OVERVIEW

Everything that surrounds us affect our lives. A human being cannot

live alone. Neither can plants and animals. All of them are dependent on one
another, as well as their surroundings. Until the late 1960’s, very little
attention was paid to the relationship between organisms and their
environment. Technological and scientific advances in the 1970’s, however,
brought about an awareness of examining the need for this relationship
more closely and improving it-to the advantage of both organisms and the
environment.

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS TO ECOLOGY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module, students are expected to:

a. define ecology and state its importance to humans

b. discuss the basic concepts in ecology
c. to differentiate the levels of organization in ecology
d. to classify organisms based on the levels of organization

Definition of Terms and Concepts in Ecology

Ecology is the study of the interaction between living things and

their immediate environment.

In 1869, Earnst Haeckel coined the term “ecology”. It comes

from the Greek word Oikos meaning
“household” and logos meaning “study of”, therefore the “study
of nature’s household”. Relating this definition to science, ecology
becomes the study of the management of the natural environment
which includes the relations of organisms with one another and to
their surroundings.

It is said that ecology as a scientific discipline is a multidisciplinary one.

It often encompasses several fields like biology, geography, and Earth
science. However, ecology is not always focused on the environment but also
in man as well. Practical applications in ecology include conservation biology,
restoration ecology, resource management, and wetland management.

Ecology is a branch of biology concerned with understanding how

organisms relate with each other and their environment. This branch of
biology mainly deals with the relationships between the organisms, their
relationships among each other, their relationships towards the shared
resources, their relationships with the space they share, and even their
relationships with the non-living aspects in the environment.

In understanding the given relationship, ecology encompasses aspects

such as population growth, competition, symbiotic ecologic relationships
(mutualism), trophic relations (energy transfer from one section of the food
chain to the next), biodiversity, migration and physical environment
interactions. Because ecology includes all the living organisms on earth and
their physical as well as chemical surroundings, it is divided into several
categories which bring about different types of ecology as discussed
below:

Types of Ecology

1. Microbial Ecology

Microbial ecology looks at the smallest fundamental levels of life, that is,
the cellular level. It involves mainly the first two life kingdoms which are;
Kingdom Monera and Kingdom Protista. Here, the connections are made
between microbes and their relationships with each other and their
environments. Microbial ecology is particularly important in the analysis of
evolutionary connections and events leading to existence (known as
phylogeny). These connections help us understand the relationships shared
among organisms. It is particularly interested in DNA and RNA structures as
they carry most of the information passed along from organisms to their
progeny, providing the data ecologists need.

2. Organism/Behavioural Ecology

This is the study of the organism at its fundamental levels and can
encompass microbial ecology. In this type of ecology, the main goal is to
understand the organism’s behaviours, adaptations for such behaviours,
reason for those behaviours as explained through the lens of evolution, and
the way all these aspects mesh together. In this case, the main concern is
the individual organism and all its different nuances, especially in trying to
understand how it all ties together to enhance the survival of the organism
or any beneficial adaptations.

3. Population Ecology

Population ecology is the next rank on the ecological ladder. Population

ecology focuses on the population, defined as a group of organisms of the
same species living in the same area at the same time. Here, attention is
given to things such as population size, its density, the structure of the
population, migration patterns, and the interaction between organisms of the
same population.

It tries to explain the different changes in each of the dynamics of the

population such as why numbers would increase and whether this affects
any other aspects of the population such as its density.

4. Community Ecology

Community ecology takes a look at the community, defined as

all the populations that live in a given area. This includes all the
different species populations. The focus here is usually on the
interactions between the different species and how their numbers
and sizes all mesh together and how change in one population
change the dynamic of the whole community.

The animal populations here are exposed to more complex interactions

given their increased species numbers which give rise to dynamics such as
trophic relationships (who eats who), space dynamics, migration patterns
and the most important ecological driving force when it comes to inter/intra
species interaction.

5. Ecosystem Ecology

Ecosystem ecology makes a unique contribution to understanding

ecology by adding abiotic (non-living) factors to the items analysed,
alongside the biotic (living) factors involved. This interaction therefore
involves all aspects of the environment and how they interact.

