Basic Electrical and

Electronics Engineering
Notes
Syllabus
Unit-I
D.C. Circuits: Voltage and current sources, dependent and
independent sources, Units and dimensions, Source
Conversion, Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Law, Superposition
theorem, Thevenin’s theorem and their application for
analysis of series and parallel resistive circuits excited by
independent voltage sources, Power & Energy in such circuits.
Mesh & nodal analysis, Star Delta transformation & circuits.

Reference Books
1. D.P. Kothari & I.J. Nagrath, Basic Electrical Engineering, Tata McGraw
Hill, latest edition.
2. S.N. Singh , Basic Electrical Engineering, P.H.I.,2013
3. C.L. Wadhwa, Basic Electrical Engineering. New Age International.
4. B.L. Theraja & A.K Theraja Textbook of Electrical Technology - Vol. 1, S.
Chand Publication
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Semester I&II

Notes
Chapter-I: DC Circuit

1 Voltage and current sources

1.1 Voltage source
A voltage source is a device that provides a constant or varying voltage across its terminals,
regardless of the current flowing through it (up to a certain limit).

1. Ideal Voltage Source: In theory, an ideal voltage source maintains a fixed voltage across
its terminals, no matter how much current it delivers to a load. It has zero internal resis-
tance.

2. Real Voltage Source: In practical circuits, real voltage sources have some internal resis-
tance, so the voltage may drop slightly as more current is drawn. Common examples of
voltage sources include batteries and power supplies.

3. Examples:

(a) A 9V battery provides 9V across its terminals, regardless of the current (until the
battery depletes).
(b) Power supplies in devices provide specific voltages like 5V or 12V for different
components.

4. The symbol for a voltage source is usually a circle with a plus (+) and minus (-) sign to
indicate the polarity.

Figure 1: Independent volage and current source

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1.2 Current Sources

A current source is a device that provides a constant current to a load, regardless of the voltage
across its terminals (within practical limits).

1. Ideal Current Source: An ideal current source delivers a fixed current no matter the
voltage across its terminals. It can adjust the voltage across the load to ensure the current
remains constant.

2. Real Current Source: In practice, real current sources have limits on the voltage they
can provide, and they may not maintain a perfectly constant current when the load varies
significantly.

3. Examples:

(a) Current regulators are designed to provide constant current to LEDs or other devices
that require fixed current for stable operation.
(b) In a laboratory, current sources are often used to provide fixed current to test elec-
tronic components.

2 Dependent and Independent sources

2.1 Independent Sources
Independent sources are electrical sources whose voltage or current output is fixed and does not
depend on any other variable in the circuit. They provide a constant voltage or current regardless
of the other elements in the circuit.

1. Types of Independent Sources

(a) Independent Voltage Source

i. Provides a fixed voltage across its terminals, independent of the current flowing
through it.
ii. Example: A standard battery (e.g., a 9V battery) acts as an independent voltage
source.
(b) Independent Current Source (ICS):
i. Delivers a fixed current regardless of the voltage across its terminals.
ii. Example: A constant current power supply used in certain laboratory experi-
ments.

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2.2 Dependent Sources

Dependent sources (also known as controlled sources) are electrical sources whose output (volt-
age or current) depends on another voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit. They are essential
for modeling the behavior of active components like transistors and operational amplifiers.

2.2.1 Types of Dependent Sources

1. Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS):The output voltage is a function of a volt-
age elsewhere in the circuit.

2. Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS):The output voltage is a function of a cur-

rent elsewhere in the circuit.

3. Voltage-Controlled Current Source (VCCS):The output current is a function of a volt-

age elsewhere in the circuit.

4. Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS):The output current is a function of a cur-

rent elsewhere in the circuit.

