Unit-III : Algebraic Systems

 Algebraic systems, properties and examples ,

 Semigroups and Monoids, properties and examples,
 Homomorphism of Semigroups and Monoids ,
 Groups: Definition and examples,
 Subgroups and homomorphism.

 Algebraic systems
N = {1,2,3,4,….. } = Set of all natural numbers.

Z = { 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 4 , ….. } = Set of all integers.

Q = Set of all rational numbers.

R = Set of all real numbers.

Binary Operation: The binary operator * is said to be a binary operation (closed operation) on a
non- empty set A, if

a * b ∈ A for all a, b ∈ A (Closure property).

Ex: The set N is closed with respect to addition and multiplication

but not w.r.t subtraction and division.

Algebraic System: A set A with one or more binary(closed) operations defined on it is called
an algebraic system.

Ex: (N, + ), (Z, +, – ), (R, +, . , – ) are algebraic systems.

Properties:
1. Associativity: Let * be a binary operation on a
set A. The operation * is said to be associative in

A if (a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A

2. Identity: For an algebraic system (A, *), an element ‘e’ in A is said to be an identity element
of A if a * e = e * a = a for all a ∈ A.

Note: For an algebraic system (A, *), the identity element, if exists, is unique.

3. Inverse: Let (A, *) be an algebraic system with identity ‘e’. Let a be an element in A. An
element b is said to be inverse of A if

a*b=b*a=e
 Semi groups:
Semi Group: An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if

1. * is closed operation on A.

2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in

A. Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.

Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.

Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group.

 Monoids:
An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a monoid if the following conditions are satisfied.

1) * is a closed operation in A.

2) * is an associative operation in A.

3) There is an identity in A.

Ex. Show that the set ‘N’ is a monoid with respect to multiplication.

Solution: Here, N = {1,2,3,4,……}

3. Closure property : We know that product of two natural numbers is again a natural number.

i.e., a.b = b.a for all a,b ∈ N

∴ Multiplication is a closed operation.

4. Associativity : Multiplication of natural numbers is

associative. i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c ∈ N

5. Identity : We have, 1 ∈ N such that

a.1 = 1.a = a for all a ∈ N.

∴ Identity element exists, and 1 is the identity element.

Hence, N is a monoid with respect to multiplication.

Examples

Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set of integers

and the operation * is defined by n * m = maximum of (n,

m). Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.

Is (Z, *) a monoid ?. Justify your answer.

 Solution: Let a , b and c are any three integers.

Closure property: Now, a * b = maximum of (a, b) ∈ Z for all a,b ∈ Z

Associativity : (a * b) * c = maximum of {a,b,c} = a * (b * c)

∴ (Z, *) is a semi group.

Identity : There is no integer x such that

a * x = maximum of (a, x) = a for all a ∈ Z

∴ Identity element does not exist. Hence, (Z, *) is not a monoid.

Ex. Show that the set of all strings ‘S’ is a monoid under the operation ‘concatenation
of strings’.

Is S a group w.r.t the above operation? Justify your answer.

Solution: Let us denote the operation

‘concatenation of strings’ by + .

Let s1, s2, s3 are three arbitrary strings in S.

Closure property: Concatenation of two strings is again a string.

i.e., s1+s2 ∈ S

Associativity: Concatenation of strings is associative.

(s1+ s2 ) + s3 = s1+ (s2 + s3 )

Identity: We have null string , l ∈ S such that s1 + l = S.

∴ S is a monoid.

Note: S is not a group, because the inverse of a non empty string does not exist under
concatenation of strings.

 Groups:
Group: An algebraic system (G, *) is said to be a group if the following conditions are satisfied.

1) * is a closed operation.

2) * is an associative operation.

3) There is an identity in G.

4) Every element in G has an inverse in G.

 Abelian group (Commutative group):

A group (G, *) is said to be abelian (or

commutative) if

a * b = b * a "a, b ∈ G.
Properties:
In a Group (G, * ) the following properties hold good

1. Identity element is unique.

2. Inverse of an element is unique.

3. Cancellation laws hold good

a * b = a * c => b = c (left cancellation law)

a * c = b * c => a = b (Right cancellation law)

4. (a * b) -1 = b-1 * a-1

In a group, the identity element is its own inverse.

Order of a group: The number of elements in a group is called order of the group.

Finite group: If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a finite group.

Ex1 . Show that, the set of all integers is an abelian group with respect to addition.

Solution: Let Z = set of all integers.

Let a, b, c are any three elements of Z.

1. Closure property : We know that, Sum of two integers is again an integer.

i.e., a + b ∈ Z for all a,b ∈ Z

2. Associativity: We know that addition of integers is associative.

i.e., (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a,b,c ∈ Z.

3. Identity : We have 0 ∈ Z and a + 0 = a for all a ∈ Z .

∴ Identity element exists, and ‘0’ is the identity element.

4. Inverse: To each a ∈ Z , we have – a ∈ Z such that

a+(–a)=0

Each element in Z has an inverse.

