ABUBAKAR TAFAWA BALEWA UNIVERSITY, BAUCHI ‘ FACULTY OF SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS * PHY 211 - INTERMEDIATE MECHANICS (3 Units) Lecture Notes (Part 1 of 2) FIRST SEMESTER 2020/2021 SESSION . ; . - Course Lecturer: IBRAHIM MAINA 1, Tech Applied Physics (ATBU), M. Eng. Electronics (ATBU), PAD Electrical Eng. (UTM) References: 1. Fundamental University Physics (Mechanics) | Alonso and 2. Classical Mechanics 5 Tam P. Arya 3. Online resources Qumrovit SHeP1.0 RELATIVE MOTION 11 Inertial Reference Frame + Newton's laws are results of a combinat and many intuitive concepts. The motioi by ever present of frictional and gravi moving with a constant (or uniform) v. tion of definitions, experimental observations from nature nn of objects in our immediate surroundings is complicated itational forces. Let us consider an isolated object that is g locity in space. Describing it as an isolated object implies {hat it is far away from any surrounding objects so that it does not interact with theme hence nes force (gravitational or otherwise) acts on it. To describe the motion of the object we mace diac coordinate system with respect to which the object moves with uniform velocity, Such » coordinate system is called an inertial reference frame. The essence of Newton’s first law is that it is always possible to find a coordinate system with Fespect to which an isolated body moves with uniform velocity; that is, Newton's first law asserts the existence of inertial systems. Newton's second law deals with such matters as: What happens when there is an interaction between objects? How do you represent interaction? And still further, what is inertia and how do we measure this property of an object? 1.2 Relative Velocity Let us consider two objects 4 and B and an observer O, ysing as frame of reference axes XYZ ig 1.1), the velocities of A and B relative to O are 2 p, =f, V, Ql) a edt e+ “tb The velocities of B relative to A and of 4 relative to B are defined by i, -%s a2) Vou = "at 3) . a4) Vea AB - in v ve it ity of A relative to B. In other words, the velocity of B relative to A is equal and opposite to the velocity of By taking the derivative of Eqn (1.3) with respect to time, we obtain, gy My Fis a dt at or using Eqns (1.1) and (1.2) we have as) ae ia One E relative to the fe velocity of two bodies, one subtracts their veloc : iv Therefore, o obtain the relative velocity of two Soe, or te observer. Again taking the deriWag Wy ay dtd dt : with a similar expression for UV, /dt. ‘The first term is called the acceleration of B relative to A an is designated by G,,. The other two terms are, respectively, the accelerations of B and A relative to 0. Thus and dy =a in (1.6) 13° Uniform Relative Translational Motion Let us consider two observers O and O' who move, relative to each other, with translational uniform motion. That is, the observers do not rotate relative to cach other. Therefore, observer O sees observer O' moving with velocity v, while O' sces O moving with velocity ~ v, We are interested in comparing their descriptions of the motion of an object, as for example, when one observer is on the platform of a railroad station and another is in a passing train moving in a straight line, and both observers are watching the flight of a plane overhead, We choosé for simplicity, the X and X’- axes along the line of the relative motion (See Fig 1.2) ar the YZ- and Y'Z'-axes parallel to each other; the coordinate axes will always remain parallel because of the absence of relative relation. We shall also assume that at ¢ = 0, O and O' are coincident, so that, with v as their constant relative Velocity, we may write. Consider now a particle at A. From Fig 1.2, we see that O4=O0'+O'A and sinceO4=F. OA=?"' and OO' =it, the position vectors of A as measured by O and O' are related, by rsF-iHt (1.7) ‘The above veetor equation can be separated into-its three components taking into account the fact that v is parallel to OX. Therefore vex-w yayzez t (18) We have added 1 = to the three space equations to emphasize that we are assuming that the to observers are using the same time; that is, we assume that time measurements are independent of the motion of the observer. This seems very reasonable but it is only an assumption, which maybe disproved by experiment. The set of equations in (1.8) or the'single vector equation (1.7), combi with r=, are called Galilean transformation. ‘The velocity 7 of A relative O is defined byGe = dy. de as a a ae And the velocity 77-of A relative to O' is Ba, Gee Note that eI 4 “ lat we do not write d?"