ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

TRANSLATION

1.1. TRANSLATION DEFINED

For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation
and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis.

According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the

great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they
committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God’s
will, they decided to challenge his authority and build a tower that
could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God,
recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a
linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages
so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all
over the earth.

After that incident, the number of languages increased through

diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate,
hence the birth of translation (Benabdelali, 2006). With the birth of
translation studies and the increase of research in the domain,
people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began
to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of
translation history.

What defines translation?

Below are definitions of translation from various scholars:
1. Translation is an act through which the content of a text is
transferred from the source language into the target language
(Foster, 1958). The language to be translated is called the source
language (SL), whereas the language to be translated into or arrived
at is called the target language (TL).

The translator needs to have good knowledge of both the source and
the target language, in addition to a high linguistic sensitivity as he
should transmit the writer's intention, original thoughts and opinions
in the translated version as precisely and faithfully as possible.

2. “Translation is a communicative process which takes place

within a social context” (Hatim, B. and Masim, I. 1990). This
would mean that Translation is putting across a message
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

considering the culture, the speaker, and the context of

conversation.

Due to its prominence, translation has been viewed differently:

3. According to Ghazala (1995), "translation is generally used to
refer to all the processes and methods used to convey the
meaning of the source language into the target language" (P.1.)
Ghazala's definition focuses on the notion of meaning as an
essential element in translation. That is, when translating,
understanding the meaning of the source text is vital to have the
appropriate equivalent in the target text thus, it is the meaning that
is translated in relation to grammar, style and sounds (Ghazala,1995).

4. Translation is a process and a product. Catford (1995:20),

states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in
one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another
language (TL) ". This definition shows that translation is a process in
the sense that is an activity. Performed by people through time,
when expressions are translated into simpler ones in the same
language (Rewording and paraphrasing). It can also be done from
one language into another language. Translation is, on the other
hand, a product since it provides us with other different cultures, to
ancient societies and civilization life when the translated texts reach
us.

5. Translation is when a general management idea is transferred

and reinterpreted in a new setting (Morris & Lancaster, 2006).
Translation accepts that this transfer of an idea is not a ‘friction-less’
process, like diffusion, but change (transformation) is expected to
occur in the translation process. This, therefore, implies that each
translation is unique (Cassell & Lee, 2017).

The view about the role of translation in language education has

been spreading around the world and the idea of using translation
as an aid in language teaching has undergone a positive change.

For instance, Ross (2000) claims that translation is accepted as the

fifth language skill: “Translation is sometimes referred to as the
fifth language skill alongside the other four basic skills
(listening, speaking, reading, writing): “Translation holds a special
importance at an intermediate and advanced level: in the advanced
or final stage of language teaching, translation from L1 to L2 and L2
to L1 is recognized as the fifth skill and the most important social
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

skill since it promotes communication and understanding between

strangers” (cited in Kavaliauskienė et al, 2010: 36).

1.2 TRANSLATION AND ITS HISTORY

Writings on translation go back to the Romans. Jacobsen (1958)
claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire, 1980).

Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who
distinguished between word-for-word translation and
sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice
influenced the following generations of translation up to the 20th
century.

The first instance of Bible translation took place in about 300 B.C.,
when the Old Testament was translated from Hebrew to Greek. The
Old and New Testaments were translated into different languages
beginning in 382 A.D. with the work of St. Jerome. The translation
work was originally done by hand.

Tracing the origins of translation, the term has been derived from
the Latin word translation, which itself comes from trans- and
latum—together meaning "a carrying across" or "a bringing
across”.

In other words, it is the business of carrying across a

message/written content from one text to another, from one person
to another and from one language (source language) to a different
language (target language). It can happen within the same
language (from one dialect to another dialect or from one form to
another) or between languages. It is best seen as a communication
process where the transfer of a message/written content from one
language into a new language takes place.

It is an adaptation from the Greeks concept of <metaphrasis=

(word-for-word or literal) vs. <paraphrasis= (saying in other word).
In linguistic approach, these terms are tantamount to formal
equivalence vs. dynamic equivalence.

Another period that saw a changing step in translation development

was marked by St. Jerome (fourth century CE). “His approach to
translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later
translations of the scriptures” (Munday, 2001).
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

Later on, the translation of the Bible remained a subject to many

conflicts between western theories and ideologies of translation for
more than a thousand years. As Zakhir (2008) points out, the
invention of printing techniques in the 15th century developed the
field of translation and helped in the appearance of early theorists.