It includes understanding how things like climate and soil composition

affect the behaviours and interactions of populations from different species.
It also includes a wide range of factors to better understand the whole aspect
of interaction between the living things and their environments/habitats.

6. Global Ecology (Biosphere)

The global ecology is principally important in understanding all the

ecosystems affecting the entire globe. This includes all the different biomes,
with considerations of aspects such as climate and other environmental
geography.

It means, global ecology takes into account the whole world’s biosphere
while considering all living organisms from the microscopic to higher
lifeforms, the environments they leave in, the interactions that they have
with each other, the influences that their environments have on these
interactions and vice versa, and finally, how they are all interconnected
under the common ground that they all share a single planet – the Earth.

Importance of Ecology

The study of ecology is important in ensuring people understand the impact

of their actions on the life of the planet as well as on each other.

1. It helps in environmental conservation

Ecology allows us to understand the effects our actions have on our

environment. With this information, it helps guide conservation efforts by
first showing the primary means by which the problems we experience within
our environment begin and by following this identification process, it shows
us where our efforts would have the biggest effect.

Ecology also shows individuals the extent of the damage we cause to

the environment and provides predictive models on how bad the damage
can get. These indicators instill a sense of urgency among the population,
pushing people to actively take part in conservation efforts and ensure the
longevity of the planet.

2. Ensures proper resource allocation

Ecology equally allows us to see the purpose of each organism in the

web of connectivity that makes up the ecosystem. With this knowledge, we
are able to ascertain which resources are essential for the survival of the
different organisms. This is very fundamental when it comes to assessing the
needs of human beings who have the biggest effect on the ecosystem.

An example is human dependency on fossil fuels that has led to

the increase of carbon footprint in the ecosystem. It is ecology that allows
humans to see these problems which then calls for the need to make
informed decisions on how to adjust our resource demands to ensure that we
do not burden the environment with demands that are unsustainable.

3. Enhances energy conservation

Energy conservation and ecology is connected in that, it aids in

understanding the demands different energy sources have on the
environment. Consequently, it is good for decision making in terms of
deciding resources for use as well as how to efficiently convert them into
energy.

4. Promotes eco-friendliness

With all the information and research obtained from ecology, it

ultimately promotes eco-friendliness. It makes people aware of their
environment and encourages the adoption of a lifestyle that protects the
ecology of life owing to the understanding they have about it.

5. Aids in disease and pest control

A great number of diseases are spread by vectors. The study of ecology

offers the world novel ways of understanding how pests and vectors behave
thereby equipping humans with knowledge and techniques on how to
manage pests and diseases.

ENVIRONMENT

The term "environment" is commonly perceived as the immediate

surroundings of a thing or an individual. It include both the living (biotic)
elements like plants and animals as well as non living (abiotic) elements
such as air, water and soil. In a more particular sense "environment is the
general term for everything that surrounds man. It includes the:

 biophysical environment, ex: plants and animals as well as land and

water bodies and the air around us;
 socio-cultural environment or everything with which people interact;
and
 politico-economic environment in which people exchange goods and
ideas.

Environment refers to all external factors that may affect an

organism. As these factors undergo changes, the environment
varies.

BIOTIC FACTORS refer to the living components of the physical

world. These living things include microscopic as well as unicellular
and multi-cellular organisms.

What are Biotic Factors?

