SOIL MECHANICS HDCE 122 CU3

Sub Module 1: Introduction to Soil mechanics

Nature of soils, soils for engineering purposes, Physical properties of
soils,
Grading (size distribution) & Soil classification
Definition

Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of

soil, its behaviour and application as an engineering material.

Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to

engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles, which are produced by the mechanical and
chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of whether or not they contain
an admixture of organic constituents.

Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability,

stiffness, and strength. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil
grains, the current stress, the water content and unit weight.

Formation of Soil

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from different rock types

extending up to about 20 km depth from the Earth's surface.

Soils are formed from materials that have resulted from the disintegration
of rocks by various processes of physical and chemical weathering. The
nature and structure of a given soil depends on the processes and
conditions that formed it:

The major rock types are categorized as igneous, sedimentary, and

metamorphic.

Igneous rocks: formed from crystalline bodies of cooled magma.

Sedimentary rocks: formed from layers of cemented sediments.

Metamorphic rocks: formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat

from igneous intrusions or pressure due to crustal movement.

Soil Types

Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified into two
broad categories:

o Residual soils
o Transported soils
Residual Soils
Residual soils are found at the same location where they have been formed.
Generally, the depth of residual soils varies from 5 to 20 m.

Chemical weathering rate is greater in warm, humid regions than in cold,

dry regions causing a faster breakdown of rocks. Accumulation of residual
soils takes place as the rate of rock decomposition exceeds the rate of
erosion or transportation of the weathered material. In humid regions, the
presence of surface vegetation reduces the possibility of soil
transportation.

As leaching action due to percolating surface water decreases with depth,

there is a corresponding decrease in the degree of chemical weathering from
the ground surface downwards. This results in a gradual reduction of
residual soil formation with depth, until unaltered rock is found.

Residual soils comprise of a wide range of particle sizes, shapes and

composition.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

In the field, gravels, sands and peats are easily recognisable but
difficulty arises in deciding when a soil is fine sand or a coarse silt or
when it is a fine silt or a clay. The following rules may however help;
Fine sand Silt Clay
o Individual o Some particles o No particles
particles visible visible visible
o Exhibits
dilatancy o Exhibit dilatancy o No dilatancy
o Easy to crumble & o Easy to crumble & o Hard to
falls off hands can be dusted off crumble &
when dry hands when dry sticks to
o Feels gritty o Feels rough hands when dry
o No plasticity o Some plasticity o Feels smooth
o plasticity
Dilatancy test consists in moulding a small amount of soil in the palm of
the hand, if water is seen to recede when the soil is pressed, then it is
either a sand or a silt.
Organic silts & clays are invariably dark grey to blue – black in colour
and give off a characteristic odour, particularly with fresh samples.

Phase Relations of Soils

Soil consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and
air. This fundamental composition gives rise to unique engineering
properties, and the description of its mechanical behaviour requiring some
of the most classic principles of engineering mechanics.

The water and air contents in the voids between the particles are readily
changed by changes in ambient conditions and location.

A schematic diagram of the three-phase system is shown in terms of weight

and volume symbols respectively for soil solids, water, and air. The weight
of air can be neglected.

The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air
components, Soil can be partially saturated (with both air and water
present), or be fully saturated (no air content) or be perfectly dry (no
water content).
Total volume, V = Vs + Vw + Vv and total weight W = Ws + Ww + Wv

The various relations can be grouped into:

o Volume relations

o Weight relations

o Inter-relations

a) Volume Relations

As the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids is
taken as the reference quantity. Thus, several relational volumetric
quantities may be defined. The following are the basic volume relations:
1) Air content (ac) is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the volume of
Va
ac 
Vv
voids. Vv V
 w
Vv  V w Vv Vv
   1  Sr
Vv Vv
Vv

2) Percentage air voids (na) is the ratio of the volume of air to the total
Va
volume. n a   100  n  a c
V

3) Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of
Vv
soil solids (Vs), and is expressed as a decimal. e 
Vs

4) Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of
Vv
soil (V), and is expressed as a percentage. n   100
V

Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

e n
n and e
1 e 1 n

Derivations

Vv Vv
From V  Vv  Vs ; n 
V Vv  Vs

Vv
Vs e e
Divide top & bottom by Vs ; n  ; n 
Vv  Vs 1 e 1 e
Vs Vs

n 1  e   e
e
Also from porosity n ;
1 e

n
Opening & collecting like terms, e
1 n

5) Degree of saturation is the ratio of volume of water in the voids to

Vw
the total volume of voids in the soil sample. Sr   100
Vv

For a dry soil, Sr = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, Sr = 100%.

The distribution of the volume phases may be expressed in terms of e and

Sr,

Vw Vv
Sr  , from e   Vv  eVs,  Vw  eSrVs
Vv Vs
Also from Vv  Va  Vw; Va  Vv - Vw
 Va  eVs  eSrVs; Va  eVs 1  Sr  or Va  Vv1  Sr 
b) Weight Relations

These are measured as Density or Unit weight.

Density is the measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material

while Unit weight is a measure of the weight of a unit volume of material.

Both can be used interchangeably. The units of density are ton/m³, kg/m³ or
g/cm³ and weight as kN/m³ or N/m³.

The following are the basic weight relations:

1) Moisture content or water content m or   is the ratio of the mass or

weight of water present to the mass or weight of the solid particles in
Mw Ww
the soil sample. m   100 or   100
Ms Ws
Its value is 0% for dry soil and its magnitude can exceed 100%.

Mass of water in the soil model M w  eSr w 

2) Specific gravity

This is the ratio of the mass or weight of a given volume of solids to

the mass or weight of an equal volume of water at 4oc.

Ms Ws
Gs  or Gs 
Vs  w Vs  w

Particle density or grain density is the mass per unit volume of the
solid particles or grains  s  Gs w

Relation between e, Sr and Gs

Ms Mw wVw
From Gs  ; and Ms  
Vs  w m m

 w Vw Vw
Ms  GsVs  w ;  GsVs  w ;  mGs but Vw  eSrVs
m Vs

eSrVs
  mGs ;  eSr  mGs
Vs

For most inorganic soils, the value of Gs lies between 2.60 and 2.80.
The presence of organic material reduces the value of Gs.

3) Bulk unit weight  b

4) This is a measure of the amount of solid particles plus water per unit
W Ws  Ww
volume. b  
V V
5) Dry unit weight  d

This is a measure of the amount of solid particles per unit volume.

