Week 1

 Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver via some
form of transmission media such as a wire cable
 Network: A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as
printers is called computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates
information sharing among them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or
wireless media.

Fundamental Characteristics of data communication

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In
the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result
 Communication Channels A channel is a path between two communication
devices
 Channel capacity: How much data can be passed through the channel (bit/sec)
‒ Also called channel bandwidth
‒ The smaller the pipe the slower data transfer!
 Consists of one or more transmission media
‒ Materials carrying the signal
‒ Two types: Physical: wire cable , Wireless: EM waves
Wireless Transmission Media
 Microwaves
‒ Radio waves providing high speed transmission
 ‒ They are point-to-point (can’t be obstructed, require line of sight communication)
‒ Used for satellite communication
 Infrared (IR)
‒ Wireless transmission media that sends signals using infrared light- waves - Such as?
Mouse, printer, smart phones
 Broadcast Radio
‒ Distribute signals through the air over long distance
‒ Typically for stationary locations
‒ Can be short range Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Wi-max
 Cellular Radio
‒ A form of broadcast radio used for mobile communication
‒ High frequency radio waves to transmit voice or data
‒ Utilizes frequency-reuse
 Local Area Networks:
‒ Used for small networks (school, home, office)
‒ Examples and configurations:
 Wireless LAN or Switched LAN
 ATM LAN, Frame Ethernet LAN
 Peer-2-PEER: connecting several computers together (<10)
 Client/Server: The serves shares its resources between different clients
 Metropolitan Area Network
‒ Backbone network connecting all LANs
‒ Can cover a city or the entire country
 Wide Area Network
Typically between cities and countries
‒ Technology: Circuit Switch, Packet Switch, Frame Relay, ATM
‒ Examples: Internet P2P: Networks with the same network software can be connected
together (Napster)
LAN vs. WAN
LAN - Local Area Network a group of computers connected within a building or a campus (Example
of LAN may consist of computers located on a single floor or a building or it might link all the
computers in a small company).
WAN - A network consisting of computers of LAN's connected across a distance WAN can cover
small to large distances, using different topologies such as telephone lines, fiber optic cabling,
satellite transmissions and microwave transmissions.
Point-to-Point WAN
A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices through a
transmission media (cable or air).
Switched WAN
A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. We can say that a switched
WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are connected by switches.

Switching
An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links together. A switch
needs to forward data from a network to another network when
required. The two most common types of switched networks are circuit-switched and packet-
switched networks.
Circuit-Switched Network
In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always
available between the two end systems; the switch can only make it active or inactive.
Packet-Switched Network
In a computer network, the communication between the two ends is done in blocks of data called
packets. In other words, instead of the continuous communication we see
between two telephone sets when they are being used, we see the exchange of individual data
packets between the two computers.
Internet
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do
business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a communication system that
has brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
• Organization of the Internet
• Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
Protocol
 A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of rules that govern data
communications. It determines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing
Elements of Protocol
 Syntax
‒ Structure or format of the data
‒ Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
 Semantics
‒ Interprets the meaning of the bits
‒ Knows which fields define what action
 Timing
‒ When data should be sent and what
‒ Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being received.
Communication Software (Protocols)
Examples of applications (Layer 7) take advantage of the transport (Layer 4) services of TCP and UDP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): A client/server application that uses TCP for transport to retrieve
HTML pages.

Domain Name Service (DNS): A name-to-address translation application that uses both TCP and UDP
transport.
Telnet: A virtual terminal application that uses TCP for transport.
File Transport Protocol (FTP): A file transfer application that uses TCP for transport.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP): A file transfer application that uses UDP for transport.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): An exterior gateway routing protocol that uses TCP for transport.
BGP is used to exchange routing information for the Internet and is the protocol used between
service providers.
Network Examples:
 Intranets
Used for private networks , May implement a firewall
 Hardware and software that restricts access to data and information on a network
 Home networks
Ethernet , Phone line , HomeRF (radio frequency- waves) , Intelligent home network
 Vehicle-to-Vehicle (car2Car)
 ‒ A wireless LAN based communication system to guarantee European-wide inter-vehicle
operability
Emerging Technologies
 m-Cash: Pay using your cell phone
 Scan-free shopping using Radio frequency identification
 VeriChip: Implanted computer chip in the body!
 RFID
 Wearable computer technology
‒ Implanting a cell phone is in your tooth!
 Power over Ethernet (PoE)
Transferring electrical power, along with data, to remote devices over standard category 5 cable in an
Ethernet network,
PoE Plus (802.3at) provides more available Power over fiber?
 Ethernet over powerline
allowing to route data packets through the electrical lines , Up to 200 times faster than DSL (200
Mbps) , Useful when concrete, metal, or other obstructions in the walls and wireless cannot operate
well
 Energy-efficient Ethernet
‒ IEEE P802.3az Energy Efficient Ethernet Task Force
‒ mechanism to reduce power consumption during periods of low link utilization
‒ No frames in transit shall be dropped or corrupted during the transition to and from the
lower level of power consumption
‒ Uses low-power idle proposal for use with 100 Mbit and Gbit connections (causing
possible latency for 10G-bit Ethernet)
Week 2