Biotic factors include living things like plants, animals, bacteria, etc. It is
divided into three main groups;
 Producers
 Consumers
 Decomposers
1. Producers
 Producers are known as autotrophs.
 By the use of inorganic materials and energy, they prepare their own
food.
 It is considered the first life form. It is because, in the early days of origin,
there were no consumers to feed on.
There are two major classes of producers. They are:
 Photoautotrophs
 Chemoautotrophs
a. Photoautotrophs
 They use sunlight as the source of energy and carbon dioxide as the
source of carbon.
 They mostly use the pigment, chlorophyll for capturing the photon from
the sun.
 Similarly, there are also pigments like rhodopsin and carotenoids which
are found in some bacteria, algae, and phytoplankton. They are used for
photosynthesis.
 Later they produce essential things like sugar, protein, lipids, etc.
Examples: Green plants, green algae, and some bacteria.
b. Chemoautotrophs
 They use chemical agents like hydrogen, iron, and sulfur as the source of
energy.
 They are usually found in places where the plants cannot grow.
 They are found at bottom of the ocean or in acidic hot springs.
 They are also involved in nitrogen fixation.
Example of Chemoautotrophs: Methanogens. They are the microorganism
which are capable of making the methane gas.
2. Consumers
 They are also known as heterotrophs.
 They don’t prepare their own food by themselves as the producers. It
includes all the heterotrophs.
 Herbivores: Animals like a cow, buffalo, the goat which depend directly
on plants for food. They are primary consumers.
 Carnivores: Animals like lions, tigers, which are flesh-eating animals.
They depend on the herbivores for food. They are secondary consumers.
 Omnivores: Animals which eat depend on both the plants and animals
3. Decomposers
 They are also known as detritivores.
 They use organic compounds as the source of energy from the producers
and consumers.
 In an ecosystem, decomposers play a vital role, as the complex
substances are broken down into simpler forms.
 Such a simpler form can be further utilized again by the other organisms.
It includes different soil bacteria, fungi, worms, and flies.
 When the animals die they get decomposed because of decomposers.
Even plants, fruits start rotting, it’s because of decomposers.
 Decomposers play the important role in metabolizing waste products.
 Example of decomposer: Mushroom

Example of Biotic Factors

1. Human
Human plays the vital role either in conservation or the destruction of
nature. Human has got both the positive and negative side. The positive side
is humans can utilize natural resources and conserve the existence of other
animals too. Drastic changes can be made regarding the conservation. But
due to rapid urbanization and industrialization, the emission of excessive
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide gas, there is depletion in the quality of
air.
2. Cyanobacteria
They are the single-celled autotrophic organism which was considered to
be the first living organisms on earth. Using solar energy they convert the
organic compounds into inorganic compounds. They are capable of making
oxygen by using the carbon dioxide.

ABIOTIC FACTORS refer to the non-living things found in the

physical world that have effects of living things.

What are the Abiotic Factors?

 It is the non-living part of an environment. It includes all the physical and
chemical aspects of an ecosystem.
 These factors may be present in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
lithosphere. It contributes to the continuity of life on earth by supporting
the survival and reproduction process.
 The component also depends upon the type of ecosystem.
 For example, Rainfall contributes to tropical rainforest ecosystems, sand
in desert ecosystems and water, salinity, ocean currents, pressure in the
marine ecosystem.
All the factors are interrelated to each other.
All the biotic components i.e living components are directly or indirectly
dependent upon the abiotic factors. The biotic and abiotic systems work
together for maintaining the ecosystem.
Abiotic factors include:
 Water
 Sunlight
 Temperature
 Soil
 Atmosphere
 pH
 Air Humidity
 Wind
 Elevation

Water
 Water is an essential abiotic factor. Not only plants but animals even tiny
micro-organisms also need water for their survival. In the absence of
water, plants will die, i.e producers will die. Even the plants in the desert
require some amount of water.
 Due to dehydration, animals will die. i.e consumers
 In the case of micro-organism, they need water for proper functioning.
 Among the various factors, the water activity of an organism also plays a
vital role in the spoilage of the different foods.
 If there is no water, life on earth is not possible.

Sunlight
 Sunlight is the major source of energy.
 Plants require sunlight for the photosynthesis process. It is the process
by which plants make oxygen and food using carbon dioxide and water
and make it available for the animals.
 The presence of sunlight also affects the breeding cycle in animals.
 Some animals are nocturnal, that they are active only at night time. It is
due to the sunlight.
 Light also determines the reproductive and migratory activities.

