©Ujwala Nageshkar

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS [Part 2]

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
function name input
what to output as in
We say “𝑓 of 𝑥 equals 𝑥 squared”
What goes into the function is put inside the parentheses ( ) after the name of the function:
So, 𝑓(𝑥) shows us the function is called ‘𝑓’ and ‘𝑥’ goes in.
And we usually see what a function does with the input.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 shows us that function 𝑓 takes 𝑥 and squares it.
Example:
With 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , an input of 4 becomes an output of 16.
In fact, we can write 𝑓(4) = 16.
The 𝑥 is just a placeholder.
Don’t get too concerned about 𝑥. It is just there to show us where the input goes and what
happen to it.
It could be anything.
So, this function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 , is the same as:
• 𝑓(𝑞) = 1 − 𝑞 + 𝑞 2
• ℎ(𝐴) = 1 − 𝐴 + 𝐴2
• 𝑤(𝜃) = 1 − 𝜃 + 𝜃 2
The variable (𝑥, 𝑞, 𝐴, etc) is just there so we know where to put the values.
𝑓(2) = 1 − 2 + 22 = 3
A function relates an input to an output.
Saying “𝑓(4) = 16” is like saying 4 is somehow related to 16. Or 4 → 16.
Definition:
A function relates each element of a set with exactly one
element of another set (possibly the same set).
Two important things:
1. “… each element …” means that every element in X is
related to some element in Y.
We say that the function covers X (relates every element of it).
But some elements of Y might not be related at all, which is fine.

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2. “… exactly one …” means that a function is single valued. It will not give back two or
more results for the same input.
So, 𝑓(2) = 7 or 9 is not right.
“One to many” is not allowed, but “many to one” is allowed.

But this is OK in a function

This is NOT OK in a function

When a relation does not follow those two rules then it is not a function. It is still a
relationship, just not a function.

Example:
The relationship 𝑥 → 𝑥 2 , could also be written as a table.
𝑋: 𝑥 𝑌: 𝑥 2
3 9
1 1
0 0
4 16
−4 16
… …
It is a function, because:
• Every element in X is related to Y.
• No element in X has two or more relationships.
So, it follows the rules.
Notice how 4 and −4 relate to 16, which is allowed.

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Example: This relationship is not a function.

It is a relationship, but it is not a function, for these reasons:
• Value “3” in X has no relation in Y
• Value “4” in X has no relation in Y
• Value “5” in X is related to more than one value in Y
But the fact that “6” in Y has no relationship does not matter.
Vertical Line Test
On a graph, the idea of single valued
means that no vertical line ever crosses
more than one value.
If it crosses more than once it is still a valid
curve but is not a function.

Infinitely Many
The above examples have just a few values, but functions usually work on sets with
infinitely many elements.
Example: 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑋: 𝑥 𝑌: 𝑥 3
• The input set “𝑋” is all Real Numbers. −2 −8
• The output set “𝑌” is also all Real Numbers. −0.1 −0.001
0 0
We cannot show all the values, so here are just a few examples. 1.1 1.331
Domain, Co-domain and Range 3 27
… …
In our examples above,
• The set 𝑋 is called the domain.
• The set 𝑌 is called the co-domain.
• The set of elements that get pointed to in 𝑌 (the actual values produced by the
function) is called the Range.
Function in Math
A function in math can be represented as:
• a set of ordered pairs
• an arrow diagram
• a table form
• a graphical form

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Functions have been used in mathematics for a very long time and lots of different names
and ways of writing functions have come about.
Here are some common terms you should get familiar with:
Input Relationship Output
𝑓(𝑥), 𝑔(𝜃), …
Range
maps to Image
Range Elements
Dependent variable
Value of function
Example: 𝑧 = 2𝑢3
• 𝑢 could be called the independent variable.
• 𝑧 could be called the dependent variable (it depends on the value of 𝑢)
Example: 𝑓(4) = 16
• 4 could be called the argument
• 16 could be called the value of the function
Ordered Pairs
And here is another way to think about functions:
Write the input and output of a function as an “ordered pair”, such as (4,16).
They are called ordered pairs because the input always comes first and the output second:
(input, output).

So, it looks like this: (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)).

Example:
(4,16) means that the function takes in 4 and gives out 16.
Set of Ordered Pairs
A function can then be defined as a set of ordered pairs.
Example:
{(2,4), (3,5), (7,3)} is a function that says “2 is related to 4”, “3 is related to 5”, “7 is related
to 3”
Also, notice that:
• the domain is {2,3,7} (the input values)
• the range is {4,5,3} (the output values)
But the function has to be single valued, so we also say “if it contains (𝑎, 𝑏) and (𝑎, 𝑐) then
𝑏 must equal 𝑐”.

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Example:
{(2,4), (2,5), (7,3)} is not a function because (2,4) and (2,5) means that 2 could be related
to 4 or 5.
In other words, it is not a function because it is not single valued.
A benefit of ordered pairs:
We can graph them as they are also coordinates.
So, a set of coordinates is also a function if they follow the
rules above.

A Function can be Pieces

We can create functions that behave differently depending upon the input value.
Example:
A function with two pieces: Here are some example values:
• when 𝑥 is less than 0, it gives 5. 𝑥 𝑦
• When 𝑥 is 0 or more, it gives 𝑥 2 . −3 5
−1 5
0 0
2 4
4 16

Definition:
A relation 𝑓 from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is said to be a function if every
element of set A has one and only one image in set B.
𝑓
Note: If 𝑓 is a function from a set A to a set B, then we write 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 or 𝐴 → 𝐵, which is
read as “𝑓 is a function from A to B” or “𝑓 maps A to B”.
OR
𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 iff ∀ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨 ∃ 𝒂 ! 𝒚 ∈ 𝑩 ∋ (𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝒇
Note: If 𝑓 is a function from A to B and (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓 then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦, where 𝑦 is called the image
of 𝑥 under 𝑓 and 𝑥 is called the pre-image of 𝑦 under 𝑓.
OR
𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩 iff ∀ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑨 ∃ a unique element 𝒚 ∈ 𝑩 ∋ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒚
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OR
A function ‘𝑓’ is a relation from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B if each element of
A is the first element of some ordered pair in ‘𝑓’ and no element of A is the first element of
any two distinct ordered pairs in ‘𝑓’.
OR
A function ‘𝑓’ is a relation from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B ∋ the domain of ‘𝑓’
is A and no two distinct ordered pairs in ‘𝑓’ have the same first element.
OR
A function ‘𝑓’ from A to B is a rule (or correspondence) which associates to each element
‘𝑥’ of A, a unique element ‘𝑦’ of B.
Characteristics of a Function
If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function, then:
i. any one of A and B or both may be infinite sets.
ii. each element of A must have exactly one image in B i.e., no element of A should be
without an image and no element of A can have more than one image.
iii. two or more elements of A may have the same image in B.
iv. there may be some elements in B which are not images of elements of A.
Note:
i. Function ⊂ Relation ⊂ Cartesian Product
ii. Every function is a relation, but every relation is not a function
Domain, Codomain and Range of a Function
Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵. Then, the set A is known as the domain of 𝑓 i.e., the set of all values of 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
for which 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) can be uniquely determined is known as the domain of 𝑓.
The domain of 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 given by (or defined by) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is the set of all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 for which
𝑓(𝑥) is meaningful.
The set B is known as the co-domain of 𝑓.
The set of all 𝑓-images of elements of A is known as the range of 𝒇 or image set of A under
𝑓 and is denoted by 𝑓(𝐴).
𝑓(𝐴) = {𝑓(𝑥): 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}
𝑅𝑓 or 𝑅(𝑓) = 𝑓(𝐴) = {𝑓 (𝑥): 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 }
𝐷(𝑓) or 𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴: 𝑓(𝑥) is meaningful}
OR
𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴: 𝑓(𝑥) is defined}

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OR
𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∋ 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐵}
Remark:
If a function 𝑓 is expressed as the set of ordered pairs, the domain of 𝒇 is the set of all first
components of members of 𝑓 and the range of 𝒇 is the set of all second components of
members of 𝑓 i.e.,
Domain of 𝑓 = {𝑎: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓}
Range of 𝑓 = {𝑏: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓}
Illustration:
Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} be two sets and let 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 , 𝑓4 be four subsets of
𝐴 × 𝐵.
(i) 𝑓1 = {(1, 𝑑), (2, 𝑏), (4, 𝑒)} (ii) 𝑓2 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐), (4, 𝑐), (4, 𝑒)}