Need For Protocol Architecture:

 Data exchange can involve complex procedures, Like file transfer
 Better if task broken into subtasks
 Implemented separately in layers in stack
‒ Each layer provides functions needed to perform common services for layers above
‒ Using functions provided by layers below
 Peer layers communicate with a protocol
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture:
 Developed by US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for ARPANET packet
switched network
 Used by the global Internet
 Protocol suite comprises a large collection of standardized protocols
Physical Layer: The physical layer covers the physical interface between a data transmission device
(e.g., workstation, computer) and a transmission medium or network. This layer is concerned with
specifying the characteristics of the transmission medium, the nature of the signals, the data rate,
and related matters.
 Concerned with physical interface between computer and network
 Concerned with issues like:
‒ Characteristics of transmission medium
‒ Signal levels
‒ Data rates
‒ other related matters
Network Access/Data Link Layer:

 Exchange of data between an end system and attached network

 Concerned with issues like :
‒ Destination address provision
‒ Invoking specific services like priority
‒ Access to & routing data across a network link between two attached systems
 Allows layers above to ignore link specifics
Internet Layer (IP)/Network Layer:
 Concerned to provide communications between devices are attached to different networks
 Routing functions across multiple networks
 For systems attached to different networks using IP protocol
 Implemented in end systems and routers
 Routers connect two networks and relays data between them
Transport Layer (TCP):
  The host-to-host layer, or transport layer, collects mechanisms in a common layer shared by all
applications to provide reliable delivery of data.
 Common layer shared by all applications
 Provides reliable delivery of data
 Order is maintained
 Commonly uses TCP
Application Layer:
 Provide support for user applications
 Need a separate module for each type of application
 Application layer protocols are the
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
 Post Office Protocol (POP),
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
 Domain Name System (DNS).
Operation of TCP/IP: The addition of control information to data is referred
to as encapsulation.
 The combination of data from the next higher layer and control
information is known as a protocol data unit (PDU);
 In case of transport layer PDU, it is called as Transport PDU or more typically called as
Segments
 The header in each segment contains control information to be used by the peer transport
protocol
OSI: Open Systems Interconnection
 developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 has seven layers
 is a theoretical system delivered too late!
 TCP/IP is the de facto standard
 Week 3
 Modulation schemes send bits as signals
 Multiplexing schemes share a channel among users.
‒ Baseband Transmission
‒ Passband Transmission
‒ Frequency Division Multiplexing
‒ Time Division Multiplexing
‒ Code Division Multiple Access
‒ Cellular Networks
 The process of converting between bits and signals that represent them is called digital
modulation. It is common for wireless and optical channels for which the signals must reside in
a given frequency band.
Baseband Transmission:
 Line codes send symbols that represent one or more bits
‒ NRZ is the simplest, literal line code (+1V=“1”, -1V=“0”)
‒ Other codes tradeoff bandwidth and signal transitions
Clock Recovery: To decode the symbols, signals need sufficient transitions
• Otherwise long runs of 0s (or 1s) are confusing, e.g.:
• Strategies:Manchester coding, mixes clock signal in every symbol 4B/5B maps 4 data bits to 5
coded bits with 1s and 0s:

Passband Transmission: Modulating the amplitude, frequency/phase of a carrier signal sends bits in
a (non-zero) frequency range
 NRZ signal of bits

Amplitude

Frequency shift keying

Phase shift keying

Multiplexing:
1. Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of
the devices, the link can be shared.
2. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link.
3. As data and telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.

1. TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one
high-rate one.
2. Two types: synchronous and statistical
Cellular Network
0G:Single, powerful base station covering a wide area, and each telephone would effectively
monopolize a channel over that whole area while in use (developed in 40’s) No frequency use or
handoff (basis of modern cell phone technology)
1G: Fully automatic cellular networks introduced in the early to mid 1980s
2G: Introduced in 1991 in Finland on the GSM standard Offered the first data service with person-to-
person SMS text messaging
3G: Faster than PCS; Used for multimedia and graphics. Compared to 2G and 2.5G services, 3G allows
simultaneous use of speech and data services and higher data rates (up to 14.4 Mbit/s on the
downlink and 5.8 Mbit/s.
4G: Fourth generation of cellular wireless;providing a comprehensive and secure IP based service to
users "Anytime, Anywhere" at high data rates.
5G : - Enhanced mobile broadband
- Mission-critical communications
 - 5G is designed to deliver peak data rates up to 20 Gbps.

