three directors, fabricated by e-beam
lithography. Overall dimension of the antenna is 800
nm, equal to the wavelength of operation. A quantum
dot is attached to one end of the feed element.

nano-optical Yagi - Uda antenn

 Problems
Design a Yagi-Uda antenna of six elements to
provide a gain of 12dBi if the operating frequency is
200MHz
Reflector: L=0.5λ, S= 0.25 to 0.3λ
Driven Element: L=0.475λ
Directors (N-2 elements) L= 0.405λ, S=0.3 to 0.4λ
Frequency Independent Antennas

Reference: J. D. Krauss, K. D. Prasad and C. A. Balanis

 1957

Spiral Antenna Log-Periodic antenna

Frequency Independent Antennas
•The use of simple, small, lightweight, and economical
antennas, designed to operate over the entire
frequency band of a given system, would be most
desirable.
•antennas with broadband pattern and impedance
characteristics having bandwidths to as great as 40:1 or
more were referred to as frequency independent.
•geometries were specified by angles.
•are primarily used in the 10–10,000 MHz region in a
variety of practical applications such as TV, point-to-
point communication, feeds for reflectors and lenses,
and so forth
Advantages and Disadvantages of LPDA Antenna
Advantages
1.Wide Frequency Range: LPDAs can cover a broad spectrum of
frequencies, eliminating the need for multiple antennas for different
bands.
2.Directional Gain: These antennas offer high directional gain,
enabling focused transmission and reception of signals.
3.Compact Design: Despite their wide frequency coverage, LPDAs
maintain a relatively compact physical structure.
4.Low Noise Reception: They exhibit low noise reception, enhancing
signal clarity and quality.
Disadvantages
1.Complexity in Design: The design of LPDAs can be intricate, requiring
precise calculations and construction techniques.
2.Narrower Bandwidth Efficiency: While LPDAs cover a wide range of
frequencies, their efficiency might decrease towards the extreme ends
of the spectrum.
3.Susceptibility to Interference: In certain scenarios, LPDA antennas
can be sensitive to interference from nearby sources, affecting signal
 Log-periodic Array
• One of the Frequency independent antenna structure, provides best
directivity.
• With respect to the centre of antenna, the surface, distance, length of
elements are varying logarithmically .
• “Yagi-Uda antenna”+ “Frequency independence”
 Concept of Frequency independence
• Single radiator, multiple radiator (array) are designed for a particular
frequency, we can see through-out the array, the element length will be
same, or only one element will drive the antenna
• We shall think, what if two element array with two different length of
radiators
 Cont..
• If multiple length of radiated kept in a array, we can see one return loss curve
will be overlapped with a gap, will lead to high bandwidth.

Bandwidth
 Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LDPA)
• Though planar array or loop arrays have come, the dipole array of log-
periodic structure always attract. Advantages of LDPA
– Wide bandwidth and simple design.
– Highest Directivity (Even upto 11dB)
– Lowest Beam solid angle

ln+1 Rn+1 dn+1 Sn+1 1

= = = =
ln Rn dn Sn 

Relative spacing

Rn+1 − Rn
=
2.ln+1
 Design Parameters
The “tilt angle α” can be derived as follow ln+1 Rn+1 dn+1 Sn+1 1
= = = =
ln Rn dn Sn 
- scale factor
2α
Rn+1 − Rn
-spacing factor =
2.ln+1

(Ln+1 − Ln )
tan  = 2
Rn+1 − Rn
take L n + 1 outsi de
α (Ln+1-Ln)/2
( L n+1 − L n ) (1 −  )
tan  = 2 = 2
Rn+1-Rn Rn+1 − Rn 2
1− 
 = tan −1  
 4  
 Design Optimization
• Prof. Carrel [1961] had designed several LPAs and formulated
the design with a help of a chart
• The Chart define the relation between: Scale factor τ, Relative
spacing σ and Directivity
 Log Periodic antenna Design Procedure
Step -1: From the graph, get the optimum value of spacing factor σ.
Step: 2 determine the tilt angle  = t a n − 1  1 −  
 4 
Step 3: determine designed bandwidth (BS), desired bandwidth(B)with using
active region bandwidth (Bar) [all are dimensionless quantities]
B S = B.B a r
where

B=
f2
( f 1 is intial frequency of desired bandwidth, f 2 is final )
f1
B a r = 1.1+ 7.7 ( 1−  )2 cot 
1 
L1 =  max 1−  cot

Step 4: The Total length of the element 4  Bs 
where
c
max =
Step 5 Number of elements: f min
ln(Bs )
N = 1+
( )
ln 1

 Log Periodic antenna Design Procedure
Length of the dipole

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐
Length of the element 𝐿1 > =
2 2𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐶
𝐿𝑁 =≤ =
Spacing between the elements 2 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
3. 5Design a log-periodic dipole antenna to
cover all UHF TV channels, which is from 54
MHz to216MHz The desired directivity is 8 dBi.
3.6 A log periodic dipole array is to be designed
to cover frequency range from 84 MHz to 200
MHz and has a gain of 7.5dB. Find the required
number of elements, total length and length of
each element
 Design steps and considerations

