UNIT-IV

STEERING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Any mode of transportation used by people must have some means of control. For the automobile, two
primary control systems are at the driver's disposal: (1) the steering system, and (2) the braking system.
This chapter will focus on the steering system. Most vehicles in service today have front-wheel steering,
although a few vehicles have been marketed with four-wheel steering. Thus, the bulk of this chapter will
discuss the front-wheel steering systems to include the following: a discussion of the steering
mechanisms available, including power-assisted steering; the factors affecting wheel alignment; a
simplified analysis of vehicle cornering dynamics; and the influences of front-wheel drive on steering
response. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of four-wheel steering and vehicle rollover
behavior.
only
The fundamental problem in steering is to enable the vehicle to traverse an arc such that all four wheels
travel about the identical center point. In the days of horse-drawn carriages, thiswas accomplished with
the fifth-wheel system depicted in Fig. 7.1.
Although this system worked well for carriages, it soon proved unsuitable for automobiles. In
addition to the high forces required of the driver to rotate the entire front axle, the system
proved unstable, especially as vehicle speeds increased. The solution to this problem was
developed by a German engineer named Lankensperger in 18 17. Lankensperger had an
inherent distrust of the German government, so he hired an agent in England to patent his idea.
His chosen agent was a lawyer named Rudolph Ackerman. The lawyer secured the patent, but
the system became known as the Ackerman system.
Figure 7.2 depicts the key features of this system. The end of each axle has a spindle that pivots
around a kingpin. The linkages connecting the spindles form a trapezoid, with the base of the
trapezoid formed by the rack and tie rods. The distance between the tie rod ends is less than
the distance between the kingpins. The wheels are parallel to each other when they are in the
straight-ahead position. However, when the wheels are turned, the inner wheel turns through a
greater angle than the outer wheel. Figure 7.2 also shows that the layout is governed by the
ratio of track (distance between the wheels) to wheelbase (distance between front and rear
wheels). The Ackerman layout is accurate only in three positions: straight ahead, and at one
position in each direction. The slight errors present in other positions are compensated for by
the deflection of the pneumatic tires.
For the purposes of this book, "steering mechanism" refers to those components required to
realize the Ackerman system. Of course, all vehicles today use a steering wheel as the interface
between the system and driver. (This has not always been the case. Early automobiles used a
tiller.) The steering wheel rotates a column, and this column is the input to the steering
mechanism.
These mechanisms can be broadly grouped into two categories:
(I) worm-type mechanisms, and
(2) rack and pinion mechanisms
1.WORM SYSTEMS (STEERING GEARS)

A.STEERING SYSTEMS AND STEERING DYNAMICS

Figure 7.3 shows the steering linkages required by worm gear steering systems. The Pitman arm
converts the rotational motion of the steering box output into side-to-side motion of the center
link. The center link is tied to the steering arms by the tie rods, and the side-to-side motion
causes the spindles to pivot around their respective steering axes (kingpins). To achieve
Ackerman steering, the four-bar linkages must form a trapezoid instead of a parallelogram
(refer to Fig. 7.2). Although all worm-type steering systems use linkages similar to these, the
specifics of the steering boxes differ

Fig; 7.3
B. WORM AND SECTOR
Figure 7.4 depicts a worm and sector system. The shaft to the Pitman arm is connected to a
gear that meshes with a worm gear on the steering column. Because the Pitrnan shaft gear
needs to rotate through only approximately 70°, only a sector of the gear is actually used. The
worm gear is assembled on tapered roller bearings to absorb some thrust load, and an
adjusting nut is provided to regulate the amount of end-play in the worm.
C.WORM AND ROLLER
The worm and roller system (Fig. 7.5) is very similar to the worm and sector system. In this case,
roller is supported by ball bearings within the sector on the Pitman shaft. The bearings reduce
sliding friction between the worm and sector. The worm also can be shaped similarly

to an hourglass, that is, tapered from each end to the center. This provides better contact
between the worm and the roller, as well as a variable steering ratio. When the wheels are at
the center (straight-ahead) position, the steering reduction ratio is high to provide better
control.
As the wheels are turned farther off-center, the ratio lowers. This gives better maneuverability
during low-speed maneuvers such as parking.

D.RECIRCULATING BALL
Figure 7.6 shows the recirculating ball system, another form of worm and nut system. In this
system, a nut is meshed onto the worm gear by means of a continuous row of ball bearings. As
the worm turns, the nut moves up and down the worm threads. The ball bearings not only
reduce the friction between the worm and nut, but they greatly reduce the wear because the
balls continually recirculate through the system, thereby preventing any one area from bearing
the brunt of the wear.
The primary advantage of all worm-type steering systems is reduced steering effort on the part
of the driver. However, due to the worm gear, the driver receives no feedback from the

E. RECIRCULATING BALL STEERING GEAR.

wheels. For these reasons, worm-type steering systems are found primarily on large vehicles
such as luxury cars, sport utility vehicles, pickup trucks, and commercial vehicles.