/dt' because we have as: edt = 1’, F'/dt' ii a ‘/ ¢ have assumed ¢ = 1’, and hence d#"/dt' is the same Taki nae aa ‘aking, the derivative of Eqn (1.7) relative to time and noting that v is constant, we have Lai -5 ‘ or noting that V, = dx/dt, Vi. components: ; th Vi=V,-v Vi=V, Vi=V, (1.10) lese can also be obtained directly by taking the time derivative of Eqns (1.8), (1.9) or (1.10) to give the Galilean rule for comparing the velocit i e velocity of a body as measured by two obsei translational motion. ” i“ vers ineiative (1.9) dx'/dt, etc, we may separate Eqn (1.9) into the three velocity _ For example, if A moves parallel to the OX-axis, we simply have VisV-v . : LAL the other components being zero. : “ But if A moves parallel to the Y-axis, V7, =V, that ,V,=V, then V; -vand Vjy=V, Vi=0,s0 ViaVray (1.12) The acceleration of A relative to O and O'is @=dV/at and a! =dV*/dt respectively. Note again that we use the same f in both cases. From Eqn (1.9) noting that dx/dr =0 because ¥ is constant, we obtain iW Fa 3 dt dt a which, expressed in rectangular coordinates, is a'=a, a=a, and a=a,t (1.14) In other words, both observers measure the same acceleration. That is, the acceleration of a particle is the same for all observers in uniform relative transactional motion. This result offers tis an example of a physical quantity - the. acceleration of a particle - that appears to be independent of the motion of an observer; in order words, we have found that acceleration remains invariant when passing from one frame of reference to any other which is in uniform relative translational motion. This is the first time we see a physical quantity remain invariant under transformation. ° 1.4 Uniform Relative Rotational Motion Let us now consider two observers O and O' rotating relative to each other but with no relative translation motion, For simplicity we shall assume that both O and " are in the same region of space and that each uses a frame of reference attached to itself but with a common origin. Tor example, observer O, who uses the frame XYZ (see Fig 1.3), notes that frame X'P'2" attached to "is rotating with angular velocity &, To O', the situation is just the reverse; 0" observes frame XYZ rotating with angular velocity ~@. The position vector 7 of particle A referred to XYZ is, _ Paix tty tie and therefore the velocity of parti (1.15) cle A as measured by O relative to its frame of reference XYZ. is(1.16) " = sii Figure 1.3: Frames of reference in uniform relative rotational motion imilarly, the position vector of A referred to X'Y'Z' is Fai,x +i,y'ti2 (17) where, because the origins are coincident, the vector 7 is the same as Eqn (1.15) that is the reason why we have not written 7”. The velocity of A, as measured by“O’ relative to its own frame of reference X'Y'Z’, is Ya +a, 1.18) at (1.18) In taking the derivative of Eqn (1.17), observer O" has assumed that his frame X'Y'Z" is not rotating and has therefore considered the unit vectors as constant in direction, However, observer 0 has the right to say that, to him, the frame X°Y'Z" is rotating and therefore the unit vectors i, Hand i, are not constant in direction, and that in computing the time derivative of Eqn (1.17) one must write GF __ dt dy de #5 9,2 9, 1.19) dt ad de dt a Now the endpoints of vectors ii, ilyand are (by assumption) in uniform circular motion relation to O, with angular velocity &. In other words diijfdt is the velocity of a point at unit distance from O and moving with uniform circular motion with angular velocity @. Therefore, using = x7, we have, di, Bxii,x'+Oxilyy' +Oxii,2 x(iiyx' +i, +it,2') =x? (1.20) Introduefng this result in Eqn (1.19) and using Eqn (1.16) and (1.18), we finally get V=VsaxF (121) ‘This expression gives the relation between the velocities P and M7 of A, as recorded by observers O and O. in