The 17th century saw the birth of many influential theorists, such as
● Sir John Denhom
● Abraham Cowley
● John Dryden - who was famous for his distinction between
three types of translation; metaphrase, paraphrase and
imitation.

In the 18th century, the translator was compared to an artist with a

moral duty both to the work of the original author and to the
receiver. Moreover, the study of translation started to be systematic;
Alexander Tayler’s volume “Principle of Translation” is a case in
point.

The 19th century was characterized by two conflicting tendencies;

● the first considered translation as a category of thought and
saw the translator as a creative genius, who enriches the
literature and the language into which he is translating, while
● the second saw him through the mechanical function of
making a text or an author known (McGuire, 1980).

This period of the nineteenth century also saw the birth of many
theories and translations in the domain of literature, especially
poetic translation. An example of these translations is the one used
by Edward Fitzgerald for Rubaiyat Omar Al- Khayyam.

In the second half of the 20th century, studies on translation

became an important course in language teaching and learning at
schools. The period is also characterized by a pragmatic and
systematic approach to the study of translation.

Nowadays, translation research has started to take another path,

which is more automatic. The invention of the internet, together
with the new technological developments in communication and
digital materials, has increased cultural exchanges between nations.
This leads translators to look for ways to cope with these changes
and to look for more practical techniques that enable them to
translate more and waste less. They also felt the need to enter the
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

world of cinematographic translation, hence the birth of

audiovisual translation.

The latter technique, also called screen translation, is concerned

with the translation of all kinds of TV programs, including films,
series, and documentaries. This field is based on computers and
translation software programs, and it is composed of two methods;
dubbing and subtitling. In fact, audiovisual translation marks a
changing era in the domain of translation.

In short, translation has a very wide and rich history in the West.
Since its birth, translation has been the subject of a variety of
research and conflicts between theorists. Each theorist approaches it
according to his viewpoint and field of research, the fact that gives
its history a changing quality.

“Translation is a communicative process which takes place

within a social context” (Hatim, B. andMasim, I. 1990). This would
mean that Translation is putting across a message considering the
culture, the speaker, and the context of conversation.

Why the need to consider these?

Consider the analysis below:
Those from Batangas and those from the southern part would tend
to use the word ‘na’ plus verb. na + verb in their context usually
indicates something that is being performed/happening at this very
moment.

For example:
“Kumain ka na ba” is “Have you eaten,” while “Nakain ka na
ba” is “Are you eating (right now?)” Similarly, “Umulan ngayon”
means it rained some time ago today, while “Naulan ngayon”
means it is raining right now, at this very moment. If a
translator would have to do his role, the context of their
language has to be understood.

1.3. PURPOSE OF TRANSLATION

Translation is the process of turning one language into another.
It is a form of communication used throughout history to share
information between different cultures.
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

The history of translation is a long and complicated one, and it has

been a significant part of human civilization for thousands of years.
However, it has been more challenging than it is Today.
1. The aim of using translation in language classrooms is not to train
professional translators, but to develop learners’ language skills
and their knowledge of English.

Along this purpose, Koppe & Kremer (2010: 2) list the benefits of
the use of translation for learners of foreign language:
● translation provides learners with the practice and skills
necessary to communicate accurately, meaningfully and
appropriately;
● through translation activities, teachers can promote interaction
among learners since they involve the negotiation of multiple
possibilities of form and meaning;
● translation can help learners to interpret, negotiate and
express meaning from different perspectives, according to the
context and its different interpretive communities (Fish,
1980/2003);
● the practice of translation encourages reflection on language
usage and the exchange of different points of view, raising
language awareness.

1.4. TRANSLATION AS PART OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Applied linguists work in many fields and one of them is translation.
The main concern of translation theory is to predict and explain
all phenomena included in the area of translation. Therefore, it
deals with constructing principles, rules and hints for translating
texts and criticizing translations.

In this way, it suggests appropriate translation methods for different

kinds of texts; and in general it provides a background for solving
the problems that arise during the process of translation.

McDonough (2002: 16) lists the questions that Translation theory

tries to answer and illustrates the relationship between applied
linguistics and translation:
● How faithful to the meaning of the original can a translation
into another language be;
● What is acceptable not only in the case of propositional
meaning, but also in the case of metaphor and idiomatic
language
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

● How culture-based meanings may be represented in the other

language
● How translation may be evaluated;
● How translators may be trained;
● How the process of translating as a mental activity develops

Several of these topics have directed implications for questions in

other areas of applied linguistics, for instance in the area of
translation as a language learning task; the advocacy and use of
translation as a ‘natural’ language learning strategy; and the
place of translation in second language competence, that is, as a
skill to be expected of all speakers of two languages as a rather
special skill only to be expected of specialists.