2. RACK AND PINION STEERING

The rack and pinion steering system is simpler, lighter, and generally cheaper than worm-type
systems (Fig. 7.7). The steering column rotates a pinion gear that is meshed to a rack. The
rack converts the rotary motion directly to side-to-side motion and is connected to the tie
rods. The tie rods cause the wheels to pivot about the kingpins, thus turning the front wheels.
Rack and pinion systems have the advantage of providing feedback to the driver. Furthermore,
rack and pinion systems tend to be more responsive to driver input, and for this reason, rack
and pinion steering is found on most small and sports cars.
POWER STEERING
Many vehicles incorporate a power steering system, the purpose of which is to reduce the
driver's effort to turn the steering wheel. The system usually is hydraulically operated, with
hydraulic pressure provided by a pump driven by a belt from the crankshaft. Figure 7.8 shows a
drive system that is an older, V-belt type. These systems used multiple V-belts to drive the
various accessories on the front of the engine. Most new vehicles use a single, ribbed belt
(serpentine belt) to drive all of the accessories. The power steering pump contains an integral
fluid reservoir, as well as the control and pressure regulating valves. The pump may be of the
vane, tooth, or rotor type. Figure 7.9 shows one example of a vane-type pump. The pump
receives fluid from the reservoir, and because it is belt driven by the crank, the pump operates
whenever the engine is running. Figure 7.10 shows a typical control valve. When the wheels are
in the straight-ahead position, the spool valve is centered. This allows fluid under pressure to
bypass the system and return to the reservoir. When the driver turns
the steering wheel, the spool valve is mechanically moved off-center. This allows fluid to be
ported to the appropriate side of the cylinder unit and supplies the additional force to turn the
wheels. The cylinder unit can be mounted on the steering column, in line with the rack, or
integral to the recirculating ball gearbox. Figure 7.11 shows examples of each.

Power steering control valve (TM 9-8000, 1985).

WHEEL ALIGNMENT

In addition to allowing the vehicle to be turned, the steering system must be set up to allow the
vehicle to track straight ahead without steering input from the driver. Thus, an important
design factor for the vehicle is the wheel alignment. Four parameters are set by the designer,
and these must be checked regularly to ensure they are within the original vehicle
specifications.
The four parameters discussed here are as follows:
Automotive Engineering Fundamentals
1. Camber
2. Steering axis inclination (SAI)
3. Toe
4. Caster
1 Camber
Camber is the angle of the tirelwheel with respect to the vertical as viewed from the front of
the vehicle, as shown in Fig. 7.17. Camber angles usually are very small, on the order of 1 ";the
camber angles shown in Fig. 7.17 are exaggerated. Positive camber is defined as the top of the
wheel being tilted away from the vehicle, whereas negative camber tilts the top of the wheel
toward the vehicle. Most vehicles use a small amount of positive camber, for reasons that will
be discussed in the next section. However, some off-road vehicles and race cars have zero or
slightly negative camber.
2. STEERING AXIS INCLINATION (SAI)
Steering axis inclination (SAI) is the angle from the vertical defined by the centerline passing
through the upper and lower ball joints. Usually, the upper ball joint is closer to the vehicle
centerline than the lower, as shown in Fig. 7.18.

Figure 7.18 also shows the advantage of combining positive camber with an inclined steering
axis. If a vertical steering axis is combined with zero camber (left side of Fig. 7.1 8), any steering
input requires the wheel to scrub in an arc around the steering axis. In addition to increasing
driver effort, it causes increased tire wear. The combination of SAI and positive camber reduces
the scrub radius (right side of Fig. 7.18). This reduces driver effort under low-speed turning
conditions and minimizes tire wear. An additional benefit of this system is that the wheel arc is
no longer parallel to the ground. Any turning of the wheel away from straight ahead causes it to
arc toward the ground. Because the ground is not movable, this causes the front of the vehicle
to be raised. This is not the minimum potential energy position for the vehicle; thus, the weight
of the vehicle tends to turn the wheel back to the straight ahead position. This phenomenon is
very evident on most vehicles-merely turning the steering wheel to full lock while the vehicle is
standing still will make the front end of the vehicle rise visibly. Although the stationary the
weight of the vehicle may not be sufficient to rotate the wheels back to the straight-ahead
position, as soon as the vehicle begins to move, the wheels will return to the straight-ahead
position without driver input. Caster angle also contributes to this self-aligning torque and will
be discussed in Section 7.4.4. Note that the diagrams in the preceding figures have been
simplified to facilitate discussion. In practice, the wheel is dished so that the scrub radius is
further reduced, as illustrated in Fig. 7.19.
3 TOE
Toe is defined as the difference of the distance between the leading edge of the wheels and the
distance between the trailing edge of the wheels when viewed from above. Toe-in means the
front of the wheels are closer than the rear; toe-out implies the opposite. Figure 7.20 shows
both cases.

Cross-sectional view of a wheel and tire assembly

Adapted from Automotive Engineering (1 982).
For a rear-wheel-drive vehicle, the front wheels normally have a slight amount of toe-in. Figure
7.18 shows why this is true. When the vehicle begins to roll, rolling resistance produces a force
through the tire contact patch perpendicular to the rolling axis. Due to the existence of the
scrub radius, this force produces a torque around the steering axis that tends to cause the
wheels to toe-out. The slight toe-in allows for this, and when rolling, the wheels align along the
axis of the vehicle. Conversely, front-wheel-drive vehicles require slight toeout. In this case, the
tractive force of the front wheels produces a moment about the steering axis that tends to toe
the wheels inward. In this case, proper toe-out absorbs this motion and allows the wheels to
parallel the direction of motion of the vehicle.
4. CASTER
Caster is the angle of the steering axis from the vertical as viewed from the side and is shown in
Fig. 7.21. Positive caster is defined as the steering axis inclined toward the rear of the vehicle.
 Figure 7.2 1. Caster angle.