Temperature
 Temperature is an important abiotic factor in an ecosystem.
 With the variations in the temperature, variations occur in the type of
plants and animals.
 Nature has adjusted the body like the presence of long furs which make it
possible to survive.
 Similarly, in the case of microorganisms, depending on the temperature
they are classified as psychrophiles, mesophiles, thermophiles,
thermotolerant, extremophiles.
 The temperature determines the rate of the metabolic reactions. It
affects various enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
 At the higher temperature, enzymes denature but some enzymes are
thermostable.
 Soil
 Soil is an important abiotic factor. It is made up of rocks along with the
decomposed plants and animals.
 With the help of the roots, plants acquire the water and minerals from the
soil. Soil are also of various types, whose nature and composition vary
and have different functions.
 The water holding capacity is also determined by its composition.
 In the aquatic environment, depending upon the characteristics of the
sediment, it determines the type of the benthic animals

Atmosphere
 Due to the atmosphere, life is sustained on the earth.
 Plants use the carbon dioxide when animals use oxygen gas.
 The atmosphere also protects the animals from the harmful UV radiation
from the sun.
 Humans and other animals are susceptible to the damage by harmful UV
radiation.
 On exposure, it may cause some genetic change as well as has the
capacity to trigger skin cancer.
 It looks like a shield that provides protection to the creatures on earth.

pH
 The increase or decrease in pH also affects the living creatures.
 In some parts of the world, there is an increase in acidity due to the
increase in carbon dioxide. It has created an acidic condition.
 Urbanization along with industrial revolutionization is the major factor.
Due to the increase in acidity, it is also found that the shell of the snail
has also dissolved.
 Similarly, coral are also unable to survive in an acidic environment.
 In the human body, gastric acid helps in killing the harmful
microorganism in the stomach.
 But, the bacteria Helicobacter pylori has a urease enzyme. It increases
the pH so that it can survive in it. It is the causative agent of peptic ulcer.
 The vagina is slightly acidic in nature. It is maintained by the lactobacilli
so that pathogens may not colonize in it.

Air Humidity
 Humidity means the presence of water vapor in the air.
 Too much of the humid environment can be dangerous to the organisms.
 Excessive water may disrupt the internal balance in the organisms in
various ways. Changes in pH may also occur.
 In order to counteract this, plants, animals, and microorganism have got
their own strategies. For eg: In animals, lungs and kidney helps in excess
of the water.

Wind
 At the place where wind occurs regularly, plants are a bit different. They
grow closer to the ground to escape from the harsh wind
 Similarly, some plants may use it for their own benefits like pollination.
Dispersal of seed can be done.

Elevation
 There is a decrease in the temperature as we go up to the higher
altitude. It is also due to the low partial pressure with the increase in the
elevation. At 2 km there is a decrease in the ambient partial pressure by
20 % and over 50 % at the 6km.

Responses to the Abiotic Factors

 In the case of an unfavorable environment, the living organism uses
different strategies to cope with the stressful condition.
 For example: Spore forming bacteria like
the Bacillus and Clostridium make spores and protect themselves. Due to
the spore, such bacteria can withstand the high temperature which
makes it difficult to kill. So, sterilization of the equipment is essential
during the lab work.
 The normal body temperature of humans is 37 °C. It is maintained by
various activities like sweating in summer and shivering in winter.
 Birds migrate from Siberia to places of Nepal and India. This migratory
activity is done in order to cope with the extreme cold.
 If animals are unable to travel to long-distance as the birds, they undergo
hibernation ( winter sleep by a bear) and aestivation (summer sleep by a
snail).

HABITAT is the specific place where an organism resides while a

niche refers to the functional role of an organism in its habitat.

A habitat is where a species of organism lives or thrives. It is

the natural environment of that species. It is where it will derive its
food, shelter, and mate for reproduction. It is where the species
will attempt to be as adaptive as possible. Habitats may be an
open geographical area or a specific site (e.g. a rotten log, a
hollow tree, or inside a tree bark). They may be terrestrial or
aquatic. Examples of terrestrial habitats are forest, grassland,
steppe, and desert. Aquatic habitats include freshwater, marine
water, and brackish water. Geographically, habitats may be
classified into the following types: polar, temperate,
subtropical, or tropical.

Polar habitats
Polar habitats are located on the two poles of the Earth, i.e. the northern
polar region (Arctic) and the southern polar region (Antarctica). These
regions are cold and windy. Tundra is an example of a polar habitat in the
arctic region. It has a ground that is almost always frozen. Its top will melt in
the summer and thus will allow certain plants to grow, e.g. grasses
and mosses. The animals in the arctic region have special adaptations that
enable them to thrive in such harsh conditions. Some of these animals are
polar bears, arctic foxes, and arctic wolves.