Ws
b 
V

6) Saturated unit weight  sat

7) This is equal to the bulk density when the total voids is filled up with
water. The volume of the sample will not change and if the voids are
filled with water, The weight of this water is Vv  w
Ws  Vv  w
 Sat 
V

8) Buoyant unit weight  ' or submerged unit weight is the effective mass per
unit volume when the soil is submerged below standing water or below the
ground water table.
 Gs  1
 '   Sat   w  w
1 e

 w Gs  eSr   w Gs  eSr   w  w Gs   w eSr   w   w e

 ' w    ; For Sr  1
1 e 1 e 1 1 e
 Gs  1
 ' w
1 e

9) Critical Hydraulic Gradient this is the ratio of the submerged density

 ' Gs  1
to the density of the water ic  
 w 1 e

Inter-Relations

It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately after receiving

in the laboratory and prior to commencing other tests. The water content
and unit weight are particularly important, since they may change during
transportation and storage.

Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical

measurement of others. For example, dry unit weight can be determined from
bulk unit weight and water content. The following are some inter-relations:

Some Derivations – Prove the following Relationships

 Vω
Degree of saturation S
Vv
Vv Wω ωWs
From Void ratio e ; Vv  eVs and Vω  
Vs ρω ρω
 ωWs 
 
Vω  ρ ω  ωWs ω  Ws  Ms
 S     ; Since Gs 
Vv eVs ρ ω eVs e  Vsρ ω  Vsρ ω

ωGs
S  Proved
e

ρb
ii  ρd 
1 
Ws W  Wω
From Dry Density ρ d  
V V
W ωWs
ρd    ρ b  ρ d
V V
ρ d  ρ b  ρ d ; 1   ρ d  ρ b ;
ρb
ρd   Proved
1   
 Gs  es 
iii  ρb  ρw  
 1 e 
W Ws  Wω
From Bulk Density ρ b  
V Vs  Vv
Divide top & Bottom by Vs

Ws Wω

Vω Vv Ms
ρ b  Vs Vs but Wω  ρ ω Vω S ; e ; & ρ ω Gs 
Vs Vv Vv Vs Vs

Vs Vs

 Vω Vv 
ρ ω Gs  ρ ω   
 Vs Vv  ρ ω Gs  ρ ω eS ρ ω Gs  eS
ρb   
1 e 1 e 1 e
ρ Gs  eS
 ρb  ω QED
1 e
For Wω  Ws
Ws Wω Ws
 1   
ρb  Vs Vs  Vs
Vs Vv 1 e

Vs Vs
ρ Gs1   
ρb  ω QED
1 e

Specific volume
It is the total volume of a soil model given by 1  e 

Worked Examples

Example 1

The dry density of a sand with porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m3. Find the
void ratio of the soil and the specific gravity of the soil solids.
Take  w  1000 kg / m3 .
n = 0.387 ,  d = 1600 kg/m 3
Solution:
n 0.387
(a) e    0.631
1  n 1  0.387

(b)  d 
Gs  w
; Gs 
1  e d
1 e w

Gs 
1  0.6311600  2.61
1000
Example 2
Excavation is being carried out in a soil with porosity of 0.35 and grain
specific gravity of 2.65. evaluate the critical hydraulic gradient of the
soil.
e n 0.35
From porosity n  ; Void ratio e    0.54
1 e 1 n 1  0.35

Gs  1 2.65  1
Critical Hydraulic Gradient ic    1.071
1 e 1  0.54

If the excavated soil was known to be 92% saturated. Find

The bulk density

For Voids saturated to 92%, Sr  92%  0.92

 w Gs  eSr  10002.65  0.54  0.92

 b    2043.38kg/m 3
1 e 1  0.54

Dry density

For Sr  0%  0  b   d

 w Gs 10002.65
 b    1720.78kg/m 3
1 e 1  0.54

Percentage of water content

 w Gs1  w 1000  2.651  w

From  b  
1 e 1  0.54
  1.54  2043.38 
w   100  18.75%
 2.65  1000 

 eSr   0.54  0.92 

Or From wGs  eSr; w   1000     1000  18.75%
 Gs   2.65 

Example 3

The weight of the wet sample of the soil is 30gm and the dry weight is
20gm. Before drying the sample its was found to be 24cm3 when Gs was 2.7.
Determine

a) Water content

b) Void ratio

c) Degree of saturation

Example 4
A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and weighed. The
weight was 6 N. The clay in its container was placed in an oven for 24
hours at 105oC. The weight reduced to a constant value of 5 N. The weight
of the container is 1 N. If Gs = 2.7, Determine the
(a) Water content,
(b) Void ratio,
(c) Bulk unit weight,
(d) Dry unit weight, and
(e) Effective unit weight
Solution

Weight of water  6  5  1
weight of dry soil  5  1  4

Water Content

Weight of water 1
Water Content    100  25%
weight of dry soil 4

Void ratio

From wGs  eSr

For Fully saturated soils, Sr  1

wGs 0.25  2.7
e   0.675,
Sr 1

Bulk unit weight

  w Gs 1  w 1000  2.71  0.25
b    2014.93kg/m 3
1 e 1  0.675
 b  19,766.4 N/m 3
 b  19.77kN/m 3

Dry unit weight,

 w Gs1  w  w Gs 9.81  2.7

b     15.81kN/m 3 ; w  0 for dry soil
1 e 1 e 1  0.675

b b 19.77
or d     15.82kN/m 3
1 w 1 w 1  0.25

Effective unit weight also called submerged or buoyant

  '   Sat   w  19.77  9.81  9.96kN/m 3

 w Gs  1 9.812.7  1
or  '   9.96kN/m 3
1 e 1  0.68

Example 5

In a bulk density determination a sample of clay with a mass of 683g was

coated with paraffin wax. The combined mass of the clay and the wax was
690.6g. the volume of the clay and the wax was found by immersion in water
to be 350ml. the sample was the broken open and mioisture content &
particle specific gravity gave 17% and 2.73 respectively. The Specific
gravity of the wax was 0.89. determine,

o The Bulk density

o The unit weight

o Void ratio

o Degree of saturation

Solution

Mass of soil = 683g

Mass of wax = 690.  6683  7.6 g

7.6
Volume of wax Vwax =  8.55ml
0.89

Volume of Soil V - Vwax = 350  8.55  341.4ml

683
Bulk Density Vwax =  2 g  2Mg / m 3
341.4

Example
A specimen of clay was tested in the laboratory and the following data were
collected:

Mass of wet specimen =148.8g

Mass of dry specimen =106.2g

Volume of wet specimen = 86.2cm3.