With positive caster, the tire contact patch is aft of the intersection of the steering axis and the
ground. This is a desirable feature for stability, as illustrated by Fig. 7.22. When the wheel is
turned, the cornering force acts perpendicular to the wheel axis and through the contact patch.
This creates a torque about the steering axis that acts to center the wheel. Obviously, negative
caster results in the opposite effect, and the wheel would tend to continue turning about the
steering axis. The most common example of positive caster is a shopping cart. The wheels are
free to turn around the steering axis, and when the cart is pushed straight ahead, the wheels
self-align to the straight-ahead position.
 3. FRONT AXLE, STEERING SYSTEM, REAR AXLE, WHEEL AND
TYRES
Purpose and requirement front axle, steering geometry- castor, camber, king pin
inclination ,toe-in, toe out, centre point steering; types of steering mechanism, steering
linkages, power steering, Live and dead axles, live axle arrangement, wheel construction,
alloy wheel, wheel alignment and balancing, types of tyres , tyre construction, thread
design.
Requirements of Steering System:
a. It must keep the wheel at all times in to rolling motion without rubbing on
the road.
b. This system should associate to control the speed.
c. It must light and stable.
d. It should also absorb the road shocks.
e. It must easily be operated with less maintenance.
f. It should have self-centering action to some extent.

Figure 3.1. Steering Principle

Functions of Steering System:
1. It helps in swinging the wheels to the left or right.
2. It helps in turning the vehicle at the will of the driver.
3. It provides directional stability.
4. It is used to minimize the tyre wear and tear.
5. It helps in achieving self-centering efforts.
 6. It absorbs major part of the road shocks.

The following are the main components of steering system are

1. Steering Wheel
2. Steering column or shaft
3. Steering Gear
4. Drop Arm or Pitman Arm
5. Drag Link
6. Steering Arm
7. Track-Arms
8. Track Rod or Tie-Rod
9. Adjusting Screws Types of Steering Gear Boxes:
1. Worm and Wheel Steering Gear.
2. Worm and Roller Steering Gear.
3. Re-circulating Ball type Steering Gear.
4. Rack and Pinion type Steering Gear.
5. Cam and Roller Gear type Steering Gear.
6. Cam and Peg Steering Gear.
7. Cam and Double lever Steering Gear.
8. Worm and Sector Type Steering Gear.
1. Worm and Wheel Type: This type of steering gear has a square cut screw threads at the end of
the steering column; which forms a worm, at the end of it a worm wheel is fitted and works
rigidly with it. Generally covered shaft is used for the worm wheel. The worm wheel can be
turned to a new position the drop arm can be readjusted to the correct working position.
 Figure 3.2. Worm and Wheel Steering Gear

2. Re-circulating Ball Type: In this type of gear box the endless chain of balls are provided
between the worm and nut members. The nut form a ring of rack having an axial movement.
So that the sector on the rocker shaft racks, the balls roll continuously between the worm and
nut. Being provided with return chambers at the ends of the worm. This method reduces
friction between worm and nut members. This type of steering gear is used for heavy vehicles.
3. Rack and Pinion Type: This is common manual type of steering gear box is used in most of the
vehicles. In this type of steering a pinion is provided the bottom end of the steering column.
The teeth of the pinion wheel in mesh with corresponding teeth provided on the rack, the end
of which are connected to the stub axle through the rod. The rotating motion of the pinion
operates the rack in FORE and AFT direction which in turn operates the stub axle.

Figure 3.3. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear

4. Cam and Lever Type: The cam and lever steering uses one or two lever studs fitted in taper
roller bearing. When the worm in the form of helical groove rotates the stub axle and it also
rotates along with it. This imports a turning motion to the drop arm shaft.
5. Worm and Sector Type: In this type the worm on the end of the steering shaft meshes with a
sector mounted on a sector shaft. When the worm is rotated by rotation of the steering wheel,
the sector also turns rotating the sector shaft. Its motion is transmitted to the wheel through the
linkage. The sector shaft is attached to the drop arm or pitmen arm.