• 𝑓1 is not a function from set A to set B • 𝑓2 is not a function since 4 ∈ 𝐴 has two
since 3 ∈ 𝐴 has no image in B. images 𝑐 and 𝑒 in B.
• Dom(𝑓1 ) = {1,2,4} ≠ 𝐴. So, 𝑓1 is not a • 4 ∈ 𝐴 and is the first element of two
function from A to B. distinct ordered pairs (4, 𝑐) and (4, 𝑒).
• 3 ∈ 𝐴 and 3 is not the first element of any So, 𝑓2 is not a function.
ordered pair in the given relation. 𝑓1 is not • 𝑓2 : 𝐴 → 𝐵 is not a mapping because the
a function. ordered pairs (4, 𝑐) and (4, 𝑒) suggest
• 𝑓1 is not a mapping from set A to set B that the element 4 ∈ 𝐴 have two images
because for a mapping 𝑓1 : 𝐴 → 𝐵 each 𝑐 and 𝑒 in B and for a mapping 𝑓2 : 𝐴 → 𝐵,
element of A should be uniquely each element of A should have a unique
assigned to a certain element of B. Here image in B.
3 ∈ 𝐴 is not assigned to any element of
B.
(iii)𝑓3 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑏), (4, 𝑑)} (iv) 𝑓4 = {(1, 𝑏), (2, 𝑐), (3, 𝑑), (4, 𝑒)}

• 𝑓3 : 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function since each • 𝑓4 : 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function since each

element of A has a unique image in B. element of A has a unique image in B.

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Difference between Relation and Function

Relation Function
‘R’ ‘𝑓’
Domain Domain of R may be a Domain of 𝑓 is equal to set A
subset of A
Association An element of A may be Each element of A must be
related to more than one associated to one and only
element of B. one element of B

Solved Examples:
[1] Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {2,3,4} and 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 be three subsets of 𝐴 × 𝐵 where:
𝑓1 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)}
𝑓2 = {(1,2), (1,3), (2,3), (3,4)}
𝑓3 = {(1,3), (2,4)}
Which of the above are functions from A to B?
Solution:
𝑓1 is a function from A to B but 𝑓2 and 𝑓3 are not functions from A to B.
𝑓2 is not a function from A to B because 1 ∈ 𝐴 has two images 2 and 3 in B.
𝑓3 is not a function from A to B because 3 ∈ 𝐴 has no image in B.
[2] If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ {1,2,3,4} then which of the following are functions in the given set?
(i) 𝑓1 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1}
(ii) 𝑓2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 + 𝑦 > 4}
(iii)𝑓3 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 < 𝑥}
(iv)𝑓4 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5}
Also, in case a function, give its range.
Solution:
𝑓1 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)}
𝑓1 is not a function from the given set to itself because 4 has no image.
𝑓2 = {(1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4)}
𝑓2 is not a function from the given set to itself because 2, 3, 4 have more than one
image.
𝑓3 = {(2,1), (3,1), (3,2), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4)}
𝑓3 is not a function from the given set to itself because 3, 4 have more than one image.
𝑓4 = {(1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1)}
𝑓4 is a function because ∀ 𝑎 ∈ given set ∃ 𝑎 ! 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 ∋ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓.
Range(𝑓4 ) = {1,2,3,4}
[3] Consider a function 𝑓: ℕ → ℕ defined by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3. Is 𝑓 a function.
Solution:
𝑓 is not a function.
𝑓(1) = 2(1) − 3 = −1 ∉ ℕ
1 ∈ ℕ is not associated to any element in ℕ.

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[4] Let 𝐴 = {−2, −1,0,1,2} and 𝐵 = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6}. Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . Is

𝑓 a function?
Solution:
𝑓(−2) = 4
𝑓(−1) = 1
𝑓(0) = 0
𝑓(1) = 1
𝑓(2) = 4
Clearly, each element of A is associated to an unique element in B. And so, 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is
a function.
[5] Let ℕ be the set of natural numbers and the relation R be defined on ℕ ∋
𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = 2𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℕ}
What is the domain, co-domain and range of R?
Solution:
Since every natural number 𝑛 has one and only one image, this relation is a function.
Dom(𝑅) = ℕ
Range(𝑅) = set of all even natural numbers
Co-domain= ℕ
[6] Let 𝑓 be a subset of ℤ × ℤ defined by 𝑓 = {(𝑎𝑏, 𝑎 + 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ}. Is 𝑓 a function from ℤ
to ℤ? Justify your answer.
Solution:
We observe that 1 × 6 = 6 and 2 × 3 = 6.
(1 × 6, 1 + 6) ∈ 𝑓 and (2 × 3, 2 + 3) ∈ 𝑓
(6,7) ∈ 𝑓 and (6,5) ∈ 𝑓
𝑓 is not a function from ℤ to ℤ.
[7] Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5}, 𝐵 = ℕ and 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 + 9 for 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴. Is 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 a function? If so,
find its range.
Solution:
𝑓(1) = 6(1) + 9 = 15
𝑓(2) = 6(2) + 9 = 21
𝑓(3) = 6(3) + 9 = 27
𝑓(4) = 6(4) + 9 = 33
𝑓(5) = 6(5) + 9 = 39
𝑓 is a function from A to B.
Range(𝑓) = {15,21,27,33,39}
[8] Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3}, 𝐵 = ℝ and 𝑓(𝑥) = ±4𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴. Is 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 a function?
Solution:
In this case,
𝑓(1) = ±4
There are two images 4 and −4, of the element 1 ∈ 𝐴. Therefore, 𝑓 is not a function.

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[9] Let 𝑋 = {1,2,3} and 𝑌 = {4,5}. Find whether the following subsets of 𝑋 × 𝑌 are functions
from 𝑋 to 𝑌.
(i) 𝑓1 = {(1,4), (1,5), (2,4), (3,5)}
(ii) 𝑓2 = {(1,4), (2,4), (3,4)}
(iii)𝑓3 = {(1,4), (2,5), (3,5)}
(iv)𝑓4 = {(1,4), (2,5)}
Solution:
(i) 𝑓1 is not a function since 1 ∈ 𝑋 have two images 4 and 5 under 𝑓.
(ii) 𝑓2 is a function since ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 × ∃ 𝑎 | 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 ∋ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓.
(iii) 𝑓3 is a function since ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 × ∃ 𝑎 | 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 ∋ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓.
(iv) 𝑓4 is not a function since 3 ∈ 𝑋 has no image in 𝑌 under 𝑓.
[10] Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝐵 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}. The function 𝑓 consists of a set of ordered pairs
{(𝑎, 𝑥), (𝑏, 𝑧), (𝑏, 𝑤), (𝑐, 𝑦)}. Does this form a mapping 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵?
Solution:
No. It is not a mapping since the ordered pairs (𝑏, 𝑧) and (𝑏, 𝑤) suggest that the element
𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 have two images 𝑧 and 𝑤 ∈ 𝐵 and for a mapping 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, each element of A
should have a unique image in B.
[11] Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3}, 𝐵 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}. If 𝑓 assigns to each number of A its square then
will 𝑓 be a mapping from A to B?
Solution:
𝑓(1) = 12 = 1 ∈ 𝐵
𝑓(2) = 22 = 4 ∈ 𝐵
𝑓(3) = 32 = 9 ∉ 𝐵
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is not a mapping since 3 ∈ 𝐴 is not assigned to any element of B.
[12] Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}, 𝐵 = {1,5,9,11,15,16} and 𝑓 = {(1,5), (2,9), (3,1), (4,5), (2,11)}. Are
the following true?
(i) 𝑓 is a relation from A to B
(ii) 𝑓 is a function from A to B.
Justify your answer in both the cases.
Solution:
(i) 𝑓 is a relation from A to B since 𝑓 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵.
(ii) 𝑓 is not a function from A to B since 2 ∈ 𝐴 has two images 9 and 11 in B.
Remark:
1. Every function from set A to set B is a relation from set A to set B.
2. A relation from set A to set B may or may not be a function from set A to set B.
3. A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called a real valued function if B is a subset of ℝ (set of all the
real numbers)
If A and B both are subsets of ℝ, then 𝑓 is called a real function.
4. A function which has either ℝ or one of its subsets as its range is called a real valued
function. Further, if its domain is also either ℝ or a subset of ℝ, it is called a real
function.