Specific gravity of particles Gs = 2.70

Determine;

(i) The water content

(ii) The bulk and dry densities

(iii) The void ratio & porosity

(iv) The degree of saturation

Solution

M Wet  M Dry 148.8  106.2

Water content ω  100; ω   100  40.1%
M Dry 106.2

Mass of wet specimen 148.8  10 6

Bulk Density b  ; b  6
 1.73Mg / m 3
Volume of wet specimen 86.2  10

Mass of dry specimen 106.2  10 6

Dry Density d  ; d  6
 1.232 Mg / m 3
Volume of wet specimen 86.2  10

Gs w  2.70  1.000 

Void ratio From  d  ; e   1  1.192
1 e  1.232 

e 1.192
Porosity     0.54
1  e 1  1.192

Gs 0.401  2.7

Degree of Saturation eSr  Gs; Sr    0.908  91%
e 1.192

Examples

The specific gravity of solid particles in a soil mass is 2.60. If the wet
unit weight is 1.8gm/cc. determine;

(i) The zero air void line.

(ii) The dry unit weight
(iii) Void ratio
(iv) Porosity
(v) Degree of saturation when the moisture content is 15%
Solution

ρd 1.8
Dry Density ρd    1.565g/cm 3
1 w  15 
1  
 100 
 Gs  esr 
Bulk Density ρ b  ρ w  
 1 e 
For Dry soils or Dry Density sr  0

G ρ 
Then ρ d   s w   1.565
 1 e 
Gρ
 ρd  s w ; ρd  ρd e  G sρ w
1 e
G ρ  ρ d 2.6 1  1.565
e s w  ; where ρ d  1g/cc
ρd 1.565
e  0.661

e 0.661
Porosity     0.398
1  e 1  0.661

e  ωGs 0.661  0.15  2.6

 1  Sr  
Va
Air content A    0.163
V 1 e 1  0.661

Gs 0.15  2.6

Degree of Saturation Sr    0.59  59%
e 0.661
or
 Gs  esr 
From Bulk Density ρ b  ρ w  
 1 e 
ρ b 1  e 
 Gs 1.81  0.66   2.6
ρw 1
Sr    0.59  59%
e 0.66

Alternatively

Ms ρ 1.8
Dry Density ρd   d   1.565g/cm3
V 1 w  15 
1  
 100 

Assume 1cc of the soil sample i.e. V  1cm 3

Ms
But Dry Density ρ d  ; Ms  1.565  1  1.565gm
V
Ms Ms 1.565
Also Gs  ; Vs    0.604 cc; where ρ   1gm/cc
Vs ρ  Gs ρ  2.6  1
Volume of soil V  Vv  Vs; Volume of Voids Vv  1 - 0.604  0.396cc
Vv 0.396
 Void ratio e   0.656
Vs 0.604
 Vv 0.396
Porosity    0.396
V 1

Vω Mω M  Ms ρ V  Ms 1.80  1  1.565
Degree of saturation Sr  ; Vω    b   0.235cc
Vv ρ ρ ρ 1
0.235
Sr 
 0.59  59%
0.396
Va V  Vs  Vω 1  0.604  0.235 0.161
Air Content      0.161
V V 1 1

Typical values of unit weight of soils

3
Soil type γ γ (kN/m )
sat
d

Gravel 20 –22 15 – 17
Sand 18 – 20 13 – 16

Silt 18 –20 14 –18

Clay 16 –22 14 –21

Relative density or Density index (D or ID) is an index that quantifies the

r

degree of packing between the loosest and densest possible state as

determined by experiments. It’s the measure of the state of compaction
provided by the relationship between the void ratio values.

emax  e
Dr =
emax  emin

Where e = maximum void ratio (loosest condition), e = minimum void ratio

max min

(densest condition), e = current void ratio.

Example

In order to find the relative density of the soil, a compaction mould was
used having a mass of 5.225kg and a volume of 944ml. when the soil was
dynamically compacted in the mould, the total mass of the soil and mould
was 7.289kg; and when the soil was poured in loosely, the mass was 6.883kg.
If the in situ dry density of the soil is 1.54Mg/m3 and Gs = 2.70,
calculate the relative density of the soil.

Solution

The compacted mass will give the maximum saturated density

 M 2  M o 7.289  5.225
 sat.max   3
 2.186 Mg / m 3
V 944  10
Gs w   sat.max 2.70  1.00  2.186
emin    0.433
 sat.max   w 2.186  1.00

The loose mass will give the minimum saturated density

M 2  M o 6.883  5.225
 sat.min    3
 1.756 Mg / m 3
V 944  10
Gs w   sat.min  2.70  1.00  1.756
emax    1.249
 sat.min    w 1.756  1.00

Gs w 2.70  1.00

But from dry density e  1   1  0.753
d 1.54

emax  e 1.249  0.753

Relative density Dr    0.61  61% 
emax  emin 1.249  0.433

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

This is the arrangement or distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample,

it is necessary to conduct different particle-size tests.

Sieve analysis

o Wet sieving is carried out for separating fine grains from coarse
grains by washing the soil specimen on a 75 micron sieve mesh.

o Dry sieve analysis is carried out on particles coarser than 75

micron. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken through a
set of sieves of descending sizes. The weight retained in each sieve
is measured. The cumulative percentage quantities finer than the
sieve sizes (passing each given sieve size) are then determined.

The resulting data is presented as a distribution curve with grain size

along x-axis (log scale) and percentage passing along y-axis (arithmetic
scale).

Sedimentation or fine analysis is used only for the soil fraction finer
than 75 microns. Soil particles are allowed to settle from a suspension.
The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at various time
intervals. The procedure is based on the principle that in a suspension,
the terminal velocity of a spherical particle settling in water is
proportional to the square of the diameter of the particle and the
properties of the suspension.
  w  2 h
v   s  D i.e. v  kD 2 
 18 w  t1

Where,  s - Density of soil particles

 w - Density of water

w - Viscosity of water in Ns/m2, D – Diameter of a spherical

particle.
D is equivalent diameter of the spherical particle defined as the imaginary
sphere of the same material which would sink in water with the same
velocity as the irregular particle in question.
In this method, the soil is placed as a suspension in a jar filled with
distilled water to which a deflocculating agent is added. The soil
particles are then allowed to settle down. The concentration of particles
remaining in the suspension at a particular level can be determined by
using a hydrometer. Specific gravity readings of the solution at that same
level at different time intervals provide information about the size of
particles that have settled down and the mass of soil remaining in
solution.