Figure 3.4. Worm and Sector Type Steering Gear

Slip Angle: The angle between direction of the motion of the vehicle and the center plane of the
tyre is known as Slip Angle. It ranges from 8º to 10º.
Under steer: When the front slip angle is greater than that of rear, the vehicle tends to steer in
the direction of side force. Then it is known as under steer. This provides greater driving
stability, especially when there is a side wind.
Over Steer: When the rear slip angle is greater than that of front slip angle, the vehicle tends to
moves away from the direction of center path. This is known as over stear. This is advantageous
when the vehicle moving on the road having many bends curves.
Steering Gear Ratio or Reduction Ratio: It has been defined as the “ number of turns on the
steering wheel required to produce on turn of steering gear cross shaft to which the pitman arm
is attached. Generally it varies between 14'.1 and 24'.1.
Turning Radius: It is the radius of the circle on which the outside front wheels moves when the
front wheels are turned to their extreme outer position. This radius is 5 to 7.5 m for buses and
trucks.
Wheel Alignment: It returns to the positioning of the front wheels and steering mechanism that
gives the vehicle directional stability, reduce the tyre wear to a minimum.
Factors effects the wheel alignment:
1. Factors pertaining to wheel:-
a. Balance of wheels(Static and Dynamic) b.Inflation of tyre. c.Brake adjustments.
2. Steering Linkages.
3. Suspension System
4. Steering Geometry –a. caster b. camber c. king pin inclination d. toe-in and toe-out etc.,
Steering Geometry: It refers to the angular relationship between the front wheels and parts
attached to it and car frame.
The steering Geometry includes
1. Caster angle
2. Camber angle
3. King-pin inclination
4. toe-in
5. toe-out etc.,
Caster Angle: This is the angle between backward or forward tilting of the king pin from the
vertical axis at the top. This is about 2º to 4º. The backward tilt is called as positive caster. The
forward tilt is called negative caster.
Camber: The angle between wheel axis to the vertical line at the top is called camber angle. It
is approximately ½º to 2º.
 King-pin inclination: It is the angle between vertical line to the king pin axis. The inclination
tends to keep wheels straight ahead and make the wheels to get return to the straight position
after completion of a turn. The inclination is normally kept 7º to 8º.
Toe-in: It is the amount in minimum at the front part of the wheel points inwards approximately
3 to 5 mm. It prevents side slipping excessive tyre wear, proper rolling of front wheels and
steering stability.

Figure 3.5. Toe-in Toe-out

Toe-out: It is the difference in angles between two front wheels and vehicle frame during
turning. It is used to prevent dragging of tyre during turn. Reversible steering: When the
deflection of road wheels is transmitted through the steering wheel to road surface, the system
is called Reversible. If every imperfection of road surface causes the steering to rotate, it causes
much strain on the part of the driver to control the vehicle. It causes much strain on the part of
the driver to control the vehicle. Therefore such of the reversibility is not desired. But, some
degree of reversibility desired, so that the wheel becomes straight after taking a curve.
Steering Mechanism: There are two types of steering gear mechanisms 1. Davis Steering gear
2. Ackermann Steering gear
1. Davis Steering Gear: The Davis Steering gear has sliding pair, it has more friction than the
turning pair, therefore the Davis Steering Gear wear out earlier and become inaccurate after
certain time. This type is mathematically Accurate. The Davis gear mechanism consists of
cross link KL sliding parallel to another link AB and is connected to the stub axle of the two
front wheel by levers ACK and DBK pivoted at A and B respectively. The cross link KL
slides in the bearing and cross pins at its ends K and L. The slide blocks are pivoted on these
pins and move with the turning of bell crank levers as the steering wheel is operated. When the
vehicle is running straight the gear is said to be in its mid-position. The short arms AK and BL
are inclined an angle 90 t α to their stub axles AC and BD respectively. The correct steering
depends upon the suitable selection of cross arm angle α, and is given by
Tan α = b/2l Where b= AB = distance between the pivots of front axle. l=wheel base
2. Ackermann Steering System: It has only turning pair. It is not mathematically accurate
except in three positions. The track arms are made inclined so that if the axles are extended
 they will meet on the longitudinal axis of the car near rear axle. This system is called
ackermann steering.
Steering Defects And Their Causes And Remedies:
1. Wheel wobble: The oscillation of the front wheels at low speeds is called wheel wobble.

Causes Remedies
a. In Correct Dynamic Balancing a. Correct the wheel balance
of wheels.
b. Uneven Tyre pressure b. Check the tyre pressure

c. The camber may be incorrect or c. Adjust suitably.

Uneven
d. The ball joints may be worn out. d. Replace with a new one
e. Excessive caster e. Adjust

f. Steering gear or wheel bearing f. Adjust or Replace

may be loosen.
g. Tyre may worn unevenly g. Replace

2. High Speed shimmy: The oscillation of the front wheels at high speed is called high speed
shimmy.

a. Wheel Rim may be buckled - Straighten or replace

b. Front wheel bearing may loose or worn out - Tighten or Replace
- Replace
c. Faulty shock Absorber
d. Incorrect toe-in - Adjust

3. Excessive backlash in steering:

a. Steering gear base may be loose -Tighten

b. Drop arm may be loose on splines - Replace

c. Front wheel stub axle bearing loose or wornTighten or Replace

out -
- Tighten Properly
d. Loose steering Linkages
 4. Steering Wander: The moving of Vehicle slightly in one side is known as wandering

a. Tyre pressure in two sides is not equal - Check and correct

b. Steering knuckle bearing tight -Adjust

c. Badly worn Tyre - Replace

d. Incorrect Toe-in - Correct it.

5. Hard Steering: When the effort required for steering is more it is called hard
steering.
a. Low Tyre pressure - Correct pressure
b. Excessive caster - Adjust
c. Steering gear too tight - Adjust
d. Incorrect wheel Alignment - Adjust
Steering Mechanisms
The fundamental problem in steering is to enable the vehicle to traverse an arc such that all four
wheels travel about the identical center point. In the days of horse-drawn carriages, this was
accomplished with the fifth-wheel system depicted in Fig.