Active area
• It was predicted the relation between desired bandwidth(B)with design
bandwidth (BS) using active region bandwidth (Bar) [all are dimensionless
quantities]
B S = B.B a r
where

B=
f2
( f 1 is intial frequency of desired bandwidth, f 2 is final )
f1
B a r = 1.1+ 7.7 ( 1−  )2 cot 
• Once B and Bar have been arrived, calculate Bs using

B S = B.B a r

• The Total length of the element,

max 1− 1  cot 

L1 =
4  Bs 
where
c
max =
f min

• And Number of Elements N

ln(Bs )
N = 1+
( )
ln 1


• After this, you shall calculate remaining N-1 element length, spacing..
 Example-1 (Balanis’ pg-564)
• Design Specification: Bandwidth from 54MHz to 216MHz, desired
Directivity is 8dB
– Solution:
Step -1: From the graph, get the optimum value of σ.
Optimum design point
For 8dB, σ=0.157 and τ=0.865 For 8dB directivity
• Step-2:  = t a n − 1  1 −   = t a n − 1  1 − 0 . 8 6 5   1 2 o
 4   4  0.157 

• Step-3
B ar = 1.1 + 7.7(1 −  )2 cot  = 1.753
216 All are dimensionless
B = = 4 quantities
54
B S = B.B ar = 7.01
• Step-4
max  1 
L1 = 1−  cot  = 5.541m
4  Bs 
where
c
max = = 5.556m
f min

• Step-5
ln(B )
N = 1+
( )
ln 1s
= 14.43 − −  15 elements
 Final Design

• L1=Lmax=5.541m
• The longest dipole (L1) should be kept at L1/4

i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Li 5.54 4.84 .. .. ..
(m)
Ri(m) 1.38 1.20 .. .. ..

ln+1 Rn+1 dn+1 Sn+1 1

= = = =
ln Rn dn Sn 

Multiband outdoor log Log periodic

periodic antenna
Latest
Log periodic antennas
 Planar Spiral Antenna
3.3 Frequency independent antennas - spiral and log periodic antenna

Spiral Wire antennas

 2. Planar Spiral Antenna
3.3 Frequency independent antennas - spiral and log periodic antenna

Planar spiral: One antenna

would consist of two
metallic arms suspended in
free-space
 Planar Spiral Antenna
3.3 Frequency independent antennas - spiral and log periodic antenna

• The slot antenna is the most

practical, because it can be
conveniently fed by a balanced
coaxial arrangement to maintain its
overall balancinginput impedance
for an infinite structure should be
Zs = Zc = 188.5 ≃ 60𝜋 ohms
• Spiral slot antennas, with good
radiation characteristics, can be built
with one-half to three turns. The
most optimum design seems to be
that with 1.25 to 1.5 turns with an
overall length equal to or greater
than one wavelength. The rate of
expansion should not exceed about
10 per turn.
 3.3 Frequency independent antennas - spiral and log periodic antenna

Planar Spiral Antenna

• The patterns are bidirectional, single lobed, broadside

(maximum normal to the plane), and must vanish along the
directions occupied by the infinite structure.
• The wave is circularly polarized near the axis of the main lobe
over the usable part of the bandwidth.
For a fixed cut, the beamwidth will vary with frequency since
the pattern rotates.
• Typical variations are on the order of 10◦. however, slot
antennas with more broad arms and/or more tightly wound
spirals exhibit smoother and more uniform patterns with
smaller variations in beamwidth with frequency.
• For symmetrical structures, the pattern is also symmetrical with
no tilt to the lobe structure.
 Planar Spiral Antenna
3.3 Frequency independent antennas - spiral and log periodic antenna

The polarization of the radiated wave is controlled by the length of the

arms.
For very low frequencies, such that the total arm length is small
compared to the wavelength, the radiated field is linearly polarized.
As the frequency increases, the wave becomes elliptically polarized and
eventually achieves circular polarization.
Pattern is essentially unaltered through this frequency
the polarization change with frequency can be used as a convenient
criterion to select
the lower cutoff frequency of the usable bandwidth chosen to be the
point where the axial ratio is equal or less than 2 to 1, when the overall
arm length is about one wavelength.
3.3 Frequency independent antennas - spiral and log periodic antenna

On-axis polarization as a function of frequency for one-turn

spiral slot.
3.3 Frequency independent antennas - spiral and log periodic antenna
3.3 Frequency independent antennas - spiral and log periodic antenna
Aperture Antennas

✓ Horn Antenna
Parabolic reflector antenna

Reference: Balanis, and J. D. Krauss

 Advantages
• Horn antenna - simplest and most widely used
microwave antenna above 1 GHz because they
provide
– High Gain
– Good matching to the feeding wave guide (low
VSWR)
– Relatively large bandwidth
– Easy to design (theoretical design is close to
experimental result)
Horn Applications

LNB
Horn Antenna Configuration
 E-Plane and H plane
• Supports only E filed radiation by flattering the opening to E
field orientation.