The results are then plotted between % finer (passing) and log size.

Example 1.

In a sedimentation test 20g of soil of specific gravity 2.69 and passing

63µm sieve were dispersed in 1000ml of water having a viscosity of 0.001 SI
units. One hour after the commencement of sedimentation, 20ml of the
suspension were taken by means of a pipette from a depth of 100mm. the
amount of solid particles (in the sample of 20ml taken by pipette) obtained
on drying was 0.07g. Compute the following,

(a) The largest size of the particle remaining in suspension at a depth

of 100mm, 1 hour after the commencement of sedimentation.

Solution

    w g  2 h
v   s  D m/s  mm/s
 18  w  t1

 2690  1000  2 h
v D 
 18  0.001  1000 t1
18  0.001  1000  60  60
D  0.0055 mm
100 2690  1000   9.81
(b) The percentage of the particles finer than this size in the original
sample

20
For Wb  20 g , volume of solids  7.4ml
2.69

At commencement, Volume of solution Vsol  1000  7.4  1007 .4ml

After 1 hr. W D  0.07 g

WD
Percentage particles less than 0.0055mm  20  100
Wb
Vol sol

0.07
 20  100  17.6%
20
1007 .4

(c) The time interval from the commencement, after which the largest
particle remaining in suspension at 100mm depth is one quarter of this
size.

h 1 1
From v  kD 2  if D is multiplied by , then D2 must be multiplied by
t 4 16
and t must be multiplied by 16, i.e. 16hours

Example 2

A sample of soil weighing 50g is dispersed in 1000ml of water. How long

after the commencement of sedimentation should the hydrometer reading be
taken in order to estimate the percentage of particles less than 0.002 mm
effective diameter, if centre of the hydrometer is 150mm below the surface
of water? Take Gs = 2.7, viscosity of water µ = 0.001 Ns/m2.

    w g  2  2700  1000   9.81   0.002 

2

v   s  D      1000  0.0037 mm / s

 18  w   18  0.001   1000 
h h
From v  ; t 
t v
150
Time of reading t   11.26 hr
0.0037  60  60

Grain-Size Distribution Curve

The size distribution curves obtained from coarse and fine grained
portions, are combined to form one complete grain-size distribution curve
(also known as grading curve). A typical grading curve is shown.
From the complete grain-size distribution curve, useful information can be
obtained such as:

Grading characteristics, which indicate the uniformity and range in grain-

size distribution.

2. Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and clay-size.

Grading Characteristics

A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. The geometric

properties of a grading curve are called grading characteristics.

To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on

the grading curve.

D60 = size at 60% finer by weight

D30 = size at 30% finer by weight
D10 = size at 10% finer by weight

The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:

1. Effective size = D10

D 60
2. Uniformity coefficient, Cu 
D 10
D 30 2
3. Curvature coefficient, C C 
D 10 D 60

Both Cu and Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a distribution

of particles over a wide size range.
Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.

Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a very narrow
particle size range. The curve is almost vertical

Poorly graded soil is one stretching across the chart but with deficient
intermediate sizes.

The clay is of normal activity and is of soft consistency.

The results of sieving analysis of a soil were as follows

Retained on Weight Retained on Weight Retained

Retained
Sieve size(mm) Sieve size(mm) (g)
(g)

20 0 2 3.5

12.5 1.7 1.4 1.1

10 2.3 0.5 30.5

6.3 8.4 0.355 45.3

5.6 5.7 0.180 25.4

2.8 12.9 0.063 7.4

The total weight of the sample was 147.2g.

1. Plot the particle size distribution curve and describe the soil.

2. Comment on the flat part of the curve

3. State the effective grain size

4. Find Allen Hazen’s uniformity coefficient

5. Design a filter suitable for protecting this soil

Sieve Weight Weight Percentage
size(mm) Retained (g) Passing % Passing
20 0 147.2 100.0
12.5 1.7 145.5 98.8
10 2.3 143.2 97.3
6.3 8.4 134.8 91.6
5.6 5.7 129.1 87.7
2.8 12.9 116.2 78.9
2 3.5 112.7 76.6
1.4 1.1 111.6 75.8
0.5 30.5 81.1 55.1
0.355 45.3 35.8 24.3
0.18 25.4 10.4 7.1
0.063 7.4 3 2.0
Total 144.2 147.2

Weight passing in the final sieve = 147.2  144.2  3.0 g

Weight passing in the second sieve = 147.2  1.7  145.5g
Wt Passing 147.2
% Passing =  100   100  100%
Total Sample 147.2
Sieve size(mm) 20 12.5 10.0 6.3 5.6 2.8 2 1.4 0.5 0.355 0.18 0.063
Percentage %
100 98.8 97.3
Passing 91.6 87.7 78.9 76.6 75.8 55.1 24.3 7.1 2

Percentage % Passing Vs Sieve Apertures

Percentage % Passing

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Sieve (mm)

Description – Poorly graded gravelly sand

The flat portion indicates absence of particles around 2.0mm diameter

1. Effective size D10 = 0.21mm , D 60  0.69mm , D30  0.58mm
D 60 0.69
2. Hazen’s Uniformity coefficient, Cu    3 .3
D 10 0.21

3. Curvature coefficient, CC 
D30 2 
0.582  16
D10D60 0.21  0.69

The effective size is important in regulating the flow of water through

soils and dictate the mechanical behaviour of soils since the coarser
fractions may not be in effective contact with each other i.e. they float
in a mix of finer particles. The higher the D10 value, the coarser the soil
and the better the drainage characteristics. The diameter of the finer
particle sizes in particular D15 (15% finer) has been used to develop
criteria for soil filters

Effective soil filter are;

Filter Design

This is done to prevent quick conditions of the soil to occur and therefore
be in position to select a granular filter material as a backfill around
and above drains or embankment slopes.

Quick condition is condition when the soil is unstable and is under

critical hydraulic gradient i.e. the inter granular pressure (effective
 '  sat   w Gs  1
stress is zero) ic   
w w 1 e

If upward flow of water is taking place, to help prevent quick conditions

occurring, a load should be placed on the surface of the soil thus
increasing the effective pressure. This load should consist of coarser
material (filter) than the soil it is stabilising.

Filter conditions or limitations

1. It must be sufficiently coarse to be become readily saturated (or

permeable to allow quick drainage) thus avoiding seepage forces being
setup. i.e. D15 for the filter material is greater than 4 to 5 times
D15 for the soil being protected.