To conclude;
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field occupying the middle
ground as a mediator between the disciplines. It combines the
theoretical bases of these disciplines with professional practices. For
this reason, applied linguistics gives way to practice the
translation theories in many aspects via different disciplines

PRINCIPLES IN TRANSLATION
Below are some general principles which are relevant to all
translation:

a. Meaning. The translation should accurately reflect the meaning of

the original text. Nothing should be arbitrarily added or removed,
though occasionally part of the meaning can be 'transposed',

for example:
He was limp with fatigue might become: Il était tellement
fatigué qu'elle tenait plus debout.

Ask yourself:
- is the meaning of the original text clear? If not, where does the
uncertainty lie?
- are any words 'loaded', that is, are there any underlying
implications? ('Correct me if I'm wrong . . .' suggests 'know I'm right'!)
- is the dictionary meaning of a particular word the most suitable
one? (should suboerzijabe suboersion in English?)
- does anything in the translation sound unnatural or forced?
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

b. Form. The ordering of words and ideas in the translation should

match the original as closely as possible. (This is particularly
important in translating legal documents, guarantees, contracts,
estres falls.

c. Register. Languages often differ greatly in their levels of formality

in a given context (say, the business letter). To resolve these
differences, the translator must distinguish between formal or fixed
expressions and personal expressions, in which the writer or speaker
sets the tone.

Consider also:
- would any expression in the original sound too formal/informal,
cold/warm, personal/impersonal . . . if translated literally?
- what is the intention of the speaker or writer? (to
persuade/dissuade, apologize/criticize?) Does this come through in
the translation?

d. Source language influence. One of the most frequent criticisms

of translation is that 'it doesn't sound natural'. This is because the
translator's thoughts and choice of words are too strongly molded by
the original text. A good way of shaking off the source language (SL)
influence is to set the text aside and translate a few sentences aloud,
from memory. This will suggest natural patterns of thought in the
first language (L1), which may not come to mind when the eye is
fixed on the SL text.

e. Style and clarity. The translator should not change the style of
the original. But if the text is sloppily written, or full of tedious
repetitions, the translator may, for the reader's sake, correct the
defects.

f. Idiom. Idiomatic expressions are notoriously untranslatable.

These include similes, metaphors, proverbs and sayings (as good as
gold), jargon, slang, and colloquialisms (user-friendly, the Big Apple,
yuppie, etc.), and (in English) phrasal verbs.

If the expressions cannot be directly translated, try any of the

following:
- retain the original word, in inverted commas: 'yuppie'
- retain the original expression, with a literal explanation in brackets:
Indian stunrner (dry, hazy weather in late autumn)
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

- use a close equivalent: talk of the deoil : ouk na úrotirna (literally,

'the wolf at the door')
- use a non-idiomatic or plain prose translation: a bit ooer the top: un
peu excessif.

The golden rule is: if the idiom does not work in the Ll, do not force
it into the translation. But differences in language structure often
require changes in the form and order of words. When in doubt,
underline in the original text the words on which the main

In translation, inevitably there will be difference in word used, forms

of expressing the ideas, structure of the lines. Probably there will be
words added, omitted, changed and even another idea. According to
Savory (Almario, V. et.al 2003), it is impossible to give a principle in
translation that will not contradict another principle.

Here are some examples in principle of translation.

1. Every language is rooted from the culture of the people who owns
it.

Examples:
English-‘as white as snow’
Filipino- ‘simputi ng bulak’
English- get the dipper
Ibanag- Afam mu yu Caltex
Ilocano- Alam jay taku

2. Every language has its own property and characteristics which

explains its own behavior. This refers to the structure of the sentence.
English: Subject + Predicate
Filipino: Paksa + Panaguri/ Panaguri+ Paksa

Examples:
English: The students participated in the class discussion.
Filipino: Predicate +Subject/ Subject + Predicate
Sumali and mga mag aaral sa talakayan ng Klase
Ang mga mag-aaral ay sumali sa talakayan ng klase

3. Translation should be accepted by the target receiver. Is the

translation appropriate to the level of the audience?

Examples:
Science - syensya, agham
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

Psychology - sikolohiya
Mathematics - Matematika

4. Abbreviations and Acronyms including formulas that are

considered established or universal in use need not be changed to
conform with spelling and equivalence.

Examples:
DEpEd- Department of Education
CSU- Cagayan State University

5. In instances when more than one equivallece are acceptable, use

any of the equivalences, but provide a footnote for the rest of the
meaning.

