ow «ne oo ee yoo pes ae yout ao date is on a multimethod n ahat compares 18S rRNA gene DNA base composition and DNA vn values, combined with biochemical, ical and ultrastructure characters. (Huss 1999). gizatie (pISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF Fol w CHLOROPHYCEAE sowing are the important distinguishing features Fhe green algae. “They exhibit a wide range in their thallus gqucture and morphology (i) Unicellular motile form: e.g., Chlamydomonas, Sphaerella. (i) Unicellular —non-motile form: eg. Chlorella, Chlorococcum. i) Coenobium: ¢.g., Pandorina, Eudorina, Volvox, Pediastrum, Hydrodictyon (iv) Palmelloid: e.g., Tetraspora. (») Dendroid: e.g., Ecballocystis. (vi) Filamentous unbranched: eg., Ulothrix, Spirogyra. (vii) Filamentous branched: e.g. Cladophora iii) Heterotrichous: e.g. Fritschiella, Coleochaete, Stigeoclonium, Draparnaldiopsis ( 8) my (x) Parenchymatous: ix) Siphonaceous: ¢.g..__Protosiphon, Vaucheria, Codium: Ulva, Entero- eg. morpha. ‘The cell structure is eukaryotic. The cell wall generally has cellulose as the main structural polysaccharide except for siphonaceous forms, which have mannan or xylan. In Chara the cell wall is impregnated with calcium carbonate. The protoplast is bounded by a thin and semipermeable plasma membrane. The cytoplasm possesses many small vacuoles or there is a large contractile vacuole. Like all other eukaryotes, the cells of the green algae have mitochondria, golgt central : General Characters and Classification (6) a” (8) (9) a3) a4) 75 bodies, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, membrane bound plastids and other cell organelles. Their main pigments are chlorophyll a and 4, but o and B carotenes and xanthophylls are also present. The shape of the chloroplast shows much variation; it is cup shaped (e.g., Chlamydo- monas), girdle shaped (e.g., Ulothrix), reticulate (e.g., Cladophora, Oedogonium). Parietal (e.g, Draparnaldiopsis), stellate (e.g., Zygnema), spiral (e.g., Spirogyra) or discoid (e.g., Vaucheria, Chara). The chloroplast normally contains pyrenoids surrounded by a sheath of starch They have well organized nucleus. Usually there is a single nucleus in each cell, but the members of —Siphonales and Cladophorales are coenocytic. The position, size and shape of nuclei are quite variable. The nucleoli and chromosomes remain suspended in the granular matrix of the nucleus. In general, there is a_ single nucleolus per nucleus but in Conjugales, there are several nucleoli in a nucleus. Most of the flagellate cells have a photosensitive red eye spot or stigma in the anterior portion, near the flagellar base. The reserve food is starch, composed of amylose and amylopectin. The motile vegetative or reproductive cells (zoospores or gametes) have two (rarely four) equal, smooth, whip-like flagella. However, in Oedogoniales the motile cells have a crown of flagella. In a few instances (e.g, Haematococeus), there are pleuronematic flagella of equal length. ‘They reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods. The vegetative propagation takes place by cell division and fragmentation. Akinetes, zoospores and aplanospores are the main asexual spores Zoospores are often formed during night ‘and are then liberated in- morning. Sexual reproduction occurs in all members, ‘ome Chlorococeales. It may be except st anisogamous or oogamous. isogamous,Bacillariophyceae : 176 scopic and are va bl y may be triangular ated est-shaped (cx. (e.g.Triceratium me ds Cymbella), rod-shaped (e.g. Gryrasigena, Cys I (eg, — Cocconeis Bacillaria), oval Bs placentula) or spherical (¢.g., Coscinodiscus excentricus). (3). The cell shows radial or bilateral symmetry (4) A rigid overlapping cell wall is present which is known as frustule. The shell or frustule is composed of two halves: larger epitheca and smaller hypotheca. The shell is made up of pectic substances but. is impregnated with high amounts (sometimes UP t© 95%) of siliceous. substances (5) The vegetative cell is ate and diploid. It usually has two large parietal OF many discoid plastids. It is olive green &F golden in colour, and its main pigments are chlorophyll a, chlorophyll ¢ and xanthophyll (such as diatoxanthin, diadinoxanthin) The