5. Commutativity: We know that addition of integers is commutative.

i.e., a + b = b +a for all a,b ∈ Z.

 Hence, ( Z , + ) is an abelian group.

Ex2 . Show that set of all non zero real numbers is a group with respect to multiplication .

Solution: Let R* = set of all non zero real numbers.

Let a, b, c are any three elements of R* .

1. Closure property : We know that, product of two nonzero real numbers is again a nonzero real
number .

i.e., a . b ∈ R* for all a,b ∈ R* .

2. Associativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is

associative.

i.e., (a.b).c = a.(b.c) for all a,b,c ∈ R* .

3. Identity : We have 1 ∈ R* and a .1 = a for all a ∈ R* .

∴ Identity element exists, and ‘1’ is the identity element.

4. Inverse: To each a ∈ R* , we have 1/a ∈ R* such that

a .(1/a) = 1 i.e., Each element in R* has an inverse.

5.Commutativity: We know that multiplication of real numbers is

commutative.

i.e., a . b = b . a for all a,b ∈ R*.

Hence, ( R* , . ) is an abelian group.

Note: Show that set of all real numbers ‘R’ is not a group with respect to multiplication.

Solution: We have 0 ∈ R .

The multiplicative inverse of 0 does not exist.

Hence. R is not a group.

Example: Let S be a finite set, and let F(S) be the collection of all functions f: S → S
under the operation of composition of functions, then show that F(S) is a monoid.

Is S a group w.r.t the above operation? Justify your answer.

Solution:

Let f1, f2, f3 are three arbitrary functions on S.

Closure property: Composition of two functions on S is again a function on S.

i.e., f1o f2 ∈ F(S)

Associativity: Composition of functions is associative.

 i.e., (f1 o f2 ) o f3 = f1 o (f2 o f3 )

Identity: We have identity function I : S→S

such that f1 o I = f1.

∴ F(S) is a monoid.

Note: F(S) is not a group, because the inverse of a non bijective function on S does not
exist.

Ex. If E = { 0, ± 2, ± 4, ± 6, ……}, then the algebraic structure (E, +) is

a) a semi group but not a monoid

b) a monoid but not a group.

c) a group but not an abelian group.

d) an abelian group.

Ans; d

Ex. Let A = Set of all rational numbers ‘x’ such that 0 < x £ 1.
Then with respect to ordinary multiplication, A is

a) a semi group but not a monoid

b) a monoid but not a group.

c) a group but not an abelian group.

d) an abelian group.

Ans. b

Ex. Let C = Set of all non zero complex numbers .Then with respect to multiplication, C
is

a) a semi group but not a monoid

b) a monoid but not a group.

c) a group but not an abelian group.

d) an abelian group.

Ans. d
Ex. Show that G = {1, -1} is an abelian group under multiplication.

Solution: The composition table of G is

. 1 –1

1 1 –1

–1–1 1

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of
the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.

2. Associativity: The elements of G are real numbers, and we know that multiplication of
real numbers is associative.

3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1 belongs to G.

4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of

1 and – 1 are 1 and – 1 respectively. Hence,

G is a group w.r.t multiplication.

5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.

Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication..

Ex. Show that G = {1, w, w2} is an abelian group under multiplication.

Where 1, w, w2 are cube roots of unity.

Solution: The composition table of G is

w w w2 1

w2 w2 1 w

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of
the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.

2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that

multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
 3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1∈ G.

4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 1

w, w2 are 1, w2, w respectively.

Hence, G is a group w.r.t multiplication.

5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation . is commutative.

Hence, G is an abelian group w.r.t. multiplication.

Ex. Show that G = {1, –1, i, –i } is an abelian group under multiplication.

Solution: The composition table of G is

. 1 –1 i -i

1 1 -1 i -i

-1 -1 1 -i i

i i -i -1 1

-i -i i 1 -1

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of
the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.

2. Associativity: The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know that

multiplication of complex numbers is associative.

3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element and 1∈ G.

4. Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of

1 -1, i, -i are 1, -1, -i, i respectively.

5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical.
Therefore the binary operation . is commutative. Hence, (G, .) is an abelian group.

Modulo systems.
Addition modulo m ( +m )

let m is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b

a +m b = a + b if a + b < m

a +m b = r if (a + b ) % m where r is the remainder obtained

 by dividing (a+b) with m.

Multiplication modulo p ( ×p)

let p is a positive integer. For any two positive integers a and b

a ×m b = a b if a ×m b < p

a ×m b = r if (a × b) % p where r is the remainder obtained

by dividing (a×b) with p.

Ex. 3 ×5 4 = 2 , 5 ×5 4 = 0 , 2 ×5 2 = 4

Example : The set G = {0,1,2,3,4,5} is a group with respect to addition modulo 6.

Solution: The composition table of G is

+6 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5

1 1 2 3 4 5 0

2 2 3 4 5 0 1

3 3 4 5 0 1 2

4 4 5 0 1 2 3

5 5 0 1 2 3 4

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the
given set, the set G is closed under +6 .