Week 4
PHYSICAL LAYER:
 Foundation on which other layers build
 Media: wires, fiber, satellites, radio
 Signal propagation: bandwidth, attenuation, noise
 Modulation: how bits are represented as voltage signals
 Fundamental limits:
1-Nyquist (Nyquist's theorem specifies the maximum data rate for noiseless condition)
2-Shannon(Shannon theorem specifies the maximum data rate under a noise condition)
Abstract Model of a Link/channel:
 Bit rate: bits/sec depends on the channel’s bandwidth
 Delay: how long does it take a bit to get to the end?
 Error rate: what is the probability of a bit flipping
Classes of transmission Media

 Wires – Twisted Pair: Very common; used in LANs, telephone lines

 Twists reduce radiated signal (interference)
 UTP = Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Category 5 UTP cable with four twisted pairs
Twisted Pair:

Unshielded vs Shielded TP:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
‒ ordinary telephone wire
‒ cheapest
‒ easiest to install
‒ suffers from external EM interference
  Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
‒ metal sheathing that reduces interference
‒ more expensive
‒ harder to handle (thick, heavy)
 Various categories -

Kinds of Wire:
 Cat 3: Home telephone lines
 Cat 5: Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
 Cat 5e: Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
 Cat 6: 10-Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps) up to 100 m
 Cat 6A: Better quality Cat 6
 Cat 7: Includes shielding (not in common use)
Near End Crosstalk:
 Coupling of signal from one pair to another
 Occurs when transmit signal entering the link couples back to receiving pair ie. near
transmitted signal is picked up by near receiving pair
Wires – Coaxial Cable (“Co-ax”):
 Better shielding and more bandwidth for longer distances and higher rates than twisted pair.
Transmission characteristics:
 Superior frequency characteristics to TP
 Performance limited by attenuation & noise
 Analog signals
 Amplifiers every few km
 closer if higher frequency
 up to 500MHz
 Digital signals
 repeater every 1km
 closer for higher data rates
Wires – Power Lines:
 Household electrical wiring is another example of wires
 Convenient to use, but poor for sending data
Fiber Cables (2):
 Common for high rates and long distances
 Long distance ISP links, Fiber-to-the-Home
 Light carried in very long, thin strand of glass
  Single-mode
• Core so narrow (10um) light can’t even bounce around
• Used with lasers for long distances, e.g., 100km
 Multi-mode
• Other main type of fiber
• Light can bounce (50um core)
• Used with LEDs for cheaper, shorter distance links
Optical Fiber Transmission Modes:

TAT-14 TransAtlantic Cable:

 Fiber cable lies on the ocean floor (8000 m deep)
 Ring structure
 Two pairs of fibers used plus two pairs for backup
 Theoretical capacity is 3 Tbps
 Cables are not well protected and there is no backup
Optical Fiber – Benefits:
 Greater capacity
‒ data rates of hundreds of Gbps
 Smaller size & weight
 Lower attenuation
 Electromagnetic isolation
 Greater repeater spacing
‒ 10s of km at least
Optical Fiber - Transmission Characteristics:
 Uses total internal reflection to transmit light
‒ effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
 Can use several different light sources
‒ Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 • cheaper, wider operating temp range, lasts longer
‒ Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• more efficient, has greater data rate
Relation of wavelength, type & data rate
Wire vs. Fiber:
Property Wires Fiber

Distance Short (100s of m) Long (tens of km)

Bandwidth Moderate Very High
Cost Inexpensive Less cheap
Convenience Easy to use Less easy
Security Easy to tap Hard to tap

Wireless Transmission:
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Radio Transmission
 Microwave Transmission
 Light Transmission
 Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber

Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication: Unguided Media: Wireless

Signals can travel via ground propagation, sky propagation, line-of-sight propagation.

Band Range Propagation Application

 VLF 3–30 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation

Radio beacons and

LF 30–300 KHz Ground
navigational locators

MF 300 KHz–3 MHz Sky AM radio

Citizens band (CB),

HF 3–30 MHz Sky
ship/aircraft communication

Sky and VHF TV,

VHF 30–300 MHz
line-of-sight FM radio

Line-of- UHF TV, cellular phones,

UHF 300 MHz–3 GHz
sight paging, satellite

Line-of-
SHF 3–30 GHz Satellite communication
sight

Line-of-
EHF 30–300 GHz Long-range radio navigation
sight

Omnidirectional antennas:
 Radio waves are electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz and
those between 1 and 300 GHz are called Microwaves.
 Radio waves
‒ Omnidirectional; Propagate to long distances
‒ Can penetrate walls and so no boundary.
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television.
 Microwaves are unidirectional.
 Very high frequency microwave cannot penetrate walls.
 Parabolic dish antenna
‒ Every line parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles
such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus.
 Horn antenna
‒ Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem (resembling a handle) and deflected
outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by the curved head.
‒ Received transmissions are collected by the scooped shape of the horn, in a manner
similar to the parabolic dish, and are deflected down into the stem.
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.
  Infrared Signals: 300 GHz to 400 THz.
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-
sight propagation
 Cannot penetrate walls.
 Some manufacturers provide a special port called the IrDA port that allows a wireless
keyboard to communicate with a PC.
Line of Sight Transmission:
 Free space loss
‒ loss of signal with distance
 Atmospheric Absorption
‒ from water vapour and oxygen absorption
 Multipath
‒ multiple interfering signals from reflections
 Refraction
‒ bending signal away from receiver