relative rotational motion. To obtain the relation between the accelerations, we proceed in a similar way. The acegleration of A, as measured by O relative to XYZ, is(1.22) when he again ignores the rotation, is * S measured by O! relative to XI . dV _ dV) avy @ =i, 49,47, (1.23) dt at dt ‘hen we differentiate Eqn (1.21) with respect to f, remembering that we are assuming that @ is Constant, we obtain. dv _dv' <= 48 dt dt Now, since = i,Vi+i,V) + (1.24) we obtain by differentiation Bg Mh gg, Mog Mh Miey, Gay, Heyy . dea da a ae The first three terms are just @’, as given in Eqn (1.23), and the last three, by a procedure identical to that used to derive Eqn (1.20), are &x 1". That is, by substituting the appropriate quantities into Eqn (1.20), we have Bxi,V + Oxi, V) + Oxi), Therefore dV'/dt=a'+6xV". Also from Eqn (1.16) and (1.21), dr/ dt = - dF axe dt obtain (UV E+i,V) +H) = OxV* =Vi+ x? , so that Bx (V'+dx7) = dV +5x(Hx?). Substituting both results in Eqn (1.24), we finally a +20xV'+Gx(Gx?) (1.25) ‘This equation gives the relation between the accelerations @ and a’ of A as recorded by observers O and O' in uniform relative rotational motion. The second term, 2x0", is called the Coriolis acceleration. The third term corresponds to a centripetal acceleration. Both the Coriolis and centripetal .accelerations are the result of the relative rotational motion of the observers. LS Motion Relative to the Earth direction B (0) Northern hemisphere (b) Southern hemisphere Figure 1.4: Centrifugal acceleration due to earth’s rotation One of the most interesting applications of Eqn (1.25) is the study of a body's motion relative to the 6earth. The ain ; gular Veloci 3 sTolation of the: earth Conia ath 0 = 7.292 x 105 agit . : rads". ts direction is that of the axis of Consider a point A on the earth's a surface (Fig 1.4). Let us call. g, the aS measure - PB ae ts Bch . Solving. th casured by a nonrotating observer at A. The g, corresponils to din ) ee z rotating with the earth ag; NiO” fot a, we obtain the acceleration measured by an observer a = 3-267 We shall first consider the « term ~26xj7" x(x?) (1.26) «ase of a body initially at rest, or moving very slowly so that the Coriolis 1S Zero or negligible when compared with the last term -o'x(6x?). The acceleration a mea in thi ‘ sured in this case is ca mania! Secnloxesain ok are designated by %. Thus, Specs ene wen ea at y &=8,-Gx(dx?) . (1.27) This is the acceleration measured with a pendulum, Let us now analyze in more detail the last term in Eqn (1.27); that is, -@x(x?). This is called the centrifugal acceleration because, due to its Teversed or negative sign, it points in the outward direction DA, as can be seen in Fig 1.4. The angle 2 that r= CA makes with the equator is the latitude. Therefore the vector & makes an angle 90°- 7. with CA in the northern hemisphere and 90° + 4 in the southern hemisphere. The magnitude of x? isthen * 7 . ar sin(90° +2) = aind the direction of x7 , being perpendicular to d, is parallel to the equator. Ir cos A It can be found that the magnitude of the centrifugal acceleration x (dx?')is -@x (Bx?) |= w*r cos A =3.34x107 cos 2 ms* (1.28) where r = 6.35 x 10° m, which is the radius of the earth. It decrease from the equator to the poles, but is always very small when compared with the acceleration of gravity g, = 9.80 ms”. Its maximum value, which is at the equator, is about 0.3% of go. . (a) Northern hemisphere . (b) Southern hemisphere Figure 1.5: Radial and horizontal components of the centrifugal acceleration We shall now find the components of -@x(@x?).along the radial direction AB and along the north-south (NS) line at A, In Fig 1.5, as in Fig 1.4, the line AB, which is the extension of CA, is the ‘ . 