Examples:
terminology – terminolohiya, katawagan
testimony – patotoo, patibay, salaysay, patunay, pahayag,
paliwanag
framework – balangkas

6. Brief, concise, condensed expressions should always be observed

in the translation process. This principle refers to 'brevity' o katipiran
in Filipino.

Examples:
It is right to give him thanks and praise.
Marapat na siya'y pasalamatan.

7. A word may have a definite meaning once it becomes a part of a

sentence. The meaning may depend upon the topic, the speaker and
the intention of the message.

Examples:
May bukas pa. - Hindi pa ito ang katapusan ng lahat
Bukas ay kaarawan ko. - Tomorrow is my birthday.
Ano ang magiging bukas mo? - What will be your future?

8. There are instances when direct expressions are best said

euphemistically to avoid awkwardness.

Examples:
Namatay na siya.
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

Sumakabilang buhay na siya.

Nauna na siya.

9. The belief that the Filipino language is inadequate, hence,

translators resort to imitation or borrowing not only the word, but
also the idioms, way of expression, and the structure of the
sentences of English.

Examples:
green thumb – green thumb/malamig ang kamay
mouse – mouse
keyboard – keyboard

10. Consider differences in written expression from spoken

expression. It requires formality of words in translation.

Examples:
Mayroon – meron
Huwag – wag

11. Consider the unity of related words borrowed from English.

Examples:
Solid at liquid - solido at likido
Linguistics and Literature – linggwistika at literatura

12. The property or characteristics of a certain language should not

be transferred to the receptor language.

Examples:
Magandang babae/Babaeng maganda – beautiful girl
Loanwords in English/English Loanwords
Salitang hiram sa Ingles/Hiram na salita sa lngles

13. Dictionary is an auxiliary tool in translation. A translator should

not be totally dependent to dictionaries. Not all words could be
defined by the dictionary, especially when the word is used in a
different context.

Examples:
Comedia – moro-moro
Comedy – a type of drama
Upload – mag-iinput ng data sa web/computer
Download – manguha ng datos sa web/computer
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

KEEP IN MIND
In translation, inevitably there will be difference in word used, forms
of expressing the ideas, structure of the lines. Probably there will be
words added, omitted, changed and even another idea. Hence a
better understanding of the SL and TL is required to fully grasp the
true intention of translation.

1.5. THEORETICAL BASES OF TRANSLATION

There are six main approaches within contemporary translation
theory: sociolinguistic; communicative; hermeneutic; linguistic;
literary; and semiotic.

1. The sociolinguistic approach

According to the sociolinguistic approach to translation, the social
context defines what is and what is not translatable and what is or
what is not acceptable through selection, filtering and even
censorship. According to this perspective, a translator is
necessarily the product of his or her society: our own
sociocultural background is present in everything we translate.
This approach was developed by the School of Tel Aviv and by
linguists and professors such as Annie Brisset, Even Zohar, and
Guideon Toury.

2. The communicative approach

This theory is referred to as interpretive. Scholars Danica
Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer developed what they called the
“theory of sense” based chiefly on the experience of conference
interpreting. According to this perspective, meaning must be
translated, not language. Language is nothing more than a vehicle
for the message and can even be an obstacle to understanding. This
explains why it is always better to deverbalize (instead of
transcoding) when we translate.

3. The hermeneutic approach

The hermeneutic approach is mainly based on George Steiner’s
research. Steiner believed in any human communication as a
translation. His book After Babel shows that translation is not a
science but rather an “exact art”: a true translator should be
capable of becoming a writer in order to capture what the
author of the original text “means to say.”
 ALAGON, JOHN MARK S.

4. The linguistic approach

Linguists such as Vinay, Darbelnet, Austin, Vegliante, or Mounin,
interested in language text, structuralism, and pragmatics, also
examined the process of translating. From this perspective, any
translation –whether it is a marketing translation, a medical
translation, a legal translation or another type of text– should be
considered from the point of view of its fundamental units, that is
the word, the syntax, and the sentence.

5. The literary approach

The literary approach does not consider that a translation is a
linguistic endeavor but instead a literary one. Language has an
“energy” revealed through words that is the result of
experiencing a culture. This charge is what gives it strength and
ultimately, meaning: this is what the translation-writer should
translate.

6. The semiotic approach

Semiotics is the study of signs and signification. A meaning is the
result of a collaboration between a sign, an object, and an
interpreter. Thus, from the perspective of semiotics, translation is
thought of as a way of interpreting texts in which encyclopedic
content varies and each sociocultural context is unique.