Light Transmission: Line-of-sight light (no fiber) can be used for links
• Light is highly directional, has much bandwidth
• Use of LEDs/cameras and lasers/photodetectors
Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber: Wireless:
+ Easy and inexpensive to deploy
+ Naturally supports mobility
+ Naturally supports broadcast
– Transmissions interfere and must be managed
– Signal strengths hence data rates vary greatly
Wires/Fiber:
+ Easy to engineer a fixed data rate over point-to-point links
– Can be expensive to deploy, esp. over distances
– Doesn’t readily support mobility or broadcast
Communication Satellites:
 Satellites are effective for broadcast distribution and anywhere/anytime communications
 Kinds of Satellites
 Geostationary (GEO) Satellites
 Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
  Satellites vs. Fiber
Kinds of Satellites: Satellites and their properties vary by altitude:
• Geostationary (GEO), Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO), and Low-Earth Orbit (LEO)
 GEO satellites orbit 36,000 km above a fixed location
 VSAT can communicate with the help of a hub
 Up and down time is about 250 msec
 Big problem for voice

 Satellite vs. Fiber: Satellite:

‒ Can rapidly set up anywhere/anytime communications (after satellites have been
launched)
 Can broadcast to large regions
‒ Limited bandwidth and interference to manage
 Fiber:
 Enormous bandwidth over long distances
 Installation can be more expensive/difficult
 Doesn’t work at sea or in remote areas

Week 5
Data Link Layer Design
 Services Provided to the Network Layer
 Framing
 Error Control
 Flow Control
Relationship between packets and frames.

1. Frame Header: It consists of the frame's source and destination address.

2. Payload Field: It contains the message to be delivered.
 3. Flag: It points to the starting and the ending of the frame.
4. Trailer: It contains the error detection and correction bits.
1.Unacknowledged connectionless service.
(Consists of having the source machine send independent frames to the destination
machine without having the destination machine acknowledge them. Ethernet is a
good example of a data link layer that provides this class of service.)
2. Acknowledged connectionless service.
(When this service is offered, there are still no logical connections used, but each frame
sent is individually acknowledged.
802.11 (WiFi) is a good example of this class of service. If the acknowledgement is not
forthcoming before the timer expires, thesender can just send the entire message
again. )
3. Acknowledged connection-oriented service.
(The source and destination machines establish a connection before any data are
transferred. Each frame sent over the connection is numbered, and the data link layer
guarantees that each frame sent is indeed received.
1st connection is established ,2nd frames are actually transmitted ,final phase, the
connection is released, freeing up the variables, buffers, and other resources used to
maintain the connection )
services provided to network layer

Framing
 It is the network adaptor that enables the nodes to exchange blocks of data
called frames at this level, not bit streams.
 A good design must make it easy for a receiver to find the start of new frames
while using little of the channel bandwidth.
We will look at four methods:
1. Byte count.
2. Flag bytes/Character Stuffing.
3. Flag bits /Bit Stuffing .
4. Physical layer coding violations
 Framing is a point-to-point connection between two devices in which data is transmitted as a
stream of bits.
 When node A wishes to transmit a frame to node B, it tells its adaptor to transmit a frame
from the node’s memory. This results in a sequence of bits being sent over the link.
 The adaptor on node B then collects the sequence of bits arriving on the link and deposits the
corresponding frame in B’s memory.
 Recognizing exactly what set of bits constitute a frame—that is, determining where the
frame begins and ends—is the central challenge faced by the adaptor
Types of Framing
 Byte-oriented Protocols
‒ To view each frame as a collection of bytes (characters) rather than bits
‒ BISYNC (Binary Synchronous Communication) Protocol
• Developed by IBM (late 1960)
‒ DDCMP (Digital Data Communication Protocol)
‒ Bit-Oriented Framing e.g HDLC
‒ A bit-oriented protocol is not concerned
with byte boundaries—it simply views the frame as a collection of bits
Framing
 BISYNC – sentinel approach
‒ Frames transmitted beginning with leftmost field
‒ Beginning of a frame is denoted by sending a special SYN (synchronize) character
‒ Data portion of the frame is contained between special sentinel character STX (start of
text) and ETX (end of text)
‒ SOH : Start of Header
‒ DLE : Data Link Escape
‒ CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check (error detection method)

PPP Frame Format

 Recent PPP which is commonly run over Internet links uses sentinel approach
‒ Special start of text character denoted as Flag
• 01111110
‒ Address, control : default numbers