D15( Filter )
 4 or 5 (To ensure a high rate of water flow)
D15( protectedsoil )

2. It must be fine enough to prevent passage through the pores of the

soil being protected (or loss of fines through the soil being
protected). i.e. D15 for the filter material is less than 4 to 5 times
D85 for the soil it’s protecting.
 D15( Filter )
 4 or 5 (To prevent the filter soil from being washed out)
D85( Basesoil)

From the graph,

D15  0.22mm,  D15( Filter )  0.22  4  0.88mm Or D15( Filter )  0.22  5  1.1mm

D85  4.3mm,  D15( Filter )  4.3  4  17.2mm Or D15( Filter )  4.3  5  21.5mm

Therefore the filter material D15 should lie between the limits of 1.1mm and
17.5mm

The average diameter of the soil is given as D50.

Particle size analyses are used to select;

o aggregates for concrete

o soils for construction of dams and highways
o soils as filters and materials for grouting and chemical injection

The essential points are:

1. A sieve analysis is used to determine the grain size distribution of
coarse-grained soils.
2. For fine-grained soils, a hydrometer analysis is used to find the
particle size distribution.
3. The effective size, D10, is the diameter of the particle$ of which 10%
of the soil is finer. D10 is an important value in regulating flow
through soils and can significantly influence the mechanical behavior
of soils.
4. D50 is the average grain size diameter pi the soil.
5. Two coefficients-the uniformity coefficient and the coefficient of
curvature- are used to characterize the particle size distribution.
i.e.
o Uniform soils have uniformity coefficients <4 and steep gradation
curves.
o Well-graded soils have uniformity coefficients >4, coefficients of
curvature between 1 and 3, and flat gradation curves.
o Gap-graded soils have coefficients of curvature <l or >3, and one or
more humps on the gradation curves.
Exercise

A sample of a dry coarse-grained material of mass 500 grams was shaken

through a nest of sieves and the following results were obtained.
Sieve No. Opening (mm) Mass Retained
(g)
4 4.75 0
 10 200 14.8
20 0.85 98
40 0.425 90.1
100 0.15 181.9
200 0.075 108.8
Pan 6.1

(a) Plot the particle size distribution curve.

(b) Determine (1) the effective size, (2) the average particle size, (3)
the uniformity Coefficient, and (4) the coefficient of curvature.
(c) Determine the textural composition of the soil (i.e., the amount of
gravel, sand, etc.).
(d) Describe the gradation curve.

Solution

Weight Weight Percentage

Sieve No. Passing % Passing
Retained (g)
4 0 499.7 100.0
10 14.8 484.9 97.0
20 98 386.9 77.4
40 90.1 296.8 59.4
100 181.9 114.9 23.0
200 108.8 6.1 1.2
Pan 6.1 -
Total 499.7

Total mass of dry sample used is 500 grams but on summing the masses of the
retained soil in column 2 we obtain 499.7 grams. The reduction in mass is
due to losses mainly from a small quantity of soil that gets stuck in the
meshes of the sieves. Use the ‘after sieving” total mass of 499.7 grams
in the calculations.

Calculations

Weight passing in the final sieve = 6.1g

Weight passing in the second sieve = 499.7  14.8  484.9 g
Wt Passing 499.7
% Passing =  100   100  100%
Total Sample 499.7
Sieve size(mm) 4 10 20.0 40 100 200
Percentage % Passing 100 97 77.4 59.4 23 1.2

Percentage % Passing Vs Sieve Apertures

Percentage % Passing

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Sieve (mm)

From the graph the effective size = D = 0.1 mm, D30 = 0.18, D60 = 0.45 and
10

Gravel = 3% , Sand = 95.8% , Silt and clay = 1.2%

D 60 0.45
Hazen’s Uniformity coefficient, UC    4.5
D 10 0.1
D 30 2 0.182
Curvature coefficient, CC    0.72
D10 D 60 0.1  0.45

Consistency of Soils

The consistency of a fine-grained soil refers to its firmness, and it

varies with the water content of the soil.
A gradual increase in water content causes the soil to change from solid to
semi-solid to plastic to liquid states.

The water contents at which the consistency changes from one state to the
other are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).

The three limits are known as the shrinkage limit (WS), plastic limit (WP),
and liquid limit (WL) as shown. The values of these limits can be obtained
from laboratory tests.

Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:

Plastic limit (WP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic
state

This is the minimum moisture content at which the soil can be rolled into a
3mm diameter thread without breaking. It is the moisture content of the
soil at a point when it passes from the plastic state to a semi-solid
state.

Liquid limit (WL or L.L) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid

state

This is the maximum moisture content at which the soil will flow under its
own weight. It is the moisture content of the soil at a point when it
passes from Plastic state to a Liquid state.

Plasticity index (IP)

This the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit. It is
the range of water content that the soil has a plastic consistency. The
consistency of most soils in the field will be plastic or semi-solid.
I p  LL  PL

Low plasticity (L) – L.L < 35%

Intermediate plasticity I – L.L 35% - 50%
High plasticity H – LL > 50%
Plasticity describes the ability of a soil to undergo unrecoverable
deformation without cracking or crumbling plasticity.

Liquidity Index (LI)

This is a term used to denote the ratio of excess of natural moisture
Wn  PL
content above the plastic limit to the plastic limit index.. I L 
Ip
It’s the measure of the soil strength using atterberg limits as it enables
one to compare soil plasticity with its natural moisture content (Mn)

The activity ratio

This is the measure of the degree of plasticity of the clay-size fraction
of a soil, expressed by the ratio of the plasticity index to the percentage
of clay-size particles in the soil.
PI
A
% Clay Fraction Weight 

Shrinkage limit
Max. M.C at which further loss of moisture doesn’t cause a decrease in the
volume of the soil. The shrinkage limit is useful for the determination of
the swelling and shrinkage capacity of soils.
ALine  0.73l.l  20

Determination of Liquid Limit

Two methods are known, namely
1. Cone penetration test

In this method a cone penetrometer is used.

A sample of 200g of soil is mixed with water on a glass sheet to make a
uniform paste. The paste is placed in a metal cup and the surface leveled.
The cone is then clamped with its tip just touching and allowed to
penetrate the surface of the soil for 5s and the dial gauge read and
recorded. This is repeated until two consecutive tests give the same
penetration and the reading recorded. At this stage the moisture content of
the soil in the cup is determined.
The whole procedure is repeated with the same soil at increasing water
contents.
The results are plotted as the penetration against the water content and
the LL is taken as that moisture content which corresponds to the cone
penetration of 20mm.