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In practice, real functions are described by giving the general expression or formula
describing it without mentioning its domain and co-domain.
5. If ℝ is the set of real numbers and X is a subset of ℝ, then 𝑓: 𝑋 → ℝ is a real valued
function.
If 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, it is a real function.
[13] If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 9, find 𝑓(𝑥 − 1).
Solution:
𝑓(𝑥 − 1) = 3(𝑥 − 1)4 − 5(𝑥 − 1)2 + 9
𝑓(𝑥 − 1) = 3𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 13𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7
[14] A function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5. Write down the values of 𝑓(0), 𝑓(7), 𝑓(−3).
Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5
𝑓(0) = 2(0) − 5 = 0 − 5 = −5
𝑓(7) = 2(7) − 5 = 14 − 5 = 9
𝑓(−3) = 2(−3) − 5 = −6 − 5 = −11
[15] The function 𝑡 which maps temperature in degree Celsius into temperature in
9𝑐
Fahrenheit is defined by 𝑡(𝑐) = + 32. Find 𝑡(0), 𝑡(28) and 𝑡(−10). Also, find the value
5
of 𝑐 when 𝑡(𝑐) = 212.
Solution:
9𝑐
𝑡(𝑐) = + 32 𝑡(𝑐) = 212
5 9𝑐
9(0) + 32 = 212
𝑡(0) = + 32 = 0 + 32 = 32 5
9𝑐
5
9(28) = 212 − 32
𝑡(28) = + 32 = 50.4 + 32 = 82.4 5
9𝑐
5
9(−10) = 180
𝑡(−10) = + 32 = −18 + 32 = 14 5
5 5
𝑐 = (180)
9
𝑐 = 100
[16] Which of the following relations are functions? Give reasons. If it is a function,
determine its domain and range.
(i) {(2,1), (5,1), (8,1), (11,1), (14,1), (17,1)}
(ii) {(2,1), (4,2), (6,3), (8,4), (10,5), (12,6), (14,7)}
(iii) {(1,3), (1,5), (2,5)}
Solution:
(i) This is a function with domain = {2,5,8,11,14,17} and range = {1}.
(ii) This is a function with domain = {2,4,6,8,10,12,14} and range = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
(iii) This is not a function as 1 does not have a unique image.

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1 1
[17] If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + , prove that [𝑓(𝑥)]3 = 𝑓(𝑥 3 ) + 3𝑓 ( ).
𝑥 𝑥
Solution:
1
𝑓(𝑥 3 ) = 𝑥 3 +
𝑥3
1 3
[𝑓(𝑥)]3 = (𝑥 + )
𝑥
1 1 1
= 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 ( ) + 3𝑥 ( 2) + 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
3 1
= 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + +
𝑥 𝑥3
1 1
= 𝑥3 + + 3 (𝑥 + )
𝑥3 𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥 3 ) + 3𝑓(𝑥)
1 1
[𝑓(𝑥)]3 = 𝑓(𝑥 3 ) + 3𝑓 ( ) [𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 ( )]
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥+1
[18] If 𝑓(𝑥) = , show that 𝑓[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑥.
𝑥−1
Solution:
𝑓(𝑥)+1
𝑓[𝑓(𝑥)] =
𝑓(𝑥)−1
𝑥+1
+1
𝑥−1
= 𝑥+1
−1
𝑥−1
𝑥+1+(𝑥−1)
=
𝑥+1−(𝑥−1)
2𝑥
=
2
𝑓[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑥
[19] Find the domain of each of the following real valued functions.
1 1
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = (ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 + 2
𝑥+2 √𝑥 −1
Solution: Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) assumes real values ∀ 𝑥 except for Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) is defined for:
the values of 𝑥 satisfying 𝑥 + 2 = 0 i.e., 4 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 2 − 1 > 0
𝑥 = −2. 𝑥 − 4 ≤ 0 and 𝑥 2 > 1
Domain(𝑓) = ℝ − {−2} 𝑥 ≤ 4 and 𝑥 < −1 or 𝑥 > 1
OR 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1 ) ∪ (1,4]
𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑓(𝑥) is defined ∀ real 𝑥} 𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −1 ) ∪ (1,4]
Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) is defined ∀ real 𝑥 satisfying
𝑥 + 2 ≠ 0 i.e., 𝑥 ≠ −2.
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {−2}

𝑥−1 2𝑥−3
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = (iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥−3 𝑥 −3𝑥+2
Solution: Solution:
Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) assumes real values ∀ 𝑥 Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) assumes real values ∀ 𝑥
except for the value of 𝑥 for which except for the value of 𝑥 for which
𝑥 − 3 = 0 i.e., 𝑥 = 3. 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0 i.e., 𝑥 = 1,2.
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {3} 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {1,2}

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(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 (vi) 𝑓(𝑥) = √9 − 𝑥 2
√𝑥 −1
Solution: Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) is defined for 𝑥 2 − 1 > 0 𝑓(𝑥) is defined for 9 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) > 0 𝑥2 − 9 < 0
(𝑥 + 1) < 0 or (𝑥 − 1) > 0 𝑥2 < 9
𝑥 < −1 and 𝑥 > 1 |𝑥| < 3
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝐷𝑓 = [−3,3]
OR
𝑓(𝑥) is defined for 𝑥 2 − 1 > 0 i.e, 𝑥 2 > 1
|𝑥| > 1
𝑥 < −1 and 𝑥 > 1
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞)

𝑥 2 +3𝑥+5 (viii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 2

(vii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 −5𝑥+4
Solution:
Solution:
Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 as square root of a
Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) assumes real values ∀ 𝑥
number is always non-negative.
except for the value of 𝑥 for which
𝑓(𝑥) is defined for 𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 i.e., 𝑥 ≥ 2.
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 = 0 i.e., 𝑥 = 1,4.
𝑥 ∈ [2, ∞)
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {1,4}
𝐷𝑓 = [2, ∞)
1
(ix) 𝑓(𝑥) = (x) 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2
√1−𝑥
Solution: Solution:
Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) assumes real values if Clearly,
2
𝑓(𝑥) is defined only when
1−𝑥 ≥0 4−𝑥 ≥0
1 ≥ 𝑥 or 𝑥 < 1. 4 ≥ 𝑥2
𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 1) 𝑥 2 ≤ 22
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, 1) −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑥 ∈ [−2,2]

𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑥 2 −1
(xi) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 (xii) 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥≠1
𝑥 −8𝑥+12 𝑥−1
Solution: Solution:
Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) assumes real values if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2−1 = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 12 ≠ 0 i.e., 𝑥 ≠ 2,6 𝑥−1
𝑓 is defined ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ except 1
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {2,6}
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {1}

1 1
(xiii) 𝑓(𝑥) = (xiv) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 𝑥−7
Solution: Solution:
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {0} 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {7}

3𝑥−2 2𝑥+1
(xv) 𝑓(𝑥) = (xvi) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥+1 𝑥 −9
Solution: Solution:
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {−1} 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {−3,3}

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𝑥−2 (xviii) 𝑓(𝑥) = log(2 − 3𝑥)

(xvii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √ Solution:
3−𝑥
Solution: log(2 − 3𝑥) is defined only if 2 − 3𝑥 > 0
𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 and 3 − 𝑥 > 0 2 > 3𝑥
2
𝑥 ≥ 2 and 𝑥 < 3 >𝑥
3
𝐷𝑓 = [2,3) 2
𝑥<
3
2
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, )
3
[20] Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝐵 = {1,6,8,11,15}. Which of the following are functions from A
to B?
(i) 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(2) = 6, 𝑓(3) = 8, 𝑓(4) = 8
Solution:
𝑓 is a function since each element of A corresponds to exactly one image in B.
(ii) 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(2) = 6, 𝑓(3) = 15
Solution:
𝑓 is not a function since 4 ∈ 𝐴 has no image.
(iii) 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓(1) = 6, 𝑓(2) = 6, 𝑓(3) = 6, 𝑓(4) = 6
𝑓 is a function since each element of A corresponds to exactly one image in B.
(iv) 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(2) = 6, 𝑓(2) = 8, 𝑓(3) = 11, 𝑓(4) = 15
Solution:
𝑓 is not a function since 2 ∈ 𝐴 has two images in B.
(v) 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(2) = 8, 𝑓(3) = 1, 𝑓(4) = 15
Solution:
𝑓 is a function since each element of A corresponds to exactly one image in B.
[21] Which of the following relations are functions? Give reasons. If function, determine
domain and range.
(i) {(2,1), (5,1), (8,1), (11,1), (14,1), (17,1)}
Solution:
It is a function.
Domain = {2,5,8,11,14,17} and Range = {1}
(ii) {(2,1), (4,2), (6,3), (8,4), (10,5), (12,6), (14,7)}
Solution:
It is a function.
Domain = {2,4,6,8,10,12,14} and Range = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
(iii) {(1,3), (1,5), (2,5)}
Solution:
It is not a function as 1 has two images.