Figure 3.6. Steering Mechanisms

 Figure 3.7. Steering Linkage

Steering Linkage
Steering linkage is a series of arms, rods, and ball sockets that connect the steering mechanism
to the steering knuckles. The steering linkage used with most manual and power steering
mechanisms typically includes a pitman arm, center link, idler arm, and two tie-rod assemblies.
This configuration of linkage is known as parallelogram steering linkage and is used on many
passenger vehicles
Pitman Arm
The pitman arm transfers steering mechanism motion to the steering linkage . The pitman arm
is splined to the steering mechanism’s output shaft (pitman arm shaft). A large nut and lock
washer secure the pitman arm to the output shaft. The outer end of the pitman arm normally
uses a ball-and-socket joint to connect to the center link.
Center Link
The parallelogram steering linkage uses a center link, otherwise known as an intermediate rod,
track rod, or relay rod, which is simply a steel bar that connects the steering arms (pitman arm,
tie-rod ends, and idler arm) together. The turning action of the steering mechanism is
transmitted to the center link through the pitman arm.
Idler Arm
The center link is hinged on the opposite end of the pitman arm by means of an idler arm . The
idler arm supports the free end of the center link and allows it to move left and right with ease.
The idler arm bolts to the frame or subframe.
Ball Sockets
Ball sockets are like small ball joints; they provide for motion in all directions between two
connected components. Ball sockets are needed so the steering linkage is NOT damaged or bent
when the wheels turn or move up and down over rough roads. Ball sockets are filled with grease
to reduce friction and wear. Some have a grease fitting that allows chassis grease to be inserted
with a grease gun. Others are sealed by the manufacturer and cannot be serviced.
Tie-Rod Assemblies
Two tie-rod assemblies are used to fasten the center link to the steering knuckles. Ball sockets
are used on both ends of the tie-rod assembly. An adjustment sleeve connects the inner and
outer tie rods. These sleeves are tubular in design and threaded over the inner and outer tie rods.
The adjusting sleeves provide a location for toe adjustment. Clamps and clamp bolts are used to
secure the sleeve. Some manufacturers require the clamps be placed in a certain position in
relation to the tie rod top or front surface to prevent interference with other components.

Figure 3.8. Tie Rod Assembly

Draglink
The steering system most commonly used on four-wheel drive vehicles has a draglink. The
draglink connects the pitman arm to the spindle at a point near the spindle; the tie rod will
connect the two steer wheels together. The objective is to keep the tie rod as close to parallel
with the axle as possible.
Power Steering:
Power steering reduces much strain on the part of the driver while negotiating sharp curves. It
makes easy to turn sharp corners. It is usually arranged to be operative when the effort of
steering wheel exceeds a pre-determined value. It is fitted on heavy commercial vehicles and
medium cars. Steering Linkages: Steering Linkage is a connection of various links between the
steering gear box and the front wheels. The motion of the pitman arm and steering gear box is
transferred so the steering knuckles of the front wheels through the steering linkages. The
swinging movement of the pitman arm from one side to the other side gives angular movement
to the front wheel through the steering linkages. Power steering systems normally use an
engine-driven pump and hydraulic system to assist steering action. Pressure from the oil pump
is used to operate a piston and cylinder assembly. When the control valve routes oil pressure
into one end of the piston, the piston slides in its cylinders. Piston movement can then be used
to help move the steering system components and front wheels of the vehicles. The components
that are common to all power steering systems are the power steering pump, the control valve,
and power steering hoses. The power steering pump is engine-driven and supplies hydraulic
fluid under pressure to the other components in the system. There are four basic types of power
steering pumps: vane, roller, slipper, and gear types.
 Figure 3.9. Power steering system
A belt running from the engine crankshaft pulley normally powers the pump. During pump
operation, the drive belt turns the pump shaft and pumping elements. Oil is pulled into one side
of the pump by vacuum. The oil is then trapped and squeezed into a smaller area inside the
pump. This action pressurizes the oil at the output as it flows to the rest of the system. A
pressure relief flow valve is built into the pump to control maximum oil pressure. This action
prevents system damage by limiting pressure developed throughout the different engine speeds.
The control valve, a rotary or spool type valve which is actuated by steering wheel movements,
is designed to direct the hydraulic fluid under pressure to the proper location in the steering
system. The control valve may be mounted either in the steering mechanism or on the steering
linkage, depending on which system configuration is used.
Bleeding a Power Steering System
Anytime you replace or repair a hydraulic component (pump, hoses, and power piston), you
should bleed the system. Bleeding the system assures that all of the air is out of the hoses, the
pump, and the gearbox. Air can cause the power steering system to make a buzzing sound. The
sound will occur as the steering wheel is turned right or left. To bleed out any air, start the
engine and turn the steering wheel fully from side to side. Keep checking the fluid and add as
needed. This will force the air into the reservoir and out of the system.
Steering Wheel Play
The most common of all problems in a steering system is excessive steering wheel play.
Steering wheel play is normally caused by worn ball sockets, worn idler arm, or too much
clearance in the steering gearbox. Typically, you should not be able to turn the steering wheel
more than 1 1/2 inches without causing the front wheels to move. If the steering wheel rotates
excessively, a serious steering problem exists. An effective way to check for play in the steering
linkage or rack-and-pinion mechanism is by the dry-park test. With the full weight of the
vehicle on the front wheels, have someone move the steering wheel from side to side while you
examine the steering system for looseness. Start your inspection at the steering column shaft
and work your way to the tie-rod ends. Ensure that the movement of one component causes an
equal amount of movement of the adjoining component.
Condition for True Rolling
True rolling occurs only when the direction of motion of the vehicle is perpendicular to the
wheel axis i.e. the wheel is subjected to forward force. When wheel is subjected to side force
that acts parallel to the wheel axis, a true scrub action is produced. When the wheel is subjected
to both forward and side forces, the movement is compounded of true rolling and lateral
distortion . This condition occurs when the wheels are being steered, i.e. the direction of