Temperate habitats
Temperate habitats are located in the temperate regions, between the
subarctic and subtropical zones. These regions have distinct seasons:
summer, autumn, winter, and spring. Temperate forests are an example.

Subtropical
Subtropical habitats are those found in the subtropics. They are
geographically located between the tropical and the temperate zones. An
example of a subtropical habitat is the subtropical deserts where palms and
citrus abound.

Tropical
Tropical habitats are the various habitats in the tropics. The tropics surround
the equator and therefore receive sunlight more directly than the other
regions of the Earth. Hence, they have a climate that changes less
dramatically; they are generally hotter and wetter. A tropical rainforest is an
example of tropical habitat.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN ECOLOGY

The main levels of organization in ecology are six and are as follows.

1. Individual
2. Species
3. Population
4. community
5. Ecosystem
6. Biome
 7. Biosphere

Individual
The organism is an individual living being that has the ability to act or
function independently. It may be a plant, animal, bacterium, fungi, etc. It is
a single member of the population.

Population
A population is a group of organisms usually of the same species, occupying
a defined area during a specific time.

The main limiting factors for the growth of a population are abiotic
and biotic components.

Community
Refers to the populations of different kinds of organisms living together and
sharing the same habitat.

The characteristic pattern of the community is termed as the structure of the

community and is determined by:

 the roles played by its various populations

 the range of its various populations
 the type of area that is inhabited by the populations of the community
 the diversity of species in the community
 the interactions between various populations of the community
inhabiting the area.

Members of a community also actively interact with their environment. In a

community, only those plants and animals survive which are adapted to a
particular environment. The climate determines the type of environment,
hence, the type of organisms in a community.

For example, it is the climate of the area which determines whether a given
area becomes a desert or a forest.

Communities created by human such as lawns or crop communities are such

man-made communication are crop communities are relatively simple and
consists of only one species as opposed to a natural community
characterized by a large number of species.

Man-made communities are very unstable and require a great deal of care
and constant manipulation and maintenance.
Types of Community

On the basis of size and degree of relative independence communities may

be divided into two types:

Major Community:

These are large-sized, well organized and relatively independent. They

depend only on the sun’s energy from outside and are independent of the
inputs and outputs from adjacent communities.

Example: tropical evergreen forest in the North-East.

Minor Communities:

These are dependent on neighboring communities and are often called

societies. They are secondary aggregations within a major community and
are not therefore completely independent units as far as energy and nutrient
dynamics are concerned.
Example: A mat of lichen on a cow dung pad.

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere
consisting of a community of living beings and the physical environment,
both interacting and exchanging materials between them.

The term ‘ecosystem ‘was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935. An ecosystem is a

functional unit of nature encompassing complex interaction between its
biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components. For example- a pond is a
good example of an ecosystem.

Ecosystems vary greatly in size and elements, but each is a functioning unit
of nature. Everything that lives in an ecosystem· is dependent on the other
species and elements that are also part of that ecological community. If one
part of an ecosystem is damaged or disappears, it has an impact on
everything else. The ecosystem can be as small as a single tree or as large
as the entire forest.

Components of an Ecosystem
They are broadly grouped into:

1. Abiotic components
2. Biotic components
Functions of an Ecosystem
Ecosystems are complex dynamic systems. They perform certain functions.
These are:

 Energy flow through the food chain

 Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
 Ecological succession or ecosystem development
 Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms

Ponds, lakes, meadows, marshlands, grasslands, deserts and forests are

examples of the natural ecosystems. Many of you have seen an aquarium; a
garden or a lawn etc. in your neighborhood. These are a man-made
ecosystem.

Types of Ecosystems
Ecosystems are classified as follows:

1. Natural ecosystems
2. Manmade ecosystems

Natural ecosystems:
Totally dependent on solar radiation e.g. forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes,
rivers, and deserts. They provide food, fuel, fodder, and medicines.

Ecosystems are dependent on solar radiation and energy subsidies

(alternative sources) such as wind rain and tides. e.g. tropical rain forests,
tidal estuaries, and coral reefs.

Man-made ecosystems:

 Dependent on solar energy. e.g.- agricultural fields and aquaculture

ponds.
 Dependent on fossil fuel e.g. urban and industrial ecosystems.