Example

A cone penetrometer test was carried out on a sample of clay with the
following results

Cone pen. (mm) 16.1 17.6 19.3 21.3 22.6

M.c % 50 52.1 54.1 57 58.2

If a plastic limit test gave a value of 33%.

Determine the liquid limit and plasticity index of this soil and give its
classification

Solution

M.c % 50 52.1 54.1 57 58.2

Cone pen. (mm) 16.1 17.6 19.3 21.3 22.6

Cone pen. (mm) Vs MC %

25 22.6
21.3
19.3
20 17.6
Cone pen. (mm)

16.1
15

10

0
49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
MC %
The liquid limit is the moisture content corresponding to 20mm penetration
i.e. LL  55%

Plasticity Index I p  LL  PL  55  33  22%

ALine  0.73l.l  20   0.7355  20   25.55

2. Cassagrande method of determining Liquid Limit

Wet soil is placed in the cup and divided into two halves by using a
standard grooving tool.
The cup is tapped twice a second until the two halves are brought together.
The number of taps required to bring the two halves together and the
moisture content of the soil are recorded.
The procedure is repeated for the same water content and again for
different water contents such that a semi logarithmic graph of water
content against the logarithm of the number of blows/taps is plotted.

The water content corresponding to 25 taps on the graph is taken to be the

liquid limit of the soil.

The magnitude of the slope is referred to as the flow Index (FI).

Example
A liquid limit test conducted on a soil sample in the cup device gave the
following results.
Nunber of blows 10 19 23 27 40
Water content 60 45.2 39.8 36.5 25.2
 (%)
Two determinations for plastic limit gave water contents of 20.3% and
20.8%. determine;
(i) The liquid limit and the plastic limit
(ii) The plasticity index
(iii) The liquidity index if the natural water content is 27.4% and
(iv) The void ration at the liquid limit if Gs = 2.7.
(v) If the soil were to be loaded to failure, would you expect a
brittle failure
Solution
From the graph, Water content Corresponding to 25blows is the Liquid limit
WL.L = 38%

20.3  20.8
Plastic limit WP.L =  20.6%
2

Plastic index PI or I P = WLL  WPL  38  20.6  17.4%

Nunber of blows 10 19 23 27 40
Water content (%) 60 45.2 39.8 36.5 25.2

Water content (%) Vs No. of Blows

70

60
Water content (%)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Number of Blows

Wn  WPL 27.4  20.6

Liquidity index I L =   0.39
Ip 17.4

Void ratio, for saturated soil, Sr = 1, then

38
eSr  wGs; e  2.7  1.03
100

Determination of Plastic Limit

About 20g of well dried soil passing through 425mm Sieve is mixed with
distilled water in an evaporating dish and moulded into a ball.
The ball of the soil paste is then rolled between the hand palm and glass
plate with sufficient pressure into 3mm diameter thread.
If the dia. of the threads can be reduced to less than 3mm, without any
cracks appearing, it means that the water content is more than its plastic
limit.
Knead the soil to reduce the water content and roll it again into a thread
continuously until it crumbles when 3mm diameter.
Collect and keep the pieces of crumbled soil thread into a container and
determine the moisture content.
Repeat the process at least twice more with fresh samples of plastic soil
each time.
The average value of the moisture content is taken as the plastic limit of
the soil.
Example

The results from the plastic limit test were

No. of tests 1 2

Mass of tin (g) 8.1 8.4

Mass of wet soil + Tin 20.7 18.7

(g)

Mass of dry soil + Tin 19.6 17.8

(g)

Determine the plastic limit of the soil

Solution

Considering Test No. 1

Mass of water 20.7 - 19.6

Moisture Content  
Mass of dry soil 19.6 - 8.1
M 1.1
MC  w  100   100  9.56%
Ms 11.5

Considering Test No. 2

Mass of water 18.7 - 17.8

Moisture Content  
Mass of dry soil 17.8 - 8.4
M 0.9
MC  w  100   100  9.57%
Ms 9.4

9.56  9.57 19.13

Plastic Limit PL =   9.565  9.57%
2 2

Example
 A liquid and plastic limit test gave the following results

Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 PL PL

Wet Mass (g) 32.1 30.2 25.5 27.8 35.0 11.83 15.04

Dry Mass (g) 28.2 26.5 22.4 23.9 28.6 11.25 14.07

Tin (g) 14.1 14.8 13.9 14.2 13.8 7.04 7.25

Penetration (mm) 14.5 17 20.9 23.5 23.5 - -

Determine the plasticity index and classify the soil – Ans. 24 CL

Liquid limit calculation

Mass of water M 32.1  28.2

Moisture Content   w  100   27.66%
Mass of dry soil M s 28.2  14.1

Mass of water M 30.2  26.5

Moisture Content   w  100   31.62%
Mass of dry soil M s 26.5  14.8

Mass of water M 25.5  22.4

Moisture Content   w  100   36.47%
Mass of dry soil M s 22.4  13.9

Mass of water M 27.8  23.9

Moisture Content   w  100   40.21%
Mass of dry soil M s 23.9  14.2

Mass of water M 35  28.6

Moisture Content   w  100   43.24%
Mass of dry soil M s 28.6  13.8

Test No. 1 2 3 4 5

MC (%) 27.66 31.62 36.47 40.21 43.24

Penetration 14.5 17 20.9 23.5 23.5

(mm)
Test No. 1 2 3 4 5
MC (%) 27.66 31.62 36.47 40.21 43.24
Penetration (mm) 14.5 17 20.9 23.5 23.5

Penetration (mm) Vs MC (%)

25

20
Penetration (mm)

15

10

0
wLL=36.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
MC (%)

Plasticity calculations, Considering Test No. 1

Moisture Content 
Mass of water

11.83  7.04   11.2  7.04 
Mass of dry soil 11.2  7.04
M 0.63
MC  w  100   100  15.14%
Ms 4.16

Considering Test No. 2

Mass of water 15.04  14.07

Moisture Content  
Mass of dry soil 14.07  7.25
M 0.97
MC  w  100   100  14.22%
Ms 6.82

15.14  14.22 29.36

Plastic Limit PL =   14.68  14.68%
2 2

Plasticity Index I p  LL  PL  36  14.68  21.32%

Since L.L =21.32% < 35% the soil has Low plasticity i.e. CL
If the natural moisture content was 28%, determine the liquidity index in
the field – Ans. 0.58

Wn  WPL 28  14.86
Liquidity index I L =   0.62
Ip 21.32

Engineering Considerations of plasticity index

PI  6 Choose mechanical compaction

PI  6  10 Cement stabilization
PI  10  20 Lime stabilization

The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil particles into
boulder, cobble, gravel, sand, silt or clay.