motion is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of rotation. On a circular path, true
rolling condition occurs when the projected axes of several wheels all moving in different
curved paths intersect at a single point called the instantaneous centre. When these projected
axes do not intersect at a single point, a degree of tyre scrub results. Whenever a vehicle takes a
turn, the front wheels must turn in a definite manner both in relation to each other and to the
axis of the rear wheels so that the lateral slip may be avoided and true rolling for all the wheels
is obtained. For this, as explained above, all the wheels must always rotate about the
instantaneous centre. Since the rear wheels have a common and fixed axis, it is quite obvious
that this common centre, 0, would lie somewhere on its extension This equation gives the
fundamental condition to be satisfied by all types of steering mechanism if true rolling for all
the wheels is to be obtained avoiding any lateral slip. The steering linkage used in the vehicles
must maintain the proper angles with the wheels when taking a turn. But practically it is not
possible to maintain absolutely correct angles for the wheels for all turning angles.

Figure 3.10. True Rolling

Turning Circle Radius.
When a vehicle takes a turn without experiencing any lateral slip, all the wheels rotate about a
common centre along different turning circles

Ackermann Steering System: It has only turning pair. It is not mathematically accurate except
in three positions. The track arms are made inclined so that if the axles are extended they will
meet on the longitudinal axis of the car near rear axle. This system is called ackermann steering.

Figure 3.11. Ackermann Principle

Tire Construction
Most modern passenger vehicles and light trucks use tubeless tires that do NOT have a separate
inner tube. The tire and wheel form an airtight unit. Many commercial and construction vehicles
use inner tubes, which are soft, thin, leak-proof rubber liners that fit inside the tire and wheel
assemblies. However, in the last few years tubeless tires have been introduced to commercial
and construction vehicles, reducing the need for tube type tires. Tires perform the following two
basic functions:
• They must act as a soft cushion between the road and the metal wheel.
• They must provide adequate traction with the road surface.
Tires must transmit driving, braking, and cornering forces to the road in all types of weather. At
the same time, they should resist puncture and wear. Although there are several tire designs, the
six major parts of a tire are as follows
• Tire beads (two steel rings encased in rubber that holds the tire sidewalls against the wheel
rim).
• Body plies (rubberized fabric and cords wrapped around beads. forming the carcass or body of
the tire).
• Tread (outer surface of the tire that contacts the road surface).
• Sidewall (outer surface of the tire extending from bead to tread; it contains tire information).
• Belts (used to stiffen the tread and strengthen the plies; they lie between the tread and the inner
plies).
• Liner (a thin layer of rubber bonded to the inside of the plies: it provides a leakproof
membrane for tubeless tires).
There are many construction and design variations in tires. A different number of plies may be
used and run at different angles. Also, many different materials may be used.
The three types of tires found on late model vehicles are bias-ply, belted bias, and radial.
Bias-Ply Tire
A bias-ply tire is one of the oldest designs, and it does NOT use belts. The position of the cords
in a bias-ply tire allows the body of the tire to flex easily. This design improves the cushioning
action, which provides a smooth ride on rough roads. A bias-ply tire has the plies running at an
angle from bead to bead. The cord angle is also reversed from ply to ply, forming a crisscross
pattern. The tread is bonded directly to the top ply. A major disadvantage of a bias-ply tire is
that the weakness of the plies and tread reduce traction at high speeds and increase rolling
resistance.

Figure 3.12. Bias-Ply Tire

Belted Bias Tire

A belted bias tire provides a smooth ride and good traction, and offers some reduction in rolling
resistance over a bias-ply tire. The belted bias tire is a bias-ply tire with stabilizer belts added to
increase tread stiffness. The belts and plies run at different angles. The belts do NOT run around
to the sidewalls but lie only under the tread area. Two stabilizer belts and two or more plies are
used to increase tire performance.

Figure 3.13. Belted Bias Tire

Radial Ply Tire

The radial ply tire has a very flexible sidewall, but a stiff tread. This design provides for a very
stable footprint (shape and amount of tread touching the road surface) which improves safety,
cornering, braking, and wear. The radial ply tire has plies running straight across from bead to
bead with stabilizer belts directly beneath the tread. The belts can be made of steel, flexten,
fiberglass, or other materials.
Wheels
Wheels must have enough strength to carry the weight of the vehicle and withstand a wide
range of speed and road conditions. Automobiles and light trucks are equipped with a single
piece wheel. Larger vehicles have a lock ring (side ring) that allows for the easy removal of the
tire from the wheel and, when in place, it provides a seat for one side of the inflated tire.
A standard wheel consists of the RIM (outer lip that contacts the bead) and the SPIDER (center
section that bolts to the vehicle hub). Normally the spider is welded to the rim. Common wheel
designs are as follows:
• Drop center
• Semidrop center
• Safety
• Split
Drop Center Wheel
The drop center wheel is made in one piece and is commonly used on passenger vehicles
because it allows for easier installation and removal of the tire. Bead seats are tapered to match
a corresponding taper on the beads of the tire.
 Figure 3.13. Drop Center Wheel

Semidrop Center Wheel

The semidrop center wheel has a shallow well, tapered-head seat to fit the taper of the beads of
the tire. It also has a demountable flange or side ring which fits into a gutter on the outside of
the rim, holding the tire in place.