7radial: direction, ‘Th, : ; rection. ‘The vector @ oby; acceleration of gravity aie Obviously makes an angle 7, with NS. As indicated before, the atan angle 2-with ap. a 's downward along AB. The centrifugal acceleration -Gx (Gx?) is given by Eqn (1.28), by a a along AB is therefore obfained by multiplyirtg its magnitude, | ae ‘®x(GxF)|cosa=a'rcos? A The com ponent of entrift hemisphere (and n ri cemtital acceleration along the line NS is pointing south, in the Northem bysing esulteg in the Souther hemisphere), and is obtained by multiplying its magnitude |-@x(Ox7)|sin A= wr cos Asin 2 ctw © ha Ce soo eompenents are illustrated in Fig 1.5. According to the definition of Z given by” Eqn (1.27), the components of % along the radial and horizontal directions are as shown in Fig 1.6 Because of the smallness of the centrifugal term, the angle « is very small and the magnitude of g does not differ appreciably from its component along the radial direction AB. Thus we may write, as a good approximation, that g=g,-a'rcos' A (1.29) B B : ier eos A sin or cos din d Horizontal plane Horizontal plane sau co Trest 1.9 Michelson-Morley Experiment The experimental arrangement is shown schematically in Fig 1.12, where S is a monochromatic source of light and M; and M; are two mirrors placed at the same distance L' from the glass plate P (as measured by a terrestrial observer). Light coming from S, when it reaches P is partially transmitted toward M; and partial reflected toward M;. Rays reflected at M; and Mp retrace their path and eventually reach the observer at O'. Note that the light path drawn in the figure is relative to a frame Y'Y'2 moving with the earth and relative to which the instrument, called an interferometer, is at rest. The actual experimental arrangement used by Michelson and Morley is illustrated in Fig 1.13. ‘Terrestrint observer ow Earth's motion 7 Figure 1.12: Basic components of the Michelson-Morley experimentSUOERED uate uate Figure 1.13: Experimental setup used by Michelson and Morley Let ¢ be the velocity of light as measured by an observer stationary relative to the ether. Let us call v the velocity of the earth relative to the ether, and orient the interferometer so thet the line PM; is parallel to the motion of the earth, . When we use the Galilean transformation, we find that, relative to the earth, the velocity of light going from P to My is c - v, that from M; to P itis ¢ + v, and that from P to M; or from M; to P it is vc? -v? . Thus the time required by light to go from P to M; and back to P; as measured by the terrestrial observer 0’, is , i wwe wie vie’ While the time required to go from P to M; and back to P, as measured by O’, is 2 Le “Ye=v iv Je Wernote that ff and (are different, dnd therefore the rays that reach observer 0” have a certain path difference and should result in a certain interference pattern. Surprisingly, no such interference pattern is observed. This suggest that 4 = ¢. To solve this puzzle Lorentz, and independently Fitzgerald, proposed that all objects moving through the ether suffer a “real” contraction in the direction of motion, and that this contraction was just enough to make 4 = ,. That means that the length that appear in ¢} must not be same as the length in 1, because the first is in the direction of the earth's motion and the other is perpendicular to it. Writing £ for L’ in the expression for ), we must have - able I-v'/e . Equating 1 and ¢; , we obtain, after simplifying, L=Vi-v fel (4l) is expression relates the lengths PM; and PM; as measured by an observer O at rest relative to the ether. Observer O' should not notice this contraction, because the measuring stick he uses to measure the distance MP, is also contracted to the same degree as PM; when placed in the direction of the eairth's motion, Thus to him, the lengths PM, and’ PM; are.equal. But observer O would laugh at the worties of O', since he realizes that O' is in motion and, according to the Lorentz-Fitzgerald . . 15pypothesis, the objets he carries are all shortened in the direction of motion. Thus O concludes that the “real” Tength of PMi is L and that of PlMpis this “real” difference in length being the source of the negative result obtained when the interference of the two light beams was examined. + Of course, an alternative explanation of the negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment is, to assume that the speed of light is always the same in all directions, no matter what the state of motion of the observer. Then observer 0’ uses ¢ for all paths of Fig 1.12, and then = t= dL. This was ‘the position adopted by Albert Einstein when he was formulating his principle of relativity. : :