‒ Protocol for demux : IP / IPX

 ‒ Payload : negotiated (1500 bytes)
‒ Checksum : for error detection

(a) A frame delimited by flag bytes used in PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol),

(b) Bit stuffing refers to the insertion of one or more bits into a data transmission as a way to
provide signaling information to a receiver.
(c) The receiver knows how to detect, remove or disregard the stuffed bits.
 Byte-counting approach
‒ DDCMP
‒ count : how many bytes are contained in the frame body
‒ If count is corrupted
• Framing error

 Bit-oriented Protocol
‒ HDLC : High Level Data Link Control
• Beginning and Ending Sequences
01111110

 HDLC Protocol
‒ On the receiving side
Look at the next bit
If 0 ( 01111110 )  End of the frame marker
If 1 ( 01111111 )  Error, discard the whole frame
 The receiver needs to wait for next 01111110 before it can start
receiving again

Bit stuffing
(a) The original data.
(b) The data as they appear on the line.
(c) The data as they are stored in receiver’s memory after destuffing.
Error Detection
 Error Detecting Codes (Implemented at Data link layer or Transport Layer of OSI
Model)
 During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors in
the binary bits travelling from sender to receiver. That means a 0 bit may change
to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.
 An error occurs when a bit is altered between transmission and reception:
 “A binary 1 is transmitted and a binary 0 is received, or a binary 0 is transmitted
and a binary 1 is received.”
 To avoid this, we use error-detecting codes which are additional data added to a
given digital message to help us detect if any error has occurred during
transmission of the message.
 Common technique for detecting transmission error
 CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
 Used in HDLC, DDCMP, CSMA/CD, Token Ring
 Other approaches
 Two-Dimensional Parity (BISYNC)
 Checksum (IP)
Types of Error
 Single bit errors: A single-bit error can occur in the presence of white noise, when
a slight random deterioration of the signal-to-noise ratio is sufficient to confuse
the receiver's decision of a single bit.
 ‒ only one bit altered, caused by white noise
 Burst errors: Contiguous sequence of B bits in which first last and any number of
intermediate bits in error
‒ caused by impulse noise or by fading in wireless(is variation of the
attenuation of a signal with various variables.)
‒ effect greater at higher data rates
Parity Schemes
‒ we use error-detecting codes which are additional data added to a given
digital message to help us detect if any error has occurred during transmission
of the message.
‒ Some popular techniques for error detection are:
1. Simple /Single Parity check
2. Two-dimensiona Parity check
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic redundancy checkSingle (even) parity bit

Blocks of data from the source are subjected to a check bit or parity bit generator form,
where a parity of :
• 1 is added to the block if it contains odd number of 1’s, and
• 0 is added if it contains even number of 1’s
This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is called even parity
checking.
Two-dimensional parity
 Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to a simple parity
check bit. Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then both are sent
along with the data.
 At the receiving end these are compared with the parity bits calculated on the
received data.
One extra bit (parity bit) added to a 7-bit code
One parity byte for the entire frame
Checksum
 In checksum error detection scheme, the data is divided into k segments each of m
bits.
 In the sender’s end the segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to
get the sum. The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
 The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
 At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.

Cyclic Redundancy Check

 Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary
division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are
appended to the end of data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly
divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
  At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this
step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore
accepted.
A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore must
be rejected.
CRC Schemes

CRC Divisor Polynomial

Cyclic Redundancy Check

If the
reminder is
zero, accept

Cyclic Redundancy Check

Flow Control
 Flow control in Data Link Layer simply restricts and coordinates number of frames
or amount of data sender can send just before it waits for an acknowledgement
from receiver.
 Influenced by:
‒ transmission time
• time taken to emit all bits into medium
‒ propagation time
 • time for a bit to traverse the link

Part II - Reliable Transmission

 ARQ stands for Automatic Repeat Request also known as Automatic Repeat Query.
 ARQ is an error-control strategy used in a two-way communication system.
 It is a group of error-control protocols to achieve reliable data transmission over an unreliable
source or service.
 These protocols reside in Transport Layer and Data Link Layer of the OSI Model. ARQ stands
for Automatic Repeat Request also known as Automatic Repeat Query.
 ARQ is an error-control strategy used in a two-way communication system.
 It is a group of error-control protocols to achieve reliable data transmission over an unreliable source or service.
 These protocols reside in Transport Layer and Data Link Layer of the OSI Model.
 Types
 There are several types of ways in which these protocols function in the data link layer :
 Stop And Wait ARQ
 Go Back-N ARQ
 SelectiveRepeatARQ/SelectiveRejectARQ

Error Control
 Error control is basically process in data link layer of detecting or identifying and re-
transmitting data frames that might be lost or corrupted during transmission.
 Detection and correction of errors such as:
‒ lost frames
‒ damaged frames
 Common techniques use:
‒ error detection
‒ positive acknowledgment
‒ retransmission after timeout
‒ negative acknowledgement & retransmission
Advantages of Framing in Data Link Layer
 • Frames are used continuously in the process of time-division multiplexing.
• It facilitates a form to the sender for transmitting a group of valid bits to a receiver.
• Frames also contain headers that include information such as error-checking codes.
• A Frame relay, token ring, ethernet, and other types of data link layer methods
have their frame structures.
• Frames allow the data to be divided into multiple recoverable parts that can be
inspected further for corruption.
• It provides a flow control mechanism that manages the frame flow such that the
data congestion does not occur on slow receivers due to fast senders.
• It provides reliable data transfer services between the layers of the peer network.