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[22] Let 𝐴 = {1,2} and 𝐵 = {3,4,5}. Write down:

(i) Cartesian product 𝐴 × 𝐵
(ii) The relation 𝑅 ∋ 𝑎 𝑅 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 is even number
(iii) The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 ∋ 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑎 + 𝑏 is even}
Solution:
(i) 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5)}
(ii) 𝑅 = {(1,3), (1,5), (2,4)}
(iii) 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵
𝑓1 = {(1,3), (2,4)}
OR
𝑓2 = {(1,5), (2,4)}
Important Functions and Their Graphs
Constant Function Fractional Part Function
Identity Function Signum Function
Polynomial Function Exponential Function
Modulus Function Logarithmic Function
Greatest Integer Function Reciprocal Function

Graph of a Function:
Let X and Y be two non-empty sets and 𝑓 be a function from X to Y, then graph of 𝑓 is the
subset {(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)): ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋} of 𝑋 × 𝑌.
1. Constant Function:
The function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
(where 𝑘 is a fixed real number)
OR
If 𝑘 is a fixed real number then, a function 𝑓(𝑥) given by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘
for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is called a constant function.
Domain: ℝ i.e., 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ
Range: {𝑘} i.e., 𝑅𝑓 = {𝑘}
Example:
Draw the graph of the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
(Take at least 8 values out of which 4 values are negative).
Solution:
Input 𝑥 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Output 𝑦 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

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Domain = ℝ and Range = {2}

Remark:
(i) The graph of a constant function is a line parallel to 𝑥-axis.
(ii) If 𝑘 > 0, the graph will be a line above 𝑥-axis and parallel to it.
(iii)If 𝑘 = 0, the graph will coincide with the 𝑥-axis.
(iv)If 𝑘 < 0, the graph will be a line below 𝑥-axis and parallel to it.
(v) If 𝑘 = 0, then 𝑓 is called a zero-function and its graph is the line 𝑦 = 0 i.e., 𝑥-axis itself.

2. Identity Function:
The function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is
called an Identity function.
OR
The function that associates each real number to itself
is called the identity function.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ
Range of 𝑓 = ℝ
Example:
Draw the graph of the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
(Take at least 8 values out of which 4 values are negative).
Solution:
𝑥 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝑦 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

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Remark: The graph of identity function is a straight line passing through the origin and
inclined at an angle of 45° with 𝑥-axis. Its slope is 1.
3. Modulus Function:
The function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
The function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined by
𝑥 ; 𝑥≥0
where 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
𝑥 ; 𝑥<0
is called the modulus function.
It is also known as absolute value function.
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ
Range of 𝑓 = [0, ∞)
where 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
Example:
Draw a graph of the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|.
(Take at least 8 values out of which 4 values are negative).
Solution:
𝑥 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝑦 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

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Remark:
(i) The graph is symmetric with respect to 𝑦-axis.
(ii) It is above 𝑥-axis, except at one point 𝑥 = 0.
(iii) For 𝑥 ≥ 0 the graph coincides with the graph of identity function i.e., the line 𝑦 = 𝑥
and for 𝑥 < 0, it is coincident to the line 𝑦 = −𝑥.
Properties of Modulus Function:

(i) For any real number 𝑥, we have √𝑥 2 = |𝑥|.

Example:
𝜋
cos 𝑥 ; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤
2
√cos2 𝑥 = |cos 𝑥| = { 𝜋
− cos 𝑥 ; <𝑥≤𝜋
2
(ii) If 𝑎, 𝑏 are positive real numbers, then:
𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑎2 ⇔ |𝑥| ≤ 𝑎 ⇔ −𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎
𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑎2 ⇔ |𝑥| ≥ 𝑎 ⇔ 𝑥 ≤ −𝑎 or 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
𝑥 2 < 𝑎2 ⇔ |𝑥| < 𝑎 ⇔ −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎
𝑥 2 > 𝑎2 ⇔ |𝑥| > 𝑎 ⇔ 𝑥 < −𝑎 or 𝑥 > 𝑎
𝑎2 ≤ 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑏 2 ⇔ 𝑎 ≤ |𝑥| ≤ 𝑏 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ [−𝑏, −𝑎] ∪ [𝑎, 𝑏]
𝑎2 < 𝑥 2 < 𝑏 2 ⇔ 𝑎 < |𝑥| < 𝑏 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ (−𝑏, −𝑎) ∪ (𝑎, 𝑏)
(iii) For real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 we have,
|𝑥 + 𝑦| = |𝑥| + |𝑦| ⇔ (𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑦 ≥ 0) or (𝑥 < 0 and 𝑦 < 0)
|𝑥 − 𝑦| = |𝑥| − |𝑦| ⇔ (𝑥 ≥ 0 and |𝑥| ≥ |𝑦|) or (𝑥 ≤ 0, 𝑦 ≤ 0 and |𝑥| ≥ |𝑦|)
|𝑥 ± 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥| + |𝑦|
|𝑥 ± 𝑦| ≥ ||𝑥| − |𝑦||

4. Polynomial Function:
A function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ where
𝑛 ∈ ℕ and 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , …, 𝑎𝑛 ∈ ℝ is called Polynomial function.
OR
A function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 where 𝑛 is a
non-negative integer and 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , …, 𝑎𝑛 ∈ ℝ is called Polynomial function.
Example:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 5, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥√2 are polynomial functions.
2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 is not a polynomial function.
Note: Constant function and Identity Function are the special cases of Polynomial
function.

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Square Function:
The function 𝑓(𝑥): ℝ → ℝ defined by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is called a Square function.
2

Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ
Range of 𝑓 = [0, ∞)

Cubic Function:
The function 𝑓(𝑥): ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is
called a Cubic function.
Domain = ℝ
Range = ℝ

If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then 𝑛 is called the degree of the polynomial.

Zero polynomial i.e., the polynomial in which 𝑎0 = 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = ⋯ = 𝑎𝑛 = 0
Zero Polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 Degree not
defined
Non-zero constant or 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 , 𝑎0 ≠ 0 Degree 0
Constant function
Linear function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥, 𝑎1 ≠ 0 Degree 1
Quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 , 𝑎2 ≠ 0
2 Degree 2
Cubic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑥 , 𝑎3 ≠ 0
2 3 Degree 3
Quartic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑎4 𝑥 , 𝑎4 ≠ 0
2 3 4 Degree 4
Quintic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑎4 𝑥 + 𝑎5 𝑥 , 𝑎5 ≠ 0 Degree 5
2 3 4 5

Remark:
Domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real numbers. Nothing can be said about
the range of a polynomial function.
Range depends on the polynomial representing the function.
Example:
Range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 is ℝ and that of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is [0, ∞) i.e., 𝑅 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}
3
Range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 is [ , ∞)
4
1 2 3
since 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 + ) + ≥ 4 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
2 4

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5. Rational Function:
𝑔(𝑥)
A function which can be expressed as where 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) are polynomials and
ℎ(𝑥)
ℎ(𝑥) ≠ 0 is called a rational function.
Example:
4−√3𝑥+𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥) = is a rational function
2−𝑥 3
𝑔(𝑥)
The domain of a rational function 𝑓(𝑥) = , ℎ(𝑥) ≠ 0 is the set of all reals except those
ℎ(𝑥)
which are roots of the equation ℎ(𝑥) = 0.
Domain of 𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: ℎ(𝑥) ≠ 0}
Range of 𝑓 = R𝑓 = ℝ − {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: ℎ(𝑥) = 0}
Reciprocal Function:
1
The function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = is called reciprocal
𝑥
function.
Domain of 𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {0}
Range of 𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 = ℝ − {0}
1
where 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

6. Signum Function:
The function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by
1 if 𝑥 > 0
𝑓(𝑥) = { 0 if 𝑥 = 0
−1 if 𝑥 < 0
OR
|𝑥|
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≠ 0
0 if 𝑥 = 0
Domain of 𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ
Range of 𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 = {−1,0,1}
(0,1) and (1,0) do not form part of the graph but (0,0) is
a part of the graph.
7. Greatest Integer Function (Integral Part Function or Floor Function or Step Function):
The function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑥] or ⌊𝑥⌋ ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ where [𝑥] denotes the
greatest integer less than or equal to 𝑥.
Thus,
[𝑥] = 𝑥 if 𝑥 is an integer
[𝑥] = an integer immediately to the left of 𝑥, if 𝑥 is not an integer
[𝑥] = 𝑛 where 𝑛 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑛 + 1, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
Example:
5 16
[9] = 9, [4.2] = 4, [−4.2] = −5, [− ] = −3 [ ]=3
2 5
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ
Range of 𝑓 = ℤ

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𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
… …
−4 ≤ 𝑥 < −3 −4
−3 ≤ 𝑥 < −2 −3
−2 ≤ 𝑥 < −1 −2
−1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 −1
0≤𝑥<1 0
1≤𝑥<2 1
2≤𝑥<3 2
3≤𝑥<4 3
4≤𝑥<5 4
… …

8. Exponential Function:
The function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ where 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 is called the
exponential function.
Case I: Case II:
When 𝑎 > 1, When 0 < 𝑎 < 1
The value of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 increases as The value of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 decreases as
𝑥

the value of 𝑥 increases. the value of 𝑥 increases.