Figure 3.14. Semidrop Center Wheel

Safety Wheel
A safety wheel is similar to the drop center wheel. The major difference is that the safety wheel
has a slight hump at the edge of the bead ledge that holds the bead in place when the tire goes
flat.
 Figure 3.15. Safety Wheel

Split Wheel (2 Piece Wheel)

Figure 3.16. Split Wheel

A split wheel (rim) has a removable bead seat on one side of the rim The seat is split to allow for
its removal so tires can be easily changed. Some bead seats also require the use of a lock ring to
retain the seat. These wheels are used on large commercial and military vehicles.
Disk Wheels.
The center disk of a wheel may be a solid plate or of a slotted steel construction. In both cases,
the disk is welded or riveted to the rim, and the wheels are demountable at the hub. The disk is
dished to bring the point of ground contact under the large wheel bearing, and to permit the
mounting of dual wheels. Modern passenger cars almost exclusively use the steel-disk type
wheel.

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 Figure 3.17. Disc Wheel
Pressed and Cast Spoked Wheels. On light vehicles, the wheel center section and rim are
connected by spokes and the wheels are demountable at the hub. For heavier trucks, the spokes
are integrated with the center section and a demountable rim is used. Another form of cast wheel
, sometimes called a mag wheel, is a one-piece design made of lightweight alloys. These types of
wheels are very popular on modern automobiles and are made in many sizes and styles. Great
care must be taken when mounting and demounting tires on these rims, because the wheel
assemblies are soft and brittle, which causes them to crack easily.

Figure 3.18. Spoked Wheel

Wire Wheels. This type of wheel consists of a pressed-steel hub and rim connected by welded
spokes. This design allows greater amounts of air to flow past the brake assemblies, therefore
keeping them cool and minimizing brake fade. Wire wheels, however, are hard to clean, require
the use of full-circle antiskid chains only, and are not adapted for use with dual wheels.
Radial ply tyres
The radial ply tyre consists of two bead cores joined together radially via the carcass hence the
name radial tyres. A belt of cords provides the necessary stiffness, whereas the external part of
the tyre consists of the tread and sidewall and the interior of the inner lining, which ensures the
tyre is hermetically sealed . In passenger car tyres, the carcass is made of rayon or nylon, the belt
of steel cord or a combination of steel, rayon or nylon cord, and the core exclusively of steel.

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Due to the predominance of steel as the material for the belt, these tyres are also known as ‘steel
radial tyres’. The materials used are indicated on the sidewall points and In commercial vehicle
designs this is particularly important and the carcass may also consist of steel. The stiff belt
causes longitudinal oscillation, which has to be kept away from the body by wheel suspensions
with a defined longitudinal compliance, otherwise this would cause an unpleasant droning noise
in the body, when on cobbles and poor road surfaces at speeds of less than 80 km/h. The only
other disadvantage is the greater susceptibility of the thinner sidewalls of the tyres to damage
compared with diagonal ply tyres. The advantages over cross-ply tyres, which are especially
important for today’s passenger cars and commercial vehicles, are:
• significantly higher mileage
• greater load capacity at lower component weight
Tubeless or tubed
In passenger cars, the tubeless tyre has almost completely ousted the tubed tyre. The main
reasons are that the tubeless tyre is
• easier and faster to fit
• the inner lining is able to self-seal small incisions in the tyre.
In tubeless tyres the inner lining performs the function of the tube, i.e. it prevents air escaping
from the tyre. As it forms a unit with the carcass and (unlike the tube) is not under tensional
stress, if the tyre is damaged the incision does not increase in size, rapidly causing loss of
pressure and failure of the tyre. The use of tubeless tyres is linked to two conditions:
• safety contour on the rim
• its air-tightness.
Because this is not yet guaranteed worldwide, tubed tyres continue to be fitted in some countries.
When choosing the tube, attention should be paid to ensuring the correct type for the tyre. If the
tube is too big it will crease, and if it is too small it will be overstretched, both of which reduce
durability. In order to avoid confusion, the tyres carry the following marking on the sidewall.
Two types of tyres are used in vehicles :
(a) Tube tyres, and
(b) Tubeless tyres.
Both these tyres are called pneumatic tyres because air is filled in them.
Tube Tyres
Tube tyres encloses a tube which is wrapped on the wheel rim. Air is forced into tube which
inflates the tube and tyre. The outer side of tyre which comes in contact of road is made from
rubber. It is called tread. Tread provides resistance to slipping. It is very thick at the outer