Week 6
Ethernet
 Ethernet is a communication protocol that connects numerous devices to LAN (Local Area Network) or WAN
(Wide Area Network). It allows devices such as switches, printers, and computers to exchange data and
enable uninterrupted communication.
 Ethernet is a setup that connects various devices and LANs using hubs and switches. It
transmits information or data through CSMA (carrier sense multiple access) and CD (collision
detection).
 i) Fast Ethernet
Fast Ethernet refers to an Ethernet network that can transfer data at a rate of 100 Mbit/s.
 ii) Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet delivers a data rate of 1,000 Mbit/s (1 Gbit/s).
 iii) 10 Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet is the recent generation and delivers a data rate of 10 Gbit/s (10,000 Mbit/s). It is
generally used for backbones in high-end applications requiring high data rates.

Ethernet –
• Most widely used LAN technology
 • Operates in the data link layer and the physical layer
• Family of networking technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3
standards
• Supports data bandwidths of 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, 40,000, and 100,000 Mbps (100
Gbps)
Ethernet standards –
• Define Layer 2 protocols and Layer 1 technologies
• Two separate sub layers of the data link layer to operate - Logical link control (LLC) and
the MAC sublayers
LLC and MAC Sublayers
LLC
• Handles communication between upper and lower layers
• Takes the network protocol data and adds control information to help deliver the packet to
the destination
MAC
• Constitutes the lower sublayer of the data link layer
• Implemented by hardware, typically in the computer NIC
• Two primary responsibilities:
• Data encapsulation, Media access control

Data encapsulation
• Frame assembly before transmission and frame disassembly upon reception of a frame
• MAC layer adds a header and trailer to the network layer PDU
Provides three primary functions:
• Frame delimiting – identifies a group of bits that make up a frame, synchronization between
the transmitting and receiving nodes
• Addressing – each Ethernet header added in the frame contains the physical address (MAC
address) that enables a frame to be delivered to a destination node
• Error detection - each Ethernet frame contains a trailer with a cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
of the frame contents
Media Access Control
 • Responsible for the placement of frames on the media and the removal of frames from the
media
• Communicates directly with the physical layer
• If multiple devices on a single medium attempt to forward data simultaneously, the data will
collide resulting in corrupted, unusable data
• Ethernet provides a method for controlling how the nodes share access through the use a
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) technology

Week 7
Network Security
Information Security requirements have changed in recent times
 traditionally provided by physical and administrative mechanisms
 computer use requires automated tools to protect files and other stored information
 use of networks and communications links requires measures to protect data during
transmission.
 A system is said to be secure if its resources are used and accessed as intended under all the
circumstances, but no system can guarantee absolute security from several of various
malicious threats and unauthorized access.
 Security goals
 There are three fundamental security goals
 Confidentiality: refers to the concealment of secret or private information from unauthorized
persons.
 Individual person or Organizations needs their sensitive information must not be disclosed to
unauthorized persons.
 disclosure of secret information may harm an organization severelyIntegrity: Integrity means that
changes in information needs to be done only by authorized users and through authorized mechanisms.
 Availability: means the information needs to be available to authorized entities when it is
required.
 SECURITY ATTACK.
 Any action that compromise security of information owned by an organization is called security
attack or security threat.
 The three goals of security confidentiality, integrity, and availability can be threatened by
security attacks.
 Attacks Threatening Confidentiality:
 Snooping refers to unauthorized access to or interception of data.
 Traffic analysis refers to obtaining some other type of information by monitoring online traffic.
 Other type of information may include email addresses of sender and receiver, frequency of
communication to help for guessing nature of transaction
Attacks Threatening Integrity
 Modification :means that the attacker intercepts the message and changes it.
Masquerading or spoofing happens when the attacker impersonates (pretend to be)somebody
else.
Replaying means the attacker obtains a copy of a message sent by a user and later tries to
replay it.
Repudiation means that sender of the message might later deny that she has sent the
message; the receiver of the message might later deny that he has received the message.
Attacks Threatening AvailabilityDenial of service (DoS) is a very common attack. It may slow down or
totally interrupt the service of a system.
Taxonomy of attacks with relation to security goals
Passive attacks: aim is just to obtain information, no modification Or harm the system)
Active attacks: may change the data or harm the system