Productivity of Ecosystems
The rate of biomass production is called productivity. The portion of
fixed energy, a trophic level passes on to the next trophic level is called
production.

Productivity in ecosystems is of two kinds, i.e., primary and

secondary.
Green plants fix solar energy and accumulate it in organic forms as chemical
energy. As this is the first and the basic form of energy storage, the rate at
which the energy accumulates in the green plants or producers is known as
primary productivity.

Productivity is a rate function and is expressed in terms of dry

matter produced or energy captured per unit area of land, per unit
time.

It is more often expressed as energy in calories/cm2/yr or dry organic matter

in g/m2/yr (g/m2 x 8.92 = lb/acre). Hence, the productivity of different
ecosystems can be easily compared.

Primary productivity is measured in two ways: Gross Primary Productivity

and Net Primary Productivity.

The total solar energy trapped in the food material by photosynthesis is

referred to as gross primary productivity (GPP).

However, a good fraction of gross primary productivity is utilized in the

respiration of green plants. The amount of energy-bound organic matter
created per unit area and time that is left after respiration is net primary
productivity (NPP).

Net productivity of energy = Gross productivity — Energy lost in

respiration.

The rates at which the heterotrophic organisms re-synthesize the energy-

yielding substances are called secondary productivity. Here, the net primary
productivity (NPP) results in the accumulation of plant biomass, which serves
the food of herbivores and decomposers.

It is notable that the food of consumers has been produced by the primary
producers, and secondary productivity depicts only the utilization of this food
for the production of consumer biomass. Secondary productivity is the
productivity of animals and saprobes in the ecosystem.

Environmental Factors Affecting Productivity in the Ecosystem:

1. Solar radiation and temperature.

2. Moisture, i.e., leaf water potential, soil moisture, fluctuation of
precipitation, and transpiration.
3. Mineral nutrition, i.e., uptake of minerals from the soil, rhizosphere
effects, fire effects, salinity, heavy metals, and nitrogen metabolism.
4. Biotic activities, i.e., grazing, above-ground herbivores, below ground
herbivores, predators and parasites and diseases of primary producers.
 5. Impact of human populations, i.e., populations of different sorts,
ionizing radiations, such as atomic explosions, etc.
6. In aquatic systems, productivity is generally limited by light, which
decreases with increasing water depth. In deep oceans, nutrients often
become limiting for productivity. Nitrogen is the most important
nutrient limiting productivity in marine ecosystems.

The largeness of primary productivity depends on the photosynthetic

capacity of producers and the existing environmental conditions, such as
solar radiation, temperature, and soil moisture. In tropical conditions,
primary productivity may remain continuous throughout the year, provided
adequate soil moisture remains available.

While in temperate regions, primary productivity is limited by the cold

climate and a short snow-free growing period during the year.

Classification of Natural Ecosystem

1. Terrestrial
 Forest
 Grasslands
 Deserts
2. Aquatic
 Fresh Waters
 Saline Waters
 Marine Waters

Goods and Services provided by ecosystems include:

 Purification of air and water

 Mitigation of floods and droughts
 Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
 Generation and renewal of soil and natural vegetation
 Pollination of crops and natural vegetation
 Control of the vast majority of potential agricultural pests
 Dispersal of seeds and translocation of nutrients
 Maintenance of biodiversity
 Protection from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays
 Partial stabilization of climate
 Moderation of temperature extremes and the force of winds and waves
 Support of diverse human culture
 Providing aesthetic beauty and intellectual stimulation that lift the
human spirit.

Threats to Ecological Goods and Services-

Because of their importance, it is extremely important to reduce the threat of
irreversible damage to our ecological systems caused by:

 Land-use change and irreversible conversion of landscapes and their

ecological functions.
 Disruption of bio-geochemical cycles i.e. nitrogen, carbon, and
phosphorus cycles.
 Disruption of the water cycle and groundwater recharge.
 Invasion by or the introduction of exotic (non-native) organisms.
 Toxins, pollutants, and human wastes.
 Changes in the chemical composition of the atmosphere and ozone
depletion.
 Climate change.

Ecotone
Ecotone is a zone of the junction between two or more diverse ecosystems
e.g. the mangrove forests. They represent an ecotone between marine and
terrestrial ecosystems. Some more examples of ecotone are grassland,
estuary, and riverbank.