Very coarse Boulder size > 300 mm

soils
Cobble size 80 - 300 mm

Coarse Gravel size Coarse 20 - 80 mm

soils (G)
Fine 4.75 - 20 mm

Sand size (S) Coarse 2 - 4.75 mm

Medium 0.425 - 2 mm

Fine 0.075 - 0.425

mm

Fine soils Silt size (M) 0.002 - 0.075

mm

Clay size (C) < 0.002 mm

Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are represented by group symbols G, S, M, and
C respectively.

Physical weathering produces very coarse and coarse soils. Chemical

weathering produce generally fine soils.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
This is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behaviour.

For engineering purposes, soil classification is based mainly on mechanical

properties: permeability, stiffness, strength.

The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.

Description of soil is a statement that describes the physical nature and
state of the soil arrived at by using visual examination, simple tests,
observation of site conditions, geological history, etc.

The aim of a classification system is to

1. Obtain consistent, internationally recognised description of the soil

sample.

2. Establish a set of conditions which will allow useful comparisons to

be made between different soils.

NB: The system must be simple and concise.

The relevant criteria for classifying soils are the particle size
distribution and the plasticity of the soil.

Methods or classification systems

Two systems of classification namely;

1. USCS – Unified Soil classification system developed originally for

use in airfield construction. It’s a British system which is based
on plasticity and gradation. It’s also called the casagrande

2. AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials developed for classifying soils for roads and highways
according to their usefulness.
Each a symbol consisting of a primary and secondary discrete letters.
For both system, Primary letters relate particle size groups which are
allocated as follows;
(a) Coarse grained soils (more than half retained in a 200mm sieve)
Gravels: Symbol G
Sands: Symbol S
(b) Fine grained Soils (less than half retained in a 200mm sieve)
C: Inorganic Clays – C
M: Silts
Organic Clays – O
Peat - Pt
Secondary symbols relate to gradation characteristics
W: For well graded and
P: For poorly graded- both Gap & Uniformly graded
Plasticity characteristics
H': or high and
L for low plasticity,
V – Very Plastic
For Example
CL means a clay soil with low plasticity) while
S.P means a poorly graded sand.
GMP poorly graded silty gravel
SML – Low plasticity silty sand

Example 1

The following test results

were obtained for a fine-grained soil:
WL= 48%; WP = 26%
Clay content = 55%
Silt content = 35%
Sand content = 10%
In situ moisture content = 39% = w

Classify the soil, and determine its activity and liquidity index

Solution:

Plasticity index, IP = WL– WP = 48 – 26 = 22%

Liquid limit lies between 35% and 50%.

According to the Plasticity Chart, the soil is classified as CI, i.e. clay
of intermediate plasticity.

Liquidity index, = = 0.59

Example 2
The results of particle size analyses of four soils A, B, C and D are shown
in Table 1.4.
The results of limit tests on soil D are:
Liquid limit:
Cone penetration (mm) 15.5 18.0 19.4 22.2 24.9
Water content (%) 39.3 40.8 42.1 44.6 45.6
Plastic limit:
Water content (%) 23.9 24.3
The fine fraction of soil C has a liquid limit of 26 and a plasticity index
of 9.
(a) Determine the coefficients of uniformity and curvature for soils A, B
and C. (b) Allot group symbols, with main and qualifying terms to each
soil.

Solution

The particle size distribution curves are plotted in Figure 1.8.

For soils A, B and C the sizes D10, D30 and D60 are read from the curves
and the values of CU and CZ are calculated as
For soil D the liquid limit is obtained from Figure 1.9, in which cone
penetration is plotted against water content. The percentage water content,
to the nearest integer, corresponding to a penetration of 20mm is the
liquid limit and is 42. The plastic limit is the average of the two
percentage water contents, again to the nearest integer, i.e. 24.
The plasticity index is the difference between the liquid and plastic
limits, i.e. 18.
Soil A consists of 100% coarse material (76% gravel size; 24% sand size)
and is classified as GW: well-graded, very sandy GRAVEL.
Soil B consists of 97% coarse material (95% sand size; 2% gravel size) and
3% fines.
It is classified as SPU: uniform, slightly silty, medium SAND.
Soil C comprises 66% coarse material (41% gravel size; 25% sand size) and
34% fines (WL ¼ 26, IP ¼ 9, plotting in the CL zone on the plasticity
chart). The classification is GCL: very clayey GRAVEL (clay of low
plasticity). This is a till, a glacial deposit having a large range of
particle sizes.
Soil D contains 95% fine material: the liquid limit is 42 and the
plasticity index is 18, plotting just above the A-line in the CI zone on
the plasticity chart. The classification is thus CI: CLAY of intermediate
plasticity.
SUB MODULE 2: IMPROVEMENT OF SOIL PROPERTIES
Soils stabilization and compaction, Theory of compaction, Standard soil
tests, Field control of compaction, Use of synthetic materials to improve
soil properties
2.0 SOIL STABILISATION
Definition
This is any treatment applied to a soil to improve its strength, reduce its
vulnerability to water and to withstand stresses imposed by traffic under
any weather conditions without deformation.
Or
It is the process of treating a soil in such a manner as to maintain, alter
or improve the performance of the soil as a construction material.
The change in the soil properties is brought about by either the
incorporation of additives or by mechanical blending of soil types.
The stabilising process involves the addition of a stabilising agent to the
soil, intimate mixing with sufficient water to achieve the optimum moisture
content, compaction of the mixture and final curing to ensure that the
strength potential is realized.

Purpose of soil stabilization

This is practiced in road construction with one or more of the following
objectives:
o To improve the strength or the stability of the soil.
o To control dust, erosion or stabilize moisture in the soil, so as to
facilitate compaction and increase load bearing capacity /property.
o To improve the shear resistance of soil
o To bring about cost economy in building and road construction
o To improve porosity susceptibility or alter permeability
characteristics of the soil

o To reduce compressibility and thereby settlements

o To eliminate or improve certain undesirable properties of soils, such
as excessive swelling or shrinkage, high plasticity, difficulty in
compacting etc.
o To make use of locally available soils and other materials which are
otherwise inferior;
o To reduce frost susceptibility

Problems associated with Stabilization;

 Traffic, thermal and shrinkage stresses can cause stabilized layers
to crack.
  Cracks can reflect through the surfacing and allow water to entre the
pavement structure
 If carbondioxide has access to the material, the stabilization
reactions are reversible and the strength of the layers can decrease.
 The construction operations require more skill and control than for
the equivalent unstabilised material.