<1 ; 𝑥<0 >1 ; 𝑥<0
Also, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 {𝑥 =1 ; 𝑥=0 Also, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 {= 1 ; 𝑥 = 0
𝑥

>1 ; 𝑥>0 <1 ; 𝑥>0

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Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ i.e., 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ
Range of 𝑓 = (0, ∞) i.e., 𝑅𝑓 = ℝ+
Remark:
We have 2 < 𝑒 < 3.
Therefore, graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is identical to that of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 for 𝑎 > 1 and the graph of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is identical to that of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎−𝑥 for 0 < 𝑎 < 1.
Euler’s number ‘𝑒’ is also known as the exponential growth constant and it numerical
value is approximately 2.71828. It is a famous irrational number.
If 𝑎 > 1, then the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is increasing through ℝ.
If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is decreasing through ℝ.
9. Logarithmic Function:
For 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1, the function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑥 > 0 is called the
logarithmic function.
Note: log 𝑎 𝑥 exist only when 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1 and 𝑥 > 0.
The increase of the exponential function with base ‘𝑎’ is called the logarithmic function
with base ‘𝑎’ and is denoted by log 𝑎
The inverse function of {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑥 > 0} is called the logarithmic
function.
In 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 , ‘𝑎’ is called the base and the exponent 𝑦 which satisfies the equation is called
the logarithm of 𝑥 to the base ‘𝑎’ and is written as log 𝑎 𝑥. It is read as ‘logarithm of 𝑥 to
the base 𝑎’. The equation 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 is the same as 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 . Therefore, the logarithm
function {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑥 > 0} can be written as
{(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑥 > 0}
The logarithmic function and the exponential function are inverse functions, i.e.,
log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦
Domain of 𝑓 = set of all non-negative real numbers i.e., 𝐷𝑓 = (0, ∞)
Range of 𝑓 = ℝ

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Case I: Case II:

When 𝑎 > 1 When 0 < 𝑎 < 1
<0 ; 0<𝑥<1 >0 ; 0<𝑥<1
𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 { = 0 ; 𝑥 = 1 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 { = 0 ; 𝑥 = 1
>0 ; 𝑥>1 <0 ; 𝑥<1
The value of 𝑦 increases with increase in 𝑥. The value of 𝑦 decreases with increase in 𝑥.

Properties of Logarithmic Functions:

(i) log 𝑎 1 = 0, where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
(ii) log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1, where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
(iii)𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 for every 𝑥 > 0
(iv)𝑒 log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑒 for every 𝑥 > 0
(v) log 𝑎 (𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑎 |𝑥| + log 𝑎 |𝑦|, where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑥𝑦 > 0
𝑥 𝑥
(vi)log 𝑎 ( ) = log 𝑎 |𝑥| − log 𝑎 |𝑦|, where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, > 0
𝑦 𝑦
(vii) log 𝑎 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛 log 𝑎 𝑥, where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑥 𝑛 > 0
log 𝑥 1
(viii) log 𝑎 𝑥 = = for 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑥 > 0, 𝑥 ≠ 1
log 𝑎 log𝑥 𝑎
(ix) log 𝑎 𝑥 × log 𝑥 𝑎 = 1
𝑚
(x) log 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑚 = log 𝑎 𝑥, where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑥 > 0
𝑛
𝑚 𝑚
(xi) log 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑚
= log 𝑥 𝑥 =
𝑛 𝑛
(xii) 𝑥log𝑎 𝑦
=𝑦 , where 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
log𝑎 𝑥

(xiii) If 𝑎 > 1, then the value of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 increases with the increase in 𝑥 i.e.,
𝑥 < 𝑦 ⇔ log 𝑎 𝑥 < log 𝑎 𝑦
(xiv) If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, then the value of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 decreases with the increase in 𝑥 i.e.,
𝑥 < 𝑦 ⇔ log 𝑎 𝑥 > log 𝑎 𝑦

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Remark:
Functions 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 are inverse of each other. So, their graphs are
mirror images of each other in the line mirror 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Range:
Range of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a collection of all outputs {𝑓(𝑥)} corresponding to each real number in
the domain.
Rules for finding range:
First, find the domain of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
(i) If domain (finite number of points ⇒ range ∈ set of corresponding 𝑓(𝑥) values
(ii) If domain ∈ ℝ or ℝ − {some finite points} then express 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦. From this, find
𝑦 for 𝑥 to be defined (i.e., find the values of 𝑦 for which 𝑥 exist).
(iii) If domain ∈ a finite interval, find the least and greatest value for range using
monotonicity.
Algorithm:
Step 1: Put 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Step 2: Solve the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦. Let 𝑥 = 𝜙(𝑦).
Step 3: Find the values of 𝑦 for which the values of 𝑥 obtained from 𝑥 = 𝜙(𝑦) are real and in
the domain of 𝑓.
Step 4: The set of values of 𝑦 obtained in Step 3 is the range of 𝑓.
Solved Examples:
[1] Find the domain and range of the following functions:
𝑥−2 1
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = (ii) 𝑓(𝑥) =
3−𝑥 𝑥−2
Solution: Solution:
𝑥−2 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) =
3−𝑥 𝑥−2
𝑓(𝑥) is defined ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ satisfying 3 − 𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑓(𝑥) is defined only when 𝑥 − 2 ≠ 0 i.e.,
i.e., 𝑥 = 3. 𝑥 ≠ 2.
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {3} Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ − {2}
Range: Range:
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥−2 1
𝑦= 𝑦=
3−𝑥 𝑥−2
3𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 1
1+2𝑦
𝑥(1 + 𝑦) = 3𝑦 + 2 𝑥=
3𝑦+2 𝑦
𝑥= Clearly, 𝑥 assumes real values except 𝑦 = 0
𝑦+1
Clearly, 𝑥 assumes real values ∀ 𝑦 except Range of 𝑓 = ℝ − {0}
𝑦 + 1 = 0 i.e., 𝑦 = −1.
𝑅𝑓 = ℝ − {−1}

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(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = −|𝑥| (iv) 𝑓(𝑥) =

4−𝑥
𝑥−4
Solution:
Solution:
|𝑥| i.e., modulus of 𝑥 is uniquely defined for
Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) is defined ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ except for
non-negative real number for each 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
which 𝑥 − 4 = 0 i.e., 𝑥 = 4
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = −|𝑥| is a uniquely determined real
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ − {4}
number for each 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
For range,
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Also, |𝑥| ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ 4−𝑥
𝑦=
−|𝑥| ≤ 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ 𝑥−4
−(𝑥−4)
Range of 𝑓 = (−∞, 0] 𝑦=
𝑥−4
𝑦 = −1
Range of 𝑓 = {−1}
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1 (vi) 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 1|
Solution: Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 𝑥 − 1 ≥ 0 i.e., 𝑥 ≥ 1 Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) is defined ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
Domain = [1, ∞) Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ
For range: For range:
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) |𝑥 − 1| ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1 0 ≤ |𝑥 − 1| ≤ ∞ ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑦 ≥ 0 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ∞ ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 1 and 𝑦 ≥ 0 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ [0, ∞) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Now we find that whatever 𝑦 ≥ 0 be, 𝑥 is a Range of 𝑓 =
[0, ∞)
real number.
Range of 𝑓 = [0, ∞)
𝑥
(vii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √9 − 𝑥 2 (viii) 𝑓(𝑥) =
1+𝑥 2
Solution: Solution:
For Domain: 9 − 𝑥 ≥ 0,
2
Clearly, domain of 𝑓 = ℝ
2
⇒9≥𝑥 Range:
⇒ 𝑥 2 ≤ 32 Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
⇒ |𝑥| ≤ 3 𝑦=
𝑥
2
⇒ −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 2
1+𝑥
Domain of 𝑓 = [−3,3] 𝑥 𝑦+𝑦 =𝑥
For Range: 𝑥 2𝑦 − 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0
1±√1−4𝑦 2
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥=
2𝑦
𝑦 = √9 − 𝑥 2 [𝑦 > 0] Clearly, 𝑥 will assume real values if,
𝑦 = 9−𝑥 ,
2 2
[𝑦 2 ≥ 0] 1 − 4𝑦 2 ≥ 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 0
𝑥2 = 9 − 𝑦2 4𝑦 2 − 1 ≤ 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 0
9 − 𝑦2 ≥ 0 [𝑥 2 ≥ 0] 1
𝑦 2 − ≤ 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 0 [𝑦 2 − 14 = (𝑦 − 12) (𝑦 + 12)]
𝑦2 ≤ 9 4
1 1
⇒ 𝑦 ≤ |3| (𝑦 − 2) (𝑦 + 2) ≤ 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 0
−3 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 3 and 𝑦 ≥ 0 1
− ≤𝑦≤
1
and 𝑦 ≠ 0
0≤𝑦≤3 2 2
1 1
Range of 𝑓 = [0,3] 𝑦 ∈ [− , ] − {0}
2 2
1 1
Range of 𝑓 = [− , ] − {0}
2 2