Characteristics of Ecotone:

 It may be very narrow or quite wide.

 It has conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence
ecotone is a zone of tension.
 It is linear as it shows a progressive increase in species composition of
one incoming community and a simultaneous decrease in species of
the other outgoing adjoining community.
 A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely
different from that of the adjoining communities.
 Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some
of the species is much greater in this zone than either community. This
is called edge effect. The organisms which occur primarily or most
abundantly in this zone are known as edge species. bob world In the
terrestrial ecosystem, the edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
For example, the density of songbirds is greater in the mixed habitat of
the ecotone between the forest and the desert.

Niche and Organism

In nature, many species occupy the same habitat, but they perform different
functions. The functional characteristic of a species in its habitat is referred
to as “niche” in that common habitat. Habitat of a species is like its ‘address’
(i.e. where it lives) whereas niche can be thought of as its “profession” (i.e.
activities and responses specific to the species).
The term niche means the sum of all the activities and relationships of a
species by which it uses the resources in its habitat for its survival and
reproduction or a niche is the unique functional role or place of a species in
an ecosystem.

A niche is unique for a species while many species share the habitat. No two
species in a habitat can have the same niche. This is because if two species
occupy the same niche they will compete with one another until one is
displaced. For example, a large number of different species of insects may
be pests of the same plant but they can co-exist as they feed on different
parts of the same plant.

Types of Niche

1. Habitat niche – where it lives

2. Food niche – what is eating or decomposes & what species it
competes with
3. Reproductive niche – how and where it reproduces.
4. Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope,
humidity, and other requirements.

Biome
The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called
biomes, which are characterized, by climate, vegetation, animal life, and
general Soil type.

No two biomes are alike. The climate determines the boundaries of the
biome and abundance of plants and animals found in each one of them. The
most important climatic factors are temperature and precipitation.

Types of Biome
1. TUNDRA

 Treeless low (less than 1 m) vegetation with short perennials, water

frozen.
 Typical plants include sedges, lichens, mosses, grasses, and dwarf
woody plants.
 Typical animals include snowy owls, musk ox, reindeer, polar bears,
and migrant birds.
 Very cold, often dry climate, but with the permanently frozen ground
creating saturated soils during summer months. Arctic Tundra is
circumpolar (scanty Antarctic).

2. BOREAL FOREST (TAIGA)

  Dense evergreen needle-leafed forest.
 Typical plants include white spruce, black spruce, and jack pine.
 Typical animals include moose, black bears, wolves, and migrant birds.
 Cold winters with deep snow, but longer growing season than the
tundra. The warm-month average temperature is greater than 100 C.
Periodic fires are common.

3. TEMPERATE FOREST

 Dense forest with thin, broad, deciduous leaves; or rainforests typically

dominated by conifers. Tall trees with single boles creating deep
shade. Understories are often sparse.
 Typical plants include maples, oaks, elms (deciduous) spruce or
araucaria (rainforest).
 Typical animals include deer and squirrels.
 Freezing winters and warm, wet summers and a longer growing season
than the boreal forest.

4. GRASSLANDS

 Treeless vegetation less than 1 m high.

 Typical plants include grasses and members of the sunflower family.
Woody plants predominate in steppes.
 Typical animals include large grazing ungulates such as horses,
buffalo, and rhinoceros.
 Cold or warm winters with growing seasons moisture too dry for trees;
fires every 1- 5 years.

5. DESERT

 Sparse drought-resistant vegetation, typically spiny and with tiny

leaves and photosynthetic bark.
 Typical plants include cactuses, acacias, and short-lived annuals.
 Typical animals include reptiles and ground-dwelling rodents.
 Precipitation is low (less than 250 mm/yr) and evapotranspiration high
(more than 250 mm/yr). Temperature is generally high. Fires generally
are rare due to low biomass.

6. TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FOREST AND SAVANNAH

 Thorny forest, woodlands, or scattered trees, many of which loose

leaves during the dry season.
 Typical plants include acacias and grasses.
 Typical animals include giraffes and elephants.
  Warm frost-free winters, hot usually-wet summers, and a pronounced
dry season. Fire and grazing are important vegetation-forming
processes.