2. Associativity: The binary operation +6 is associative in G.

for ex. (2 +6 3) +6 4 = 5 +6 4 = 3 and

2 +6 ( 3 +6 4 ) = 2 +6 1 = 3

3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top row. The element
heading that row , i.e., 0 is the identity element.

4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 5
are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 respectively.

5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical. Therefore
the binary operation +6 is commutative.

Hence, (G, +6 ) is an abelian group.

 Example : The set G = {1,2,3,4,5,6} is a group with respect to
multiplication modulo 7.

Solution: The composition table of G is

*7 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 2 4 6 1 3 5

3 3 6 2 5 1 4

4 4 1 5 2 6 3

5 5 3 1 6 4 2

6 6 5 4 3 2 1

1. Closure property: Since all the entries of the composition table are the elements of the
given set, the set G is closed under *7 .

2. Associativity: The binary operation *7 is associative in G.

for ex. (2 *7 3) *7 4 = 6 *7 4 = 3 and

2 *7 ( 3 *7 4 ) = 2 * 7 5 = 3

3. Identity : Here, The first row of the table coincides with the top row. The element
heading that row , i.e., 1 is the identity element.

4. . Inverse: From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements of 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 6
are 1, 4, 5, 2, 5, 6 respectively.

5. Commutativity: The corresponding rows and columns of the table are identical. Therefore
the binary operation *7 is commutative.

Hence, (G, *7 ) is an abelian group.

 Sub groups:
Def. A non empty subset H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G,

if (H, *) is a group.

Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } and (G, * ) are trivial sub groups.

Ex. G = {1, -1, i, -i } is a group w.r.t multiplication.

H1 = { 1, -1 } is a subgroup of G .

H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.

Ex. ( Z , + ) and (Q , + ) are sub groups of the group (R +).

Ex. Show that the union of two sub groups of a group G need not be a sub
group of G.

Proof: Let G be an additive group of integers.

Let H1 = { 0, ±2, ±4, ±6, ±8, …..}

and H2 = { 0, ±3, ±6, ±9, ±12, …..}

Here, H1 and H2 are groups w.r.t addition.

Further, H1 and H2 are subsets of G.

∴ H1 and H2 are sub groups of G.

H1 U H2 = { 0, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ..}

Here, H1 U H2 is not closed w.r.t addition.

For ex. 2 , 3 ∈ G

But, 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 does not belongs to H1 U H2 .

Hence, H1 U H2 is not a sub group of G.

 Homomorphism:
Homomorphism : Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, ⊕)

A function f : G → G1 is called a homomorphism

if f ( a * b) = f(a) ⊕ f (b)

Consider the groups ( G, *) and ( G1, ⊕) and function f : G → G1 where f is

homomorphism from ( G, *) to ( G1, ⊕ )
1.Isomorphism : If a homomorphism f : G → G1 is a bijective then f is called
Isomorphism between G and G1 . Then we write G ≡ G1

2. Epimorphism: If a homomorphism f : G → G1 is a onto, then f is called

Epimorphism between G and G1 .

3. Monomorphism: If a homomorphism f : G → G1 is a one-to-one, then f is called

Monomorphism between G and G1
4. Endomorphism : A homomorphism f : G → G1 from ( G, *) to ( G1, ⊕ )
is called Endomorphism if G1 includes in G.
5. Automorphism: A homomorphism f : G → G1 from ( G, *) to ( G1, ⊕ )
is called Automorphism if G1 = G.
Example : Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R + be a group of all
positive real numbers under multiplication. Show that the mapping f : R → R+
defined by f(x) = 2x for all x ∈ R is an isomorphism.

Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.

Let a , b belongs to R .

Now, f(a+b) = 2a+b

= 2a 2b

= f(a).f(b)

∴ f is an homomorphism.

Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.

For any a , b belongs to R, Let, f(a) = f(b)

=> 2a = 2b

=> a = b

∴ f is one.to-one.

Next, take any c ∈ R+.

Then log2 c ∈ R and f (log2 c ) = 2 log2 c = c.

⇒ Every element in R+ has a pre image in R.

i.e., f is onto.

∴ f is a bijection.

Hence, f is an isomorphism.

Ex. Let R be a group of all real numbers under addition and R + be a group of all positive
real numbers under multiplication. Show that the mapping f : R+ → R defined by f(x)
= log10 x for all x blongs to R is an isomorphism.

Solution: First, let us show that f is a homomorphism.

Let a , b belongs to R+ .

Now, f(a.b) = log10 (a.b)

= log10 a + log10 b

= f(a) + f(b)

∴ f is an homomorphism.
Next, let us prove that f is a Bijection.

For any a , b belongs to R+ , Let, f(a) =

f(b)

=> log10 a = log10 b

=> a = b

∴ f is one.to-one.

Next, take any c belongs to R.

Then 10c belongs to R and f (10c) = log10 10c = c.

⇒ Every element in R has a pre image in R+ .

i.e., f is onto.

∴ f is a bijection.

Hence, f is an isomorphism.