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 periphery. Beads are made at the inner bide by reinforcing it with steel wires. Beads are very
strong which have good resistance to wearing against the wheel rim. Rayon cords are also
formed into a number of piles. Beads are cords provide good strength to tyres.
Tubeless Tyres
These tyres do not require any tube. The air at pressure is filled into the tyre itself. The
construction of tyre is same as that of tube tyre. For filling the air, a non-return valve is filled in
the tyre itself.
Advantages of Tubeless Tyres
(a) Tubeless tyres are lighter in weight.
(b) They remain cooler compared to tube tyres.
(c) The main advantage of tubeless tyre is that they remain inflated for long time even if these
are punctured by a nail if the nail remains inside the tyre.
(d) Any hole in the tyre, due to puncture, can be repaired by rubber plugging.
(e) A simple puncture can be repaired without removing tyre from wheel.
Types of Front Axle
• Live front axle (used for front wheel drive and 4X4 type of drive).
• Dead front axle (used for 4X2 type of drive).
Types of Arrangement of Front Axle There are two types of Front Axle arrangements employed
on automobiles which, are as follows:
1. Stub-axle with rigid axle beam type: This type was used earlier on all types of vehicles, but now
it finds use on medium and heavy commercial vehicles only, such as trucks and buses.
2. Stub-axle without rigid axle beam type: It is widely used on cars and light commercial vehicles.
Rigid Axle Beam: The rigid axle beam is a stationary structural member used to sustain bending
and torsional loads and to connect the stub axles. The bending is induced in its central region and
due to the vehicle’s weight the torsional loads are caused near its ends due to the wheel’s
braking. Since the I-section resists bending and the circular section can resists torsion more
efficiently, the axle beam consists of a central region made of I-section and the ends of circular
section. An elliptical section is also used sometimes.
Stub Axle: A stub axle is an inter-mediatory small shaft between the road wheel and the front
(dead) axle. On one end it remains connected to the axle beam by means of a king pin or a ball
joint, while the other end, the front wheel is mounted on it. The stub axles are available in
different shapes and they are connected to the axle beam in different styles. Depending upon the
shapes, and styles of connection, the stub axles can be one of the following types. 1. Elliot types

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2. Reversed Elliot type as used on Eicher 10.90, Ashok Leyland Vicking, Tata 407 etc. 3.
Lamoine type generally used on front axle of tractors. 4. Reversed lamoine type
Function of the Front Axle
• It carries the weight of the front of the vehicle.
• It carries stub axle king pin steering arm by which the vehicle can be steered.
• It works as cushion through its spring for a comfortable ride.
• It controls the ride through shock absorber fitted on it.
• It carries the brake system with which the moving vehicle can be stopped.
• In case of a four wheel drive, it also transmits power to road wheels. It carries hubs and wheels.
Front wheels of the vehicle are mounted on front axles. Functions of front axle are listed below :
(a) It supports the weight of front part of the vehicle. (b) It facilitates steering. (c) It absorbs
shocks which are transmitted due to road surface irregularities. (d) It absorbs torque applied on it
due to braking of vehicle. There is two types of front axles : (a) Dead front axle, and (b) Line
front axle. Dead Front Axle Dead axles are those axles, which donet rotate. These axles have
sufficient rigidity and strength to take the weight. The ends of front axle are suitably designed to
accommodate stub axles. Line Front Axle Line axles are used to transmit power from gear box to
front wheels. Line front axles although, front wheels. Line front axles although resemble rear
axles but they are different at the ends where wheels are mounted. Maruti-800 has line front axle.
Stub axles are connected to the front axle by king pins. Front wheels are mounted on stub axles
arrangement for steering is connected to stub axles. Stub axle turns on kind pins. King pins is
fitted in the front axle beam eye and is located and locked there by a taper cotter pin. Stub axles
are of four types : (a) Elliot (b) Reversed elliot (c) Lamoine (d) Reversed lamoine All are differ
from each other in the manner in which they are connected to the front axle. Elliot type stub axle
is shown in Figure.

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 Figure 3.19. Stub Axles
Rear Axle
Rear axle transmits power from differential to the wheels so that vehicle may move. Rear axle is
not a single piece but it is in two parts which are connected by the differential. This is shown in
Figure 5.5. Each part of rear axle is called the half shaft. Outer end of the rear axle carries the
wheel while inner end is connected to sun gear of the differential. In vehicles which employ rear
wheel drive, rear wheels are driving wheels. However, in front wheel drive vehicles, front wheels
are driving wheels. Rear axles and differential are completely enclosed in a housing to protect
them from dust, dirt, water and any possible damage. Functions of Rear Axle (a) To transmit
power from differential to the wheels. This is main function. (b) To carry weight of automobile.
Rear axles differ on the basis of method of supporting them and mounting of rear wheels. On this
basis, these axles can be classified into three types :
(a) Half floating axle
(b) Three-quarter floating
(c) Fully floating

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 Figure 3.20. Half floating axle

Half Floating Axle In a half floating rear axle, the axle is at the centre of the axle casing and the
bearings are inside the axle casing. The weight of vehicle is transmitted first to suspension
spring, then to axle casing, then to axle and finally to ground.

Figure 3.21. Three-quarter floating axle

Three-quarter Floating Axle: In three-quarter floating rear axle, bearings are on the outer side
of axle casing, i.e. between casing and wheel. In this case, major part of vehicle weight is taken
by axle casing and not by axle. This is the main advantage of three-quarter floating type over half
floating type. Thus, axle breakdown is less in this case compared to the previous type.

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