For E-plane Horn , b > a

For H-Plane Horn, b < a
 Flare angle and horn analysis
▪ Typical flare angle is less than 20, since more
abrupt transition leads to strong mode conversion
and degrade performance
▪ Aperture antenna analysis procedure for horn is
not accurate, complicates analysis and invalid due
to phase error.
▪ Phase error- length from center of feed to center
of horn aperture is different length from center of
horn to aperture edge.
▪ Dielectric or metallic plate lens in the aperture are
used to correct phase error. Those with metallic
ridges increase bandwidth.
 Horn- Design Equations
• Horn Length L=a2/8
• E- plane Flare angle E =2 tan-1(a/2L)
• H plane Flare angle H=2cos-1(L/L+)
• H plane aperture aH= 2L tan (H/2)
• Half power Beam Width HPBWE=56/(aE/)
• Half power Beam Width HPBWH=67/(aH/)
• Directivity D=4Ae/2
• Ae =ap Ap , 0.6<ap< 0.8
 Problems
3.7 Determine the length of the horn, flare angle (E
and H) and H plane aperture of a pyramidal horn
for which E plane aperture is 10. The horn is fed
with a rectangular waveguide with TE10 mode. Let 
=0.2  in E plane and 0.375  in H-plane. Calculate
beamwidth and directivity.
3.8 Determine the length of the horn, flare angle (E
and H) H plane aperture of a pyramidal horn for
which aperture aE =10. The horn is fed with a
rectangular waveguide with TE10 mode. Let  =
/10 in E plane and /4 in H-plane.
a. What are the half power beamwidths?
b. What is the directivity?
 Aperture Antennas

Horn Antenna
✓ Parabolic reflector antenna
Dipole
Reflector
Corner Reflector
Corner reflector
Parabolic reflector
 How it works

• The maximum dimension of antenna

is referred as “Aperture size”. Since
the aperture size is gradually
decreasing towards the vertex, the
phase of each wave-front will be
equal
Reflector Feed
 Off-Set Feed
• Instead of placing the primary feed at the centre, it
placed in an angle. More-over, the paraboloid
dimension also reduced.
• Advantages: No Spill over, No Back Radiation, No
Blocking of rays, Improved directivity, Easier design
than ordinary.
 Cassegrain Feed
• Due to poor Back-lobe effect, the primary feed (horn antenna)
is kept at the vertex of paraboloid, then a primary reflector of
small size been placed – it will act as secondary feed.
• Advantages:
– Reduces Spill over and Back-lobes
– Feed can be placed other than vertex..
– Beam broaden/adjustment can be possible.
• Disadvantage:
– Effective Aperture area is reduces,
– The secondary feed shall block the rays
 Position of feed or focal point
• While designing the Parabolic reflectors, the primary question
is where the focal point should be placed?
– Inside the parabolaid?
– Outside?
– On the plane of opening mouth?
 Spill-Over and Back-Lobe
• While placing the feed or primary antenna, the unwanted radiations shall be
possible, called Spill-over and Back lobe.
• Spill over:
– The radiated field from primary feed shall not reflected by reflector, or some
other noisy signal may reached to primary antenna from unwanted direction.
• Back-Lobe
– From primary antenna, the field shall radiated in back, called Back lobe, shall
created a destruction or polarization change with the reflected waves.

Back Lobe effect

Spill-over
 Over all efficiency

Spill over illuminated

Feed is dipole
 f/d Ratio
• To minimize those two effects, the f/d ratio should be
optimized
• First, the flare angle θ0 (usually it would be half of
HPBW) should be selected (which is decided based
on acceptable spill over)

θ0
d
 Design equations
• Parabolic reflector design d
• Curvature rate (f/d)
• f-focal length θ0

• d- dish diameter
• Angular aperture=20
• BWFN=140/d
• HPBW=70/d
 Design problems
7. Find the angular aperture for a parabolic
reflector of diameter 12m. The curvature rate is
0.55. Also determine the position of feed point
with reference to the reflector.
8. For a parabolic reflector of diameter 6m,
illumination efficiency of 0.65, frequency of
operation 10GHz, determine the beam width,
capture area and directivity.
 Design problems
9. A 3m diameter parabolic reflector is used as receiving
antenna for satellite TV reception at 5GHz. The reflector is
connected to the TV receiver through a 78 coaxial cable.
The aperture efficiency is approximately 75%.Assuming
maximum incident power density from satellite is10W/m2
and incident wave is polarization matched to the reflector
antenna, What is the
i. Directivity of the antenna in dB
ii. Maximum power that can be delivered to the receiving
antenna. Assume no losses
iii. Power delivered to the receive TV if the reflection
coefficient at the transmission line/ receive TV terminal
junction is 0.2. Assume no other losses.