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𝑥 2
(ix) 𝑓(𝑥) = (x) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 −9
𝑥+5 𝑥−3
Solution: Solution:
𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+5
Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) is defined ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ except for
𝑓(𝑥) is defined only when 𝑥 + 5 ≠ 0 i.e., which 𝑥 − 3 = 0 i.e., 𝑥 = 3
𝑥 ≠ −5 Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ − {3}
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ − {−5} For range,
Range: Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 2 −9
𝑥
𝑦 =
𝑥−3
𝑦= 𝑦 =𝑥+3
𝑥+5
𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑦 takes all real values except 6 when 𝑥 takes
𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 = −5𝑦 values in the set ℝ − {3}.
𝑥(1 − 𝑦) = 5𝑦 Range of 𝑓 = ℝ − {6}
5𝑦
𝑥=
1−𝑦
𝑥 is not defined when 1 − 𝑦 = 0 i.e., 𝑦 = 1.
Range of 𝑓 = ℝ − {1}
𝑥 2 1
(xi) 𝑓(𝑥) = (xii) 𝑓(𝑥) =
1+𝑥 2 1−𝑥 2
Solution: Solution:
Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) is defined ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ where Clearly, 𝑓(𝑥) is defined ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ except for
1 − 𝑥 2 ≠ 0 for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. which 1 − 𝑥 2 = 0 i.e., 𝑥 = ±1
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ − {−1,1}
For range: For range:
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 2 1
𝑦= 𝑦= 2
1+𝑥 2 1−𝑥
2 2 2 1
𝑥 =𝑥 𝑦+𝑦 1−𝑥 =
𝑦
𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑦) = 𝑦 2 1
𝑦 𝑥 =1−
𝑥2 = 𝑦−1
𝑦
1−𝑦
𝑥2 =
𝑦 𝑦
𝑥 = ±√
1−𝑦 𝑦−1
𝑥 = ±√
Since 𝑥 will take real values, 𝑦
𝑦 𝑦−1
≥0 Clearly, 𝑥 will take real values if ≥0
1−𝑦 𝑦
𝑦−0
≤0 i.e., 𝑦 < 0 or 𝑦 ≥ 1
𝑦−1
𝑦 ∈ [−∞, 0) ∪ [1, ∞)
0≤𝑦<1 Range of 𝑓 = [−∞, 0) ∪ [1, ∞)
Range of 𝑓 = [0,1)

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𝑥 1
(xiii) 𝑓(𝑥) = (xiv) 𝑓(𝑥) =
2+𝑥 2 √𝑥−5
Solution: Solution:
𝑥 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) =
2+𝑥 2 √𝑥−5
𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 2 + 𝑥 2 ≠ 0 i.e., 𝑓(𝑥) is defined only when 𝑥 − 5 > 0 i.e.,
𝑥 2 ≠ −2. 𝑥 > 5.
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ Domain of 𝑓 = (5, ∞)
For Range: For Range:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) For 𝑥 > 5
𝑥
𝑦= ⇒𝑥−5>0
2+𝑥 2
2 1
𝑥 𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ >0
2 𝑥−5
𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0 1
−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 ⇒ >0
√𝑥−5
For 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) > 0
2𝑎
Here 𝑎 = 𝑦, 𝑏 = −1, 𝑐 = 2𝑦 ⇒𝑦>0
𝑥=
1±√1−4(𝑦)(2𝑦)
=
1±√1−4𝑦 2
Range of 𝑓 = (0, ∞)
2𝑦 2𝑦 OR
Clearly, 𝑥 will assume real values if: 1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) =
1 − 8𝑦 2 ≥ 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 0 √𝑥−5
2 1
8𝑦 − 1 < 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 0
2 𝑦 =
𝑥−5
1
𝑦 2 − < 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 0 [𝑦 2 − 18 = (𝑦 + √81 ) (𝑦 − √81 )] 𝑥 − 5 = 12
8 𝑦
1 1
(𝑦 + 8
) (𝑦 − 8
) < 0 and 𝑦 ≠ 0 𝑥=
1
+5
√ √ 𝑦2
1 1
− ≤𝑦≤ and 𝑦 ≠ 0 Clearly, for 𝑥 to be definite, 𝑦 ≠ 0.
√8 √8
−
1
≤𝑦≤
1
and 𝑦 ≠ 0 Again, in the domain we have 𝑥 > 5.
2 √2 2√2 1
1 1 2
+5>5
𝑦 ∈ [− , ] − {0} 𝑦
2√2 2√2 1
>0
Also, 𝑦 = 0 for 𝑥 = 0. 𝑦2
2
Range of 𝑓 = [−
1
,
1
] 𝑦 >0
2√2 2√2 𝑦 > 0 or 𝑦 < 0
OR 𝑦 cannot be negative as 𝑦 is a positive
2
1 − 8𝑦 ≥ 0 square root.
1
𝑦2 < ∴ we have, 𝑦 > 0 only. [𝑦 =
1
is +ive]
8
2 √𝑥−5
1
⇒ 𝑦2 < ( ) Range of 𝑓 = (0, ∞)
8 √
1
⇒ |𝑦| <
√8
1 1
⇒− ≤𝑦≤
√8 √8
1 1
− ≤𝑦≤
2 √2 2√2
1 1
Range of 𝑓 = [− , ]
2√2 2√2

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3
(xv) 𝑓(𝑥) = √16 − 𝑥 2 (xvi) 𝑓(𝑥) =
2−𝑥 2
Solution: Solution:
𝑓(𝑥) = √16 − 𝑥 2 For 𝑓(𝑥) to be real, we must have
𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 16 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 2 − 𝑥 2 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ± √2
⇒ 16 ≥ 𝑥 2 Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ − {−√2, √2}
⇒ |𝑥| ≤ 4
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),
⇒ −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 3
Domain of 𝑓 = [−4,4] 𝑦=
2−𝑥 2
For Range: 2𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 3
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 2𝑦 − 3
𝑦 = √16 − 𝑥 2 𝑥 = ±√
2𝑦−3
𝑦
𝑦 2 = 16 − 𝑥 2 , (𝑦 ≥ 0 as √16 − 𝑥 2 is
𝑥 2 = 16 − 𝑦 2 non-negative) Now, 𝑥 will take real values other than −√2
2
16 − 𝑦 ≥ 0, 𝑥 ≥ 0 2 and √2 if,
2𝑦−3
⇒ 𝑦 2 ≤ 16 ≥0
𝑦
|𝑦| ≤ 4 3
⇒ −4 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 4, but 𝑦 ≥ 0 𝑦 ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ [ , ∞)
2
3
0≤𝑦≤4 Range of 𝑓 = (−∞, 0) ∪ [ , ∞)
2
Range of 𝑓 = [0,4] 3
OR Clearly, 𝑥 is not defined when 2 − < 0 i.e.,
𝑦
2 2 3 3
𝑥 = 16 − 𝑦 𝑦 < but defined 𝑦 > .
2 2
𝑥 = √16 − 𝑦 2 𝑥 is not defined if 𝑦 = 0 but defined if 𝑦 < 0,
Clearly, 𝑥 will take real values if 3
Range of 𝑓 = (−∞, 0) ∪ [ , ∞)
16 − 𝑦 2 ≥ 0 2

𝑦 2 − 16 ≤ 0
(𝑦 + 4)(𝑦 − 4) ≤ 0
−4 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 4 𝑦 ∈ [−4,4]
Also, 𝑦 ≥ 0.
∴ 𝑦 ∈ [0,4]
Range of 𝑓 = [0,4]

[2] Find range of each of the following functions:

(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 3𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 > 0 (ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Solution: Solution:
Domain of 𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 > 0} Domain = ℝ,
Domain of 𝑓 = (0, ∞) For range,
For range: Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),
Given, 𝑥 > 0 𝑦=𝑥
⇒ −3𝑥 < 0 𝑅𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ
⇒ 2 − 3𝑥 < 2
⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) < 2
⇒𝑦<2
Range = (−∞, 2)