Security Services
 A processing or communication service which enhance security of data processing systems and
information transfers of an organization
 intended to counter security attacks
 using one or more security mechanisms

Data Confidentiality –designed to protect of data from unauthorized disclosure and traffic analysis
Data Integrity – design to protect data from modification, insertion, deletion and replaying by
an attacker.
Authentication – provides authentication of the party at the other end of the line.
Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by one of the parties in a communication
Access Control - prevention of the unauthorized use of a resource
Security Mechanism (X.800)
 Process designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a security attack
 no single mechanism that will support all services required
 however, one particular service element underlies many of the security mechanisms in use:
  cryptographic techniques
 hence our focus on this topic

Cryptography & Network Security

 Model for Network Securityusing this model requires us to:
1. design a suitable algorithm for the security transformation
2. generate the secret information (keys) used by the algorithm
3. develop methods to distribute and share the secret information
4. specify a protocol enabling the principals to use the transformation and secret information for a
security service

 Cryptography vs Steganography
 Cryptography, a word with Greek origins, means “secret writing.” However, we use the term to refer to the
science and art of transforming messages to make them secure and immune to attacks.
 The word steganography, with origin in Greek, means “covered writing,” in contrast with cryptography, which
means “secret writing.”
Cryptography
 characterize cryptographic system by:
 type of encryption operations used
• substitution / transposition / product
 number of keys used
• single-key or private / two-key or public
 way in which plaintext is processed
• block / stream
 INTRODUCTION
 Symmetric and asymmetric-key cryptography will exist in parallel and continue to serve the community. We
believe that they are complements of each other; the advantages of one can compensate for the
disadvantages of the other.
 In general, there are three types Of cryptography:
 1-Symmetric Key Cryptography:
 2-Hash Functions
 3-Asymmetric Key Cryptography
Symmetric Key CryptographyIt is an encryption system where the sender and receiver of message use a single
common key to encrypt and decrypt messages. Symmetric Key Systems are faster and simpler, but the problem is
that sender and receiver have to somehow exchange key in a secure manner. The most popular symmetric key
cryptography system is Data Encryption System(DES).
2-Hash Functions:
There is no usage of any key in this algorithm. A hash value with fixed length is calculated as per the
plain text which makes it impossible for contents of plain text to be recovered. Many operating
systems use hash functions to encrypt passwords.

3-Asymmetric Key Cryptography:

Under this system a pair of keys is used to encrypt and decrypt information. A public key is used for encryption and
a private key is used for decryption. Public key and Private Key are different. Even if the public key is known by
everyone the intended receiver can only decode it because he alone knows the private key.

Model for Network Security

Cryptanalytic Attacks
 ciphertext only
 only know algorithm & ciphertext, is statistical, can identify plaintext
 known plaintext
 also have plaintext for the ciphertext
 chosen plaintext
 Also can select plaintext and obtain ciphertext
 chosen ciphertext
Also can select ciphertext and obtain plaintext
Week 8
Authentication Protocols
 authentication is the first line of defense.
 It is the process of determining whether a user is who they say they are—
 Authentication is purely the means of confirming digital identification, so users have the level of permissions to
access or perform a task they are trying to do.
 There are many authentication technologies, ranging from passwords to fingerprints, to confirm the identity of
a user before allowing access. Doing so adds a layer of protection and prevents security lapses like data
 breaches. Though, it’s often the combination of different types of authentication that provides secure system
reinforcement against possible threats
What are the types of authentication?
 Authentication keeps invalid users out of databases, networks, and other resources.
 Use factors, a category of credential for verification, to confirm user identity. Here are just a few of those
methods.
 Single-Factor/Primary Authentication
 Two-Factor Authentication (2FA)
 Single Sign-On (SSO)
 Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)
What are the types of authentication?
Single-Factor/Primary Authentication
Single-Factor Authentication, is also the least secure, as it only requires one factor to gain full system access.
It could be a
 username and password,
 pin-number
 another simple code.
 While user-friendly, Single-Factor authenticated systems are relatively easy to infiltrate by phishing, key
logging, or guessing.
 As there is no other authentication gate to get through, this approach is highly vulnerable to attack.
Two-Factor Authentication (2FA)
two-factor authentication reinforces security efforts.
 Double-checks that a user is, in reality, the user they’re attempting to log in as—
 Users enter their primary authentication credentials (like the username/password mentioned above) and then
must input a secondary piece of identifying information.
 Possible secondary factors are a one-time password from an authenticator app, a phone number, or device
that can receive a push notification or SMS code, or a biometric like fingerprint (Touch ID) or facial (Face ID) or
voice recognition.
 2FA significantly minimizes the risk of system or resource compromise, as it’s unlikely an invalid user would
know or have access to both authentication factors.
While two-factor authentication is now more widely adopted for this reason, it does cause some user
inconvenience, which is still something to consider in implementation
Single Sign-On (SSO)
 With SSO, users only have to log in to one application and, in doing so, gain access to many other applications.
 This method is more convenient for users, Organizations can accomplish this by identifying a central domain
and then creating secure SSO links between resources.
 This process allows domain-monitored user authentication and, with single sign-off, can ensure that when valid
users end their session, they successfully log out of all linked resources and applications.
Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)
 Multi-factor authentication is a high-assurance method, as it uses more system-irrelevant factors to legitimize
users.
Like 2FA, MFA uses factors like biometrics, device-based confirmation, additional passwords, and even location or
behavior-based information (e.g., keystroke pattern or typing speed) to confirm user identity.
 However, the difference is that while 2FA always utilizes only two factors, MFA could use two or three, with
the ability to vary between sessions, adding an elusive element for invalid users.
 common authentication protocols
 Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
PAP is the least secure protocol for validating users by a username and password combination, but not
recommended mostly due to its lack of encryption
common authentication protocols
 Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)
CHAP is an identity verification protocol that verifies a user to a given network with a higher standard of
encryption using a three-way exchange of a “secret.
It is inherently more secure than PAP, as the router can send a challenge at any point during a session, and PAP
only operates on the initial authentication approval.


Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)
 This protocol supports many types of authentication, from one-time passwords to smart cards.
 When used for wireless communications, EAP is the highest level of security as it allows a given access point
and remote device to perform mutual authentication with built-in encryption.
 It connects users to the access point that requests credentials, confirms identity via an authentication server,
and then makes another request for an additional form of user identification to again confirm via the server—
completing the process with all messages transmitted, encrypted.

Example systems
We have now seen many of the components required to provide one or two aspects of security. These
components include cryptographic algorithms, key pre distribution mechanisms, and authentication protocols. In
this section, we examine some complete systems that use these components.
These systems can be roughly categorized by the protocol layer at which they operate. Systems that operate at the
application layer include
 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), which provides electronic mail security,
 Secure Shell (SSH), a secure remote login facility.
 At the transport layer, there is the IETF’s Transport Layer Security (TLS) standard and the older protocol from
which it derives, Secure Socket Layer (SSL).
The IPsec (IP Security) protocols, operate at the IP (network) layer. 802.11i provides security at the link layer of
wireless networks
Transport Layer Security (TLS, SSL, HTTPS)
 TLS encrypts data sent over the Internet to ensure that eavesdroppers and hackers are unable to see what
you transmit which is particularly useful for private and sensitive information such as passwords, credit card
numbers, and personal correspondence.
 That is, the sender can open connections and deliver bytes for transmission, and the secure transport layer will
get them to the receiver with the necessary confidentiality, integrity, and authentication.
 By running the secure transport layer on top of TCP, all of the normal features of TCP (reliability, flow control,
congestion control, etc.) are also provided to the application.
 When HTTP is used in this way, it is known as HTTPS (Secure HTTP). In fact, HTTP itself is unchanged. It simply
delivers data to and accepts data from the SSL/TLS layer rather than TCP. For convenience, a default TCP port
has been assigned to HTTPS (443)
Handshake Protocol
 The handshake protocol uses the public key infrastructure (PKI) and establishes a shared symmetric key
between the parties to ensure confidentiality and integrity of the communicated data.
 The part of TLS that negotiates the choices and establishes the shared master secret is called the handshake
protocol. (Actual data transfer is performed by TLS’s record protocol) .
 The handshake protocol is at heart a session key establishment protocol, with a master secret instead of a
session key.
This enables them to detect any discrepancies between the handshake messages they sent and received, such
as would result, for example, if a man in the middle modified the initial unencrypted client message to weaken
its choices of cryptographic algorithms
IP Security (IPsec)
 IPsec is used for protecting sensitive data, such as financial transactions, medical records and corporate
communications, as it's transmitted across the network. It's also used to secure virtual private networks
(VPNs), where IPsec tunneling encrypts all data sent between two endpoints.
 IPsec consists of two parts. The first part is a pair of protocols that implement the available security services.
They are the Authentication Header (AH), which provides access control, connectionless message integrity,
authentication, and antireplay protection, and the Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP), which supports these
same services, plus confidentiality.
 The second part is support for key management, which fits under an umbrella protocol known as the Internet
Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP)

Wireless Security (802.11i)

 The IEEE 802.11i standard provides authentication, message integrity, and confidentiality to 802.11 (Wi-Fi) at
the link layer.
 The AP forwards authentication messages between the wireless device and the Auth.Srvr. The protocol used
for authentication is called the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP).
 EAP is designed to support multiple authentication methods—smart cards, Kerberos, one-time passwords,
public key authentication, and so on—as well as both one-sided and mutual authentication.
 So, EAP is better thought of as an authentication framework than a protocol. Specific EAP-compliant protocols,
of which there are many, are called EAP methods.