7. TROPICAL RAIN FOREST

 Dense tall evergreen forest.

 Typical plants include strangler figs and tree ferns.
 Typical animals include snakes and birds.
 Mild frost-free winters and summers with year-round rain.

AQUATIC ZONES
Aquatic systems are not called biomes; however, they are divided into
distinct life zones, with regions of relatively distinct plant and animal life. The
major differences between the various aquatic zones are due to salinity,
levels of dissolved nutrients; water temperature, depth of sunlight
penetration.

Types of Aquatic Ecosystem:

1. Fresh Water Ecosystem- The freshwater ecosystem is classified as

lotic (moving water) or lentic (still or stagnant water). The lotic water
system includes freshwater streams, springs, rivulets, creeks, brooks,
and rivers. Lentic water bodies include pools, ponds, some swamps,
bogs, and lakes. They vary considerably in physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics.
2. Marine Ecosystem – Nearly three-quarters of the earth’s surface is
covered by the ocean with an average depth of 3,750 m and with
salinity 35 ppt, (parts per thousand), about 90 percent of which is
sodium chloride.
3. Estuaries – Coastal bays, river mouths, and tidal marshes from the
estuaries. In estuaries, freshwater from rivers meets ocean water and
the two are mixed by the action of tides. Estuaries are highly
productive as compared to the adjacent river or sea.

Biosphere
The biosphere is a part of the earth where life can exist. The biosphere
represents a highly integrated and interacting zone comprising of the
atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and lithosphere (land).

It is a narrow layer around the surface of the earth. If we visualize the earth
to be the size of an apple the biosphere would be as thick as its skin.
The biosphere is absent at extremes of the North and South poles, the
highest mountains and the deepest oceans since existing hostile conditions
there do not support life. Occasionally spores of fungi and bacteria do occur
at a great height beyond 8,000 meters, but they are not metabolically active,
and hence represent only dormant life.

Living organisms are not uniformly distributed throughout the biosphere.

Only a few organisms live in the Polar Regions, while the tropical rain forests
have an exceedingly rich diversity of plants and animals.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Name:__________________________
Score___________

Course & Year/Section: _________________ Date

__________

A. Group the organisms in the box below as to their

distribution in the biosphere using the following
list of biotic organisms.

Bacteria, fungus, sponges, coelenterates, insects,

mollusks, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals

Parts of the Organisms that survive

biosphere

Atmosphere
 Lithosphere

Hydrosphere

B. Classify the following based on level of organization

(eg. species, population, or community). Write your
answer on the blank provided before each number.

_________________1. Herd of swine

_________________2. School of fish in a river

_________________3. Tilapia in a fishpond

_________________4. Swarm of locusts

_________________5. Groups of flying insects feeding on tree

foliages

_________________6. Flocks of migrating wild ducks

_________________7. Endangered wild deer

_________________8. Mahogany trees planted along the

highway
 _________________9. Weeds in a rice field

_________________10. Pechay plants in garden plots

_________________11. Fruit trees in a farm

_________________12. Mimosa pudica along the sandy roadsides

_________________13. Vegetables in a farm

_________________14. Varieties of papaya plants in the

backyard

_________________15. Santan plant

C. Discussion
1. In what way is the study of Ecology important to us?
2. Suggest five ways of preserving the ecosystem.

D. Field Activity
1. Observe a small ecosystem (e.g. river, pond, aquarium, part of a
garden etc.,). Make a list of biotic and abiotic components in the area.
Enumerate the population and species of individual present there.
Make a photo documentation on your observation.
References

Abiotic Factors- Definition, Types, Examples and Responses

February 9, 2021 by Sushmita Baniya https://microbenotes.com/abiotic-
factors/

BioExplorer.net. (2022, January 27). History of Ecology. Bio

Explorer. https://www.bioexplorer.net/history_of_biology/ecology/.
https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/types-importance-examples-
ecology.php
https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/habitat
Levels of Organization in Ecology. Arise, Lotus. 2020. Retrieved
from://lotusarise.com/levels-of-organization-in-ecology-upsc/
Prepared by:
R. M. BONTIA
Faculty, College of Science