storage products of photosynthesis oil and chrysolaminarin (7) Motile cells (antherozoids) Pantonematic flagellum, (8) The cells show (9) Vegetative re division. (10) Sexual reproduction is oogamous The zygote formed as a result of pametic union develops into a speci called auxospore, Con by cell division result Cell size and au: the original (2) The cells are micro uninue| fucoxanthin, (6) are have one gliding movement Production takes place by cell isogamous oy (i) 's in the reduction of XOspores help in re cell size, Thus, formation IS 4 restoratiys Process gaining aUXospore © or rejuvenation xual reproduction, isogamous. ynedra, Epithemia. Order 2. Centrates, This radially symmetricat forms, The gliding movements, Sexual Feprov, egy ‘anisogamous or oogamous, ant the i are motile, Examples Cyelotetla, Mantes Rutilaria, Biddulphia, ee. losing A general account of the following pages. if Present ig examples Eunotia, Navicula, Order f diatoms ig PrOvideg in Occurrence ce Diatoms are found in almost eye pas environment. Genera like Synedna eosin, oir Navicula and Asterionella are SUiCtLy fresher and Sceletonema, Fragilaria, Hemidiseus, in marine habitat plankton in ponds roadside ponds diatoms, Corethron, ete Some aquatic form, and lakes. The al and pools always includes sone Species of Pinnularia, Frustulia, Amphora and Caloneis. are found in terrestrial habitat forms withstand desicea Some diatoms example, + te foun 8 occur a, gal flora of are epiphytic on other algae, fue species of Cymbelia, Eunotia and Coccone Cladophora, Licmophora is Gomphonema ris grow on the filaments of Rhizoclonium — and Vauchera an endozoie diatom, Thallus Structure ——Stucture Diatoms are unicellular and cells are usually found in isolated form. However, isolated eellysometits Ee imbedded in a common gelatinous matrix ® form simple colonies. Such colonies do not 8 Complex plant bodies and thus can not be regatt SS multicellular organisms, Colonial diatoms Ca pier as uniseriate filaments (eg, oe Fig. 1 A) of as branched filaments, having ws radiating arms at the free end. (L en flabellata, Fig. 1B). In some diatoms the etl 'S formed due to interlocking of bristles. Pm On the cell wall (Chaetoceras diadema, FisDISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF PHAEOPHYCEAE The important characters of the class Phacophyceae are as follows . i!) The brown algae range in structure from simple to complex parenchymatous forms. They include: (i) Heterotrichous forms, eg, Ectocary (i) Multiaxial construction forms, e.g. Myriactala pulvinata; (tii) Uniaxial pseudo-parenchymatous forms, eg, Hecatonema sargassicola; and (iv) Parenchymatous forms, eg, Laminaria, Fuc Besides, Postelsia p issumes the form of a miniature tree sea palm (ALG(6) ¢ (8) (9) (10) Laminariales and Fucales is differentiated into holdfast, stem-like stipe and flattened leaf- like blades. Many species possess air bladders which keep them afloat. The tissues of the stipe and blade are differentiated into epidermis, cortex and central medulla. Growth of the thallus is apical (Sphacelariales, Dictyotales, Fucales), intercalary (Laminariales) or trichothallic (Ectocarpales, Sporochnales). Phaeophycean cell wall is differentiated into two layers. The outer mucilagenous layer has alginic and fucinic acid, whereas the inner layer is mainly cellulosic. Alginic acid is of commercial importance and is obtained from Laminaria, Sargassum and Ascophyllum. It is used in the manufacture of adhesives and artificial silk. The cytoplasm contains many small vacuoles and refractive bodies. The latter are called fucosan vesicles. They are abundant in the cytoplasm of metabolically active cells. 7) Chromatophores are ellipsoidal and discoid They contain chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, B- and c-carotenes and xanthophyll (€g. lutein, flavoxanthin, violaxanthin), Besides, they also contain large amount of @ brown pigment, fucoxanthin (C4gHs60p). Fucoxanthin masks green colour of chlorophyll pigments and that is why these algae are brown in colour. Chromatophores have three or four thylakoids per band and are surrounded by 4 chromatophore envelope and two membranes of endoplasmic reticulum. The chromatophore has a single, stalked, Projected and naked pyrenoid The long-term storage product is laminarin. However, the photosynthetic Product is accumulated as D-mannitol, a sugar alcohol. The cells are uninucleate with one or more nucleolus. In some brown algae (eg. Fucus) the resting nuclei show chromocentres which are not found in any other algal groups. 