2.3 Differences Between Independent and Dependent Sources

Aspect Independent Sources Dependent Sources

Control Output is fixed and does not Output depends on another
depend on the circuit. voltage or current in the cir-
cuit.
Symbols Represented with a simple Represented with a diamond
circle and indication of volt- shape, indicating control.

age (+ -) or current ( ).
Examples Batteries, standard power Operational amplifiers, tran-
supplies. sistors in circuits.
Usage in Circuits Provide fixed power levels for Model active components and
circuit operation. feedback mechanisms.
Mathematical Representation Constants (e.g., V = 5V, I = Functions (e.g., V = k * V x,
2A). I = k * I x).

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Figure 2: Dependent sources

3 Source Conversion
Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits. Basic to these tools is the concept
of equivalence. A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source Vs in series
with a resistor R by a current source Is in parallel with a resistor RL or vice versa.

Figure 3: Equivalent Current Source

Figure 4: Equivalent Voltage Source

Example 1 Convert a voltage source of 20V with internal resistance of 5Ω into an equivalent
current source.

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Solution Given V=20 V ; Internal resistance = 5Ω

Vs 20
The short-circuit current = = = 4A
Rin 5

Figure 5:

Example 2 Convert a current source of 100A with internal resistance of 10Ω into an equivalent
voltage source.

Solution I = 100A and Rsh = 10Ω

V = Ish × R = 100 × 10 = 1000V

Figure 6:

Example 3 Transfrom given circuit by replacing current source with voltage source

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Figure 7:

Find equivalent current source in given circuit

Figure 8:

By source transformation V = IR = 7 × 2.38 = 16.67

Figure 9:

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4 Ohm’s Law
It states that the voltage across the two terminals of a conducting material is proportional to the
current flowing through it.

V ∝I
V = RI

The constant of proportionality R is the resistance

When the temperature changes, the resistivity (ρ) and the physical dimension (length l or area
A) of the resistance material also changes.

l
R=ρ
A
Any change in the value of resistivity or physical dimension would affect the resistance value
R. Therefore, Ohm’s law is only valid at constant temperature.

Example 4 A 3000 km long cable consists of seven copper wires, each of diameter 0.73 mm,
bundled together and surrounded by an insulating sheath. Calculate the resistance of the cable.
Use 3 × 10−6 Ωcm for the resistivity of the copper.

Solution
he resistance R of a conductor is related to the resistivity r by
l
R=ρ
A
where l and A are the length of the conductor and the cross-sectional area, respectively. Since
the cable consists of N = 7 copper wires, the total cross sectional area is

l = 3000km3 × 108 cm and d = 0.73mm = 0.073cm

πd 2 π × 0.0732
A = Nπr2 = N = 7×
4 4
l 3 × 108 cm
R=ρ = 3 × 10−6 × π×0.0732
= 3.1 × 104 Ω
A 7× 4

R=31 k Ω

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5 Kirchhoff’s Law
5.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction or node in an electric circuit is zero.

Consider five conductors, carrying currents I1 , I2 , I3 , I4 and I5 meeting at a point O as shown in

Figure

Figure 10:

Sign convention for current: Incoming current is positive (+) and outgoing current is negative
(-)

I1 + (−I2 ) + I3 + (−I4 ) + I5 = 0

I1 − I2 + I3 − I4 + I5 = 0

I1 + I3 + I5 = I2 + I4

The above law can also be stated as the sum of currents flowing towards any junction in
an electric circuit is equal to the sum of the currents fl owing away from that junction.

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5.2 kirchhoff’s voltage law

1. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) is appli-
cable to any closed path or loop in an
electric circuit.

2. Definition: KVL states that the alge-

braic sum of all branch voltages around
any closed path in a circuit is zero.

∑V = 0

3. In other words, the KVL is stated as the

algebraic sum of all the sources of EMFs
in a closed loop in an electric circuit is
equal to the sum of all the voltage drops
in that closed loop.
Sign convention: A rise in potential can be assumed to be positive while a fall in potential
can be considered negative.