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(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Solution:
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ
For range:
𝑥2 ≥ 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
⇒ 𝑥2 + 2 ≥ 2
⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 2
Range of 𝑓 = [2, ∞)
OR
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 2
𝑥2 = 𝑦 − 2
𝑥 = ±√𝑦 − 2
Since 𝑥 is real, 𝑦 − 2 ≥ 0,
𝑦≥2
Range of 𝑓 = [2, ∞)

Operations on Functions
Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two real valued functions with respective domains 𝐷𝑓 and 𝐷𝑔 and let
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 ≠ 𝜙, then:
(i) the sum of 𝑓 and 𝑔 written as 𝑓 + 𝑔 is the function defined by
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷
(ii) the difference of 𝑓 and 𝑔 written as 𝑓 − 𝑔 is the function defined by
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷
(iii) the product of 𝑓 and 𝑔 written as 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 is the function defined by
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷
𝑓
(iv) the quotient of 𝑓 and 𝑔 written as is the function defined by
𝑔
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 − {𝑥: 𝑔(𝑥) = 0}
OR
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0} ≠ 𝜙
1
(v) The function is called reciprocal of 𝑓 is defined as
𝑓
1 1
(𝑓) (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 , 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0}
OR
1 1
(𝑓) (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 − {𝑥: 𝑓(𝑥) = 0}
(vi) For 𝜆 ∈ 𝑅, then scalar multiple of 𝑓 by 𝜆 written as 𝜆𝑓 is defined as
(𝜆𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝜆(𝑓(𝑥)) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓
∴ 𝐷𝜆𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓
𝑛
Note: The function 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑛 ∈ ℕ) is defined as (𝑓 𝑛 )(𝑥) = (𝑓(𝑥)) with domain = 𝐷𝑓 .

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Solved Examples:
[1] Find the sum and difference of the identity function and the modulus function.
Solution:
𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑔: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥|
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ and 𝐷𝑔 = ℝ
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 = ℝ ∩ ℝ = ℝ ≠ 𝜙
Sum Difference
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷
= 𝑥 + |𝑥| = 𝑥 − |𝑥|
𝑥+𝑥 ; 𝑥 ≥0 𝑥−𝑥 ; 𝑥≥0
={ ={
𝑥−𝑥 ; 𝑥 <0 𝑥 − (−𝑥) ; 𝑥 < 0
2𝑥 ; 𝑥 ≥ 0 0 ; 𝑥≥0
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = { (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = {
0 ; 𝑥<0 2𝑥 ; 𝑥 < 0

Product Quotient
𝑓
∶ ℝ − {0} → ℝ
𝑔
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑥|𝑥| (𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥2 ; 𝑥≥0 = |𝑥|
𝑥
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = { 2
−𝑥 ; 𝑥<0 1 ; 𝑥≥0
𝑓
(𝑔) (𝑥) = {
−1 ; 𝑥 < 0
[2] What is the sum, difference and product of the identity function and the reciprocal
function?
Solution:
𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
1
𝑔: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑥) = ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {0}
𝑥
𝐷𝑓 = ℝ and 𝐷𝑔 = ℝ − {0}
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 = ℝ ∩ ℝ − {0} = ℝ − {0}
Sum: Difference:
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
1 1
=𝑥+ =𝑥−
𝑥 𝑥
Product:
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)
1
=𝑥∙ =1
𝑥
[3] Let 𝑓: [2, ∞) → ℝ and 𝑔: [−2, ∞) → ℝ be two real functions defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 2
and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2. Find (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) and (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥).
Solution:
𝐷𝑓 = [2, ∞) and 𝐷𝑔 = [−2, ∞)
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 = [2, ∞) ∩ [−2, ∞) = [2, ∞)
Sum: Difference:
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
= √𝑥 − 2 + √𝑥 + 2 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [2, ∞) = √𝑥 − 2 − √𝑥 + 2 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [2, ∞)

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Even Function:
A function is said to be even function if for each 𝑥 of
domain, 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
For example, each of the following is an even function.
(i) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 then 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 = 𝑓(𝑥)
(ii) If 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| then 𝑓(−𝑥) = |−𝑥| = |𝑥| = 𝑓(𝑥).
The graph of the even function (modulus function) is shown.
Observation: The graph is symmetrical about 𝑦-axis.
Odd Function:
A function is said to be odd function if for each 𝑥 of domain,
𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥).
For example, each of the following is an odd function.
(i) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 then 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 = −𝑥 3 = −𝑓(𝑥)
(ii) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 then 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥) = −(𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
Graph of the odd function (identity function) is shown.
Observation: The graph is symmetric about origin.
Power Function:
A function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 , 𝑎 ∈ ℝ is called a power function.
Periodic Function:
A function is said to be periodic function, if there exist a constant 𝑇 > 0 such that
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∀ 𝑥 ∈ domain. Here, the least positive value of 𝑇 is called the
period of the function.
Properties of Even and Odd Functions:
(i) The product of two even or two odd functions is an even function.
(ii) The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.
(iii) The sum of an even function and an odd function is neither even nor odd function.
(iv)Zero function 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is the only function which is both, even and odd.
(v) Every function 𝑓(𝑥) can be expressed as a sum of even and odd function, i.e.,
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(−𝑥)] + [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(−𝑥)]
2 2
= 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐺(𝑥)
Here, 𝐹(𝑥) is even and 𝐺(𝑥) is odd.

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Domain and Range of some standard functions:

Function Domain Range
1 Constant Function ℝ {𝐾}
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 where 𝑘 is a fixed number
2 Identity Function ℝ ℝ
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
3 Modulus Function ℝ [0, ∞)
𝑥 ∶ 𝑥≥0
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
−𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 < 0
4 Polynomial Function ℝ ℝ
5 Square Function ℝ [0, ∞)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
6 Cubic Function ℝ ℝ
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
7 Rational Function ℝ − {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: ℎ(𝑥) = 0} ℝ − {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: ℎ(𝑥) = 0}
𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = , ℎ(𝑥) ≠ 0
ℎ(𝑥)
8 Reciprocal Function ℝ − {0} ℝ − {0}
1
,𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥
9 Signum function ℝ {−1,0,1}
10 Greatest Integer Function ℝ 𝕀
[𝑥] = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℤ
= an integer immediately to the left
of 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℤ
11 Exponential Function ℝ (0, ∞)/ ℝ+
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
12 Logarithmic Function (0, ∞) ℝ
𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑥 > 0, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
13 𝑥|𝑥| ℝ ℝ
14 𝑥 + |𝑥| ℝ [0, ∞)
15 𝑥 − |𝑥| ℝ ℝ− ∪ {0}
16 𝑥 − [𝑥] ℝ [0,1)
17 √𝑥 [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
18 sin 𝑥 ℝ [−1,1]
19 cos 𝑥 ℝ [−1,1]
20 tan 𝑥 𝜋 3𝜋
ℝ − {± , ± , … } ℝ
2 2
OR
𝜋
ℝ − (2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2
21 cot 𝑥 ℝ − {0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, … } ℝ
OR
ℝ − 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

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22 sec 𝑥 𝜋 3𝜋
ℝ − {± , ± , … } (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
2 2
OR
𝜋
ℝ − (2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2
23 cosec 𝑥 ℝ − {0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, … } (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
OR
ℝ − 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
24 sin−1 𝑥 [−1,1] −𝜋 𝜋
[ , ]
2 2
25 cos −1 𝑥 [−1,1] [0, 𝜋]
26 tan−1 𝑥 ℝ −𝜋 𝜋
( , )
2 2
27 cot −1 𝑥 ℝ (0, 𝜋)
28 sec −1 𝑥 ℝ − (−1,1) 𝜋
[0, 𝜋] − { }
2
29 cosec −1 𝑥 ℝ − (−1,1) 𝜋 𝜋
[− , ] − {0}
2 2