3) “4 (S) tary (12) (3) (4) (is) (16) a7) (18) (19) (20) (21) : General Characters and ¢ Phaeophyceae 192 P| ic the members of (11) The flagellated structures. have ‘ See “i laterally inserted unequal Date org! tl the larger one is anterior and anions whereas the smaller one is Posterig acronematic. ang ‘They reproduce by vegetativ. sexual methods. som ay Fragmentation is the most method of vegetative mui Besides, in the members of Sphacea special reproductive. branches art which are called propagutes branches, when detached from paren, olan, grow into new plants, Except for Tilopteridales, Fucales, all brown asexually by zoospores, In _Ectocarpales and Sphacelai Zoospores are formed in unilocular « plurilocular sporangia. The zoospores produced in uniloculy sporangia are haploid and those ig plurilocular sporangia are diploid, Both te haploid and diploid spores are similar ig structure. They are pyriform, biflagelae and have chromatophores, contractile vacuoles and eye spot In some members of Tilopteridales tte protoplast of the sporangium is transformed into a large quadrinucleate spore, calle monospore Phaeophycean algae show much variation in their sexual reproduction, Its isogamous in Ectocarpales Sphacelariales, anisogamous in Cutler and Tilopteridales and oogamous " Fucales, Laminariales and Dietyotales Gametes are more or less similar ® zoospores and are also biflagellate In most brown algae fertilization * external, i.e., gametes fuse outside gametangium in water, There® eduction division in zygote: it fom diploid thallus on germination. The life cycle of brown algae", be isomorphi heteromorphic diplontic.» ( Q) (3) eae; General Characters and Classi we st of the red algae are beautiful, soft A slimy, and the thallus ranges” from simple unicellular to complex multiaxial In the sub-class Bangioideae the M plant body is unicellular Porphyridium), filamentous Goniotrichum), palmelloid Asterocytis) or parenchymatous Porphyra, Bangia). But in the sub- eg. cha Florideae the plant body is more ‘advanced and complex and the thallus organization is of the following two types: (a) Uniaxial thallus, It is characterised by the presence of a single central or axial filament which is usually corticated by many well branched laterals. Examples: Batrachospermum, Acrochaetium, Dumontia. Multiaxial thallus. Here the thallus is a mass of central or main filaments and each central filament gives out lateral branches. The central filaments together with their laterals form a pseudo- parenchymatous thallus. Examples Helminthocladia, Polysiphonia. The flagellated motile stages are totally absent. The members of the sub-class Florideae grow by an apical cell, whereas those of the sub-class Bangioideae show diffused growth. The cell wall is differentiated into an outer Pectic and an inner cellulosic layer. The Mucilagenous material of the outer pectic layer mainly consists of agars and Carrageenans (both are made up of repealing: Units of galactose or its derivatives). These Mucilagenous matters constitute up (0 70% f the dry weight of the cell wall. In the ‘nner layer microfibrils of cellulose are distributed in a granular matrix. They form the framework of cell wall. () (5) (6) (7) (8) 9) (10) ab Pit connections’ There is much variation in the shape, size and number of nuclei in these algae. All Members of the sub-class Bangioideae are Uninucleate and the nucleus has a single hucleolus. In the sub-class Florideae a few Species are uninucleate but majority of them show multinucleate condition. In Griffithsia each cell has as many as 4000 nuclei, ‘The shape of nuclei depends upon their Position in the cell. Usually centrally Situated nucleus is spherical, whereas the Peripheral nuclei are elliptical. The primitive forms (sub-class Bangioideae) have a single stellate chromatophore with @ central pyrenoid, whereas in advanced forms (sub-class Florideae) there