Methods or forms of stabilization

1. Mechanical or granular stabilization e.g. Compaction, consolidation,
and blending
2. Chemical stabilization e.g. Cement, lime, soda ash, admixture,
bitumen

Selection of type of treatment

The selection of the stabilizer is based on

o Type of soil to be stabilized;- The plasticity and Gradation or

particle size distribution of materials to be treated
Basing on particle sizes, coefficient of uniformity, should be greater than
5 or else stabilization will be very expensive
- For low plasticity soils, cement would be very good,
- For high plasticity soils, lime is appreciable
o Quality of the material to be used;- - free from organic
compounds,

- Detect whether additives can be added or not

- Strength and durability required

o Construction aspects/situation;- - divert traffic in lime and no
traffic diversion for cement Stabilization as it cures fast
o The purpose for which the stabilized layer will be used
o Environmental conditions
o The cost

Mechanical stabilization
This is where mechanical energy or physical effort is used in improving the
quality of a soil mass.
It is accomplished by mixing or blending the available soil with imported
soil or aggregates of different gradation so as to obtain a desired
particle size distribution, and by compacting the mixture to a desired
density.
Mechanical stabilization is the most commonly applied method because it
enhances maximum usage of locally available materials.
Mechanical stability is brought about by the resistance property of the
granular structure to lateral or vertical displacement. i.e. inherent
cohesive (in clays) and internal friction properties(gravels & sand) of
proportions of raw materials that are admixed.

Methods of mechanical stabilization

(a) Compaction
(b) Consolidation
(c) Blending

Blending
Stability is attained by mixing or blending the soil with imported material
or aggregates as to attain the desired particle size distribution.
Mechanical stabilization is evident in; soil – aggregate mixtures, sand-
gravel mixtures, sand-clay roads, stabilization of soil with soft
aggregates.
Soil – aggregate mixtures
This is a material in which soil and aggregate particles are mixed in
suitable proportions such that the resulting mixture conforms to a dense
and stable mix. The particle-size distribution is a major factor
determining the stability. The aggregates should be so graded that a grain
to grain contact exists, producing internal friction. The technique is used
for low traffic roads for the surface course as well.

Consolidation
This is associated with increase in density of the soil due to gradual
expulsion of water from the soil pores by pre - loading it. The purpose of
consolidation is to sufficiently reduce soil settlement by improving its
bearing capacity.
Consolidation methods include;
o Surcharge method – consolidation is accelerated by adding a
sufficient quantity of an extra load/fill over the soil to attain the
ultimate settlement predicated for the height of the embankment or
land during construction. The surcharge material is removed after a
desired settlement has been achieved.

o Dewatering – lowering of the underground water table. This can be

done by use of cofferdams, sheet pilling, sub - surface drainage
methods – i.e. drains

o Dynamic method – use of heavy load vibrators, rollers, and rammers;

Compaction
Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by packing
the particles closer together with a reduction in the volume of air by
means of mechanical energy (rollers, rammers or vibrators).
NB In geotechnical engineering, soil compaction is the process in which
stress is applied to a soil causing densification as air is displaced from
the pores between the soil grains.

The Goal/Aim of Compaction

o Reduce air-void volume Va in soils as much as is possible so as to
increase soil density.
o For a given water content w, the maximum degree of compaction that
can be achieved is when all of the air voids have been removed, that
is Sr = 1 .
ωGs
Since S = , the corresponding void ratio (for S=1) will be: e = ωGs
e
Principles of Compaction
1. The degree of compaction of a soil is measured by the dry unit weight
of the skeleton i.e. the mass of solids only per unit volume of soil
2. The dry unit weight correlates with the degree of packing of the soil
Gs w
grains.  d =
1 e
3. The more compacted a soil is:
o The smaller its void ratio (e) will be.
o The higher its dry unit weight  d  will be
4. There is no significant change in the volume of water in the soil.
5. Normally, compaction is the result of heavy machinery compressing the
soil, but it can also occur due to the passage of, for example,
animal feet.

The Theory of Compaction

The energy exerted by compaction, forces the soil to fill available voids,
and the additional frictional forces between the soil particles improves
the mechanical properties of the soil.
When water is added to the soil, it functions as a softening agent on the
soil particles, causing them to slide between one another more easily. At
first, the dry unit weight after compaction increases as the moisture
content ω  increases, but after the optimum moisture content ωopt  is
exceeded, any added water will result in a reduction in dry unit weight
because the pore water pressure (pressure of water in-between each soil
particle) will be pushing the soil particles apart, decreasing the friction
between them.
Variables of Compaction
Proctor established that compaction is a function of four variables:
 Gs w
o Dry density  d  or dry unit weight  d   d = b  .
1 w 1 e
eS M
o Water content w   r  w
Gs M s
o Compactive effort (energy E)
No.of blows/layer  No. of layers  hammer wei ght of  height of dropping
E
volume of mould
o Soil type (gradation, presence of clay minerals, etc.)

Dry Density – Moisture Content Relationship (Compaction Curve)

Below ωopt  , i.e. for low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more
resistance to compaction. As water content increases, the soil particles
get lubricated and the soil mass become more workable hence the soil
particles attain closure parking thus the density increases.
The dry density of the soil continues to increase steadily with subsequent
increase in water content till the optimum water content is reached and it
doesn’t increase any further.
At certain point however, the adsorbed film begins to push the particles
apart and so with further increase in moisture content, water replaces soil
particles hence reduction in the dry density.
I.e. the air voids attain approximately a constant volume such that;
further increase in water content, the air voids don’t decrease but the
total voids increase and dry density decreases.
Thus a higher dry density is achieved up to optimum water content due to
forcing out air from soil voids.
Terms
Maximum dry density  d (max) : is the maximum unit weight at a given moisture
content that a soil can attain using a specified means of compaction. It is
also called the saturation dry density in which the soil will have zero air
Gs w Gs w
voids i.e. rom  d  1  Av , For Av  0, then d  .
1  mGs 1  mGs
Optimum water content