Shortcut Methods:
1. Total number of relations from set A to set B is equal to 2𝑛(𝐴)𝑛(𝐵) .
2. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are non-empty sets containing 𝑚 and 𝑛 elements respectively, then:
a. Number of elements in 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑛
b. Number of relations from A to B = 2𝑚𝑛
c. Number of functions from A to B = 𝑛𝑚
3. If A is a non-empty set containing 𝑛 elements, then:
a. Number of elements in 𝐴 × 𝐴 = 𝑛 × 𝑛 = 𝑛2
2
b. Number of relations from 𝐴 to 𝐴 = 2𝑛
c. Number of functions from A to A = 𝑛𝑛
4. The domain of √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 is [−𝑎, 𝑎].
1
5. The domain of is (−𝑎, 𝑎).
√𝑎2 −𝑥 2
6. The domain of √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 is (−∞, 𝑎] ∪ [𝑎, ∞).
1
7. The domain of is (−∞, 𝑎) ∪ (𝑎, ∞).
√𝑥 2 −𝑎2
8. The domain of √(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑏 − 𝑥) when 𝑎 < 𝑏 is [𝑎, 𝑏].
1
9. The domain of when 𝑎 < 𝑏 is (𝑎, 𝑏).
√(𝑥−𝑎)(𝑏−𝑥)

10. The domain of √(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) when 𝑎 < 𝑏 is (−∞, 𝑎] ∪ [𝑏, ∞).
1
11. The domain of when 𝑎 < 𝑏 is (−∞, 𝑎) ∪ (𝑏, ∞).
√(𝑥−𝑎)(𝑥−𝑏)
𝑥−𝑎
12. The domain of √ when 𝑎 < 𝑏 is (−∞, 𝑎] ∪ (𝑏, ∞).
𝑥−𝑏

𝑥−𝑎
13. The domain of √ when 𝑎 > 𝑏 is (−∞, 𝑏] ∪ (𝑎, ∞).
𝑥−𝑏

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𝑥−𝑎
14. The domain of √ when 𝑎 < 𝑏 is [𝑎, 𝑏).
𝑏−𝑥

𝑥−𝑎
15. The domain of √ when 𝑎 > 𝑏 is (𝑏, 𝑎].
𝑏−𝑥
16. The domain of log(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) is (−𝑎, 𝑎).
17. The domain of log(𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ) is (−∞, 𝑎) ∪ (𝑎, ∞).
18. The domain of log(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑏 − 𝑥) when 𝑎 < 𝑏 is (𝑎, 𝑏).
19. The domain of log(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) when 𝑎 < 𝑏 is (−∞, 𝑎) ∪ (𝑏, ∞).
𝜋
20. The domain of tan 𝑚𝑥 when 𝑚 ∈ ℕ is ℝ − {(2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑚 ∈ ℤ}.
2𝑚
𝑛𝜋
21. The domain of cot 𝑚𝑥 when 𝑚 ∈ ℕ is ℝ − { , 𝑛 ∈ ℤ}.
𝑚
22. Range of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 is [0, 𝑎].
23. Range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 is [𝑐 − √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 , 𝑐 + √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 ].
24. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a function, then 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(−𝑥) is an even function.
25. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a function, then 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(−𝑥) is an odd function.
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
26. If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = then (𝑓𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥.
𝑥−𝑎
|𝑥+𝑐|
27. The domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = is ℝ − {𝑐} and range = {−1,1}.
𝑥+𝑐

Question Bank
[1] Which of the following relations are functions from A to B? Write down their domain and
range. If it is not a function, give reason.
(i) {(1, −2), (3,7), (4, −6), (8,1)}, 𝐴 = {1,3,4,8}, 𝐵 = {−2,7, −6,1,2}
(ii) {(1,0), (1, −1), (2,3), (4,10)}, 𝐴 = {1,2,4}, 𝐵 = {0, −1,3,10}
(iii){(𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑐), (𝑐, 𝑏), (𝑑, 𝑐)}, 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}, 𝐵 = {𝑏, 𝑐}
(iv){(2,4), (3,9), (4,16), (5,25), (6,36)}, 𝐴 = {2,3,4,5,6}, 𝐵 = {4,9,16,25,36}
(v) {(1, −1), (2, −2), (3, −3), (4, −4), (5, −5)}, 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5}, 𝐵 = {−1, −2, −3, −4, −5}
𝜋 1 𝜋 √3 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
(vi){(sin , ) , (cos , ) , (tan , ) , (cot , √3)}, 𝐴 = {sin , cos , tan , cot },
6 2 6 2 6 √3 6 6 6 6 6
1 √3 1
𝐵= { , , , √3}
2 2 √3
(vii) {(𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 3), (𝑏, 4)}, 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏}, 𝐵 = {𝑏, 2,3,4}
[2] State whether each of the following relations represent a function or not:

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

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[3] Draw the graph of the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by:

(i) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 (ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 (iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥
1 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑥
(iv) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) (v) 𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) (iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = ( )
2 3 4
(vii) 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 (viii) 𝑦 = log 1 𝑥 (ix) 𝑓(𝑥) = −3
4
(Take at least 8 values out of which 4 values are negative)
[4] Let ℝ be the set of real numbers. Define the real function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 10 and
sketch the graph of this function.
[5] Let 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 be two functions defined over the set of non-negative real
𝑓
numbers. Find (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥), (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥), (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) and ( ) (𝑥).
𝑔
𝑥3 ; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
[6] The relation 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = {
3𝑥 ; 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10
𝑥2 ; 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
The relation 𝑔 is defined by 𝑔(𝑥) = {
3𝑥 ; 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10
Show that 𝑓 is a function and 𝑔 is not a function.
𝑓(1.1)−𝑓(1)
[7] If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , find (1.1−1)
.
[8] Find the domain of each of the following real valued functions (real functions):
𝑥 2 −𝑥+3 3𝑥
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = (ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = (iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √36 − 𝑥 2
𝑥 2 −1 28−𝑥
1
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 7 (v) 𝑓(𝑥) = √9 − 𝑥 (vi) 𝑓(𝑥) =
√2𝑥−3

MCQS
[1] Which of the following functions is a polynomial function?
𝑥 2 −1
A. ,𝑥 ≠ 4 B. 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + √2𝑥 2
𝑥+4
2𝑥 2 +7𝑥+4 D. 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2/3 + 4
C.
3
[2] Which of the following functions is a rational function?
√1+𝑥 2 3𝑥 5 +5𝑥 3 +2𝑥+7
A. ,𝑥 ≠ − B. ,𝑥 > 0
2+5𝑥 5 𝑥 3/2
3
3𝑥 −7𝑥+1 1
C. ,𝑥 ≠ 2 D. √4𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 + 7
𝑥−2 3
[3] The equivalent function of log 𝑥 2 is:
A. 2 log 𝑥 B. 2 log|𝑥| C. |log 𝑥 2 | D. (log 𝑥)2
1+𝑥
[4] If 𝑓(𝑥) = log ( ), then 𝑓(𝑥) is:
1−𝑥
A. an even function B. an odd function
C. 𝑓(𝑥1 )𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 𝑓(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) D.
𝑓(𝑥1 )
= 𝑓(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )
𝑓(𝑥2 )
[5] The function 𝑓(𝑥) = log(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) is:
A. an even function B. an odd function
C. a periodic function D. neither even nor odd function
|𝑥|
[6] 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0 then the value of the function is:
𝑥
A. 1 B. 0 C. −1 D. Does not exist

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1 ; 𝑥>0
[7] If 𝑓(𝑥) = { 0 ; 𝑥 = 0 , then 𝑓 is:
−1 ; 𝑥 < 0
A. an absolute value function B. a signum function
C. the greatest integer function D. a constant function
[8] If 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑥] − 5[𝑥] + 6 = 0, where [𝑥] denotes greatest integer function, then 𝑥 ∈:
2

A. [2,4) B. [2,4] C. (2,4] D. (2,4)

[9] Domain of √4 − 𝑥 2 is:
A. (−2,2) B. (−2,2] C. [−2,2] D. {−2,2}
[10] Domain of √𝑥 2 − 16 is:
A. [−4,4] B. (−∞, 4) ∪ (4, ∞) C. (−∞, −4) ∪ [4, ∞) D. {−4,4}
1
[11] Domain of 2
is:
√9−𝑥
A. (−3,3) B. (−3,3] C. [−3,3] D. None of these
1
[12] Domain of is:
√(𝑥−4)(𝑥−5)
A. (−∞, 4) ∪ (5, ∞) B. (−∞, 4] ∪ [5, ∞)
C. (−∞, 4] ∪ (5, ∞) D. (−∞, 4) ∪ [5, ∞)
|𝑥+2|
[13] Domain of is:
𝑥+2
A. ℝ − {2} B. ℝ C. ℝ − {0} D. ℝ − {−2}
[14] If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are two functions with domains 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 respectively, then the domain of
the function (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) is:
A. 𝐷1 ∪ 𝐷2 B. 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 C. 𝐷1 − 𝐷2 D. None of these
[15] If the range of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 − 3 is {3, −6, −9, −18} then which of the
following is not in the domain of 𝑓?
A. −1 B. −2 C. 1 D. 2

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