are many discoid and parietal chromatophores without any pyrenoid. The photosynthetic pigments present in the chromatophore include chlorophyll a and d, a-and B-carotene, xanthophylls (lutein, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, flavoxanthin, taraxanthin) and biliproteins, such as rphycoerythrin and _—_r-phycocyanin. B-phycoerythrin is present in the primitive red alga, Porphyridium. Chromatophores have no chromatophore ER. The cells contain organelles like endoplasmic reticulum (ER), mitochondria and dictyosomes. ‘The accumulated product of photosynthesis is floridean starch and galactoside floridoside; apparently it, has the same function as sucrose in higher plants and oreen algae. The long-term storage product js Mloridean starch, occurring in the form of grains outside chromatophores in the cytoplasm. In primitive forms starch grains are found clustered as a sheath around the pyrenoid area of the _chromutophore, whereas in more advanced forms starch grains are ee See a gine ( Liagora, Gala » a i weembers of the family(13) a4) Corallinaceae) have extracellular deposition of CaCO, on their cell walls, Those red algae which have the highest rate of calcification also have the highest rate of photosynthesis. Calcification of thallus is two to three times more rapid in light than in dark. Reproduction is mainly by asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative multiplication of thallus occurs only in unicellular forms. Asexual reproduction takes place by means of the following type of aplanospores: (@) Monospores. When a single large spore is produced in each sporangium, it. is called monospore, and the sporangium bearing it is known as monosporangium. They are found in Compsopogon and Batrachospermum. (b) Neutral spores. These spores are not bore in sporangia but are formed by direct metamorphosis or division of vegetative cells. They are diploid in nature and on germination give rise to the same generation (sporophytic), that is why they are called neutral spores. (c) Carpospores. These spores develop from the zygote. In some genera (e.g. Batrachospermum) they are formed by reduction division of the zygote nucleus. The nuclei pass into the gonimoblast initials, which develop into gonimoblast filaments, The terminal cell of each filament bears a single haploid carpospore. In other genera (e.g., Polysiphonia) the zygote nucleus directly develops into a single diploid carpospore. Such spores on germination give rise to diploid (sporophytic) plants. (4) Tetraspores. In the life-cycle of some red algae (e.g. Polysiphonia) four haploid spores are formed in each Sporangium. These spores are called tetraspores, and the sporangia bearing them as tetrasporangia. These spores, are always produced in diploid Rhodophyceae {General Characters ana “Asif tetrasporophytes) and then”) haploid gametophytes, op” © rg! Non-motile male reproductiy "Ming spermatia (singular = spen cell gt borne singly in Spermatangig 7 The female reproductive procarp, consists of diay * carpogonium and a nary (is) (16) te elongated tip, trichogyne The Belt. sessile in the sub-class. p>, whereas itis stalked in yet Florideae. “Ubi In the sub-class Bangioidege division of the zygote nucleus is as a result of which four (someting 64) haploid non-motile spores carpospores, are formed. These ypc germination give rise to an am. dissimilar phase (juvenile stags). ny class Florideae the fertilization is fm, by the production of specialized flanen called gonimoblasts. These filamens either directly from the carpogoriua + from one or more auxillary cells (re at the base of the carpogonium) ito wit the zygote nucleus or some of 5 descendants have migrated. The tis cell of the gonimoblast filament finsis as a carposporangium and it coi! single haploid or diploid carpospoe. haploid carpospore on germination &* rise to gametophytic thallus, whet * a7) diploid carpospore forms thallus. Classification —_—ee sv Fritsch (1935), on the basis of tilts Vy and post-fertilization changes. Rhodophyceae into two sub-classes [A] Sub-class Bangioideae J ss, Rhodophyceae. They® Jack pike’ wh sed in apical growth (instead show ifs growth) and have pigments Hike ve This sub-class includes prim"