1. If we go from the positive terminal of the battery or source to the negative terminal, there
is a fall in potential and so the emf should be assigned a negative sign

2. If we go from the negative terminal of the battery or source to the positive terminal, there
is a rise in potential and so the emf
3. When current fl ows through a resistor,
there is a voltage drop across it. If we go
through the resistor in the same direction
as the current, there is a fall in the poten-
tial and so the sign of this voltage drop is
negative

4. If we go opposite to the direction of the

current fl ow, there is a rise in potential
and hence, this voltage drop should be
given a positive sign

−V1 −V2 −V3 +Vs = 0

V1 = IR1 ,V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3

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−IR1 − IR2 − IR3 +Vs = 0

IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = Vs
From the above KVL equation, the current in the circuit is calculated as

I (R1 + R2 + R3 ) = Vs
Vs
I=
R1 + R2 + R3

6 Superposition theorem
Statement ”In a linear network containing more than one source, the current in any branch or
the potential difference across any two points can be found by considering each source sepa-
rately and then by adding their individual effects.”.

Steps to be followed in Superposition Theorem

1. While considering each source, the other sources are replaced by their internal resistances.
2. If the value of internal resistances of the sources are not given, the voltage sources are
short circuited and the current sources are open-circuited.

Example 5: Using superposition theorem, cal-

culate the currents through 6Ω in the network
shown in Figure
Solution
Step 1: consider the effect of voltage source
by open-circuiting the current source
24
I1 =
4+6
Step 2: Consider the effect of current source
by shortcircuiting the voltage source
4
I2 = 2 × = 0.8A
4+6
6
I3 = 2 × = 1.2A
4+6
Current through 6Ω resistor across BD = I1 −
I2 = 2.4 − 0.8 = 1.6A

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Example 6:Find the current through the 2 Ω resistor

Figure 11:

Solution

Step I When the 40 V source is acting alone

Figure 12:

By series parallel reduction technique

40
I= = 6A
5 + 1.67
by current-division rule,
10
I′ = 6 × = 5A
10 + 2

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Step II When the 20 V source is acting alone

By series–parallel reduction technique
20
I= = 3A
5 + 1.67
by current-division rule
10
I ′′ = 3 × = 2.5A
10 + 2

Step III When the 10 V source is acting alone

10
I ′′′ = = 1.88A
3.33 + 2

Step IV By superposition theorem,

I ′ + I ′′ + I ′′′ = 5 − 2.5 + 1.88 = 4.38A

7 Thevenin’s Theorem
Statement: Any linear bilateral network consisting of many sources and impedances can be
replaced with an equivalent circuit consisting of a Thevenin’s voltage source, VT h in series with
a Thevenin’s impedance, ZT h connected to load impedance, ZL .

Figure 13: Circuit with source and impedances

Figure 14: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

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Step 1: Determination of VT h

It is obtained by removing the loadimpedance ZL , i.e.,

by open circuiting the terminal CD as shown in Figure
Z2
VT h = Vs ×
Z1 + Z2

Step 2: Determination of ZT h

NOTE: Determination of VT h

1. If voltage source is present then replace by short

circuit.

2. If current source is present then replace by open

circuit.

Since a voltage source exists in the circuit, the source

terminal AF is short circuited as shown in Figure.
Determination of ZT h
Z1 × Z2
ZT h =
Z1 + Z2

Exmple 7: Applying Thevenin’s theorem, calculate the current flowing through the 10Ω resis-
tor in the circuit shown in Figure

Figure 15:

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Step 1: Determination of VT h

1. Convert the current source into an equiv-

alent voltage source

2. Remove temporarily the resistance of

10Ω from terminals AB

Vth = Voltage at 2Ω + 4V

Volage at 2Ω = I × 2Ω

12V − 4V
I=
2Ω + 4Ω + 2Ω

I=1 A

Vth = 1A × 2Ω + 4V = 6V

Step 2: Determination of VT h

1. If voltage source is present then replace

by short circuit.

2. If current source is present then replace

by open circuit.

RT h = (6||2) + 3
6×2
=
6+2
= 1.5 + 3
= 4.5Ω
Step-3 Determine current at 10 Ω

VT h
IL =
RT h + RL
6
=
4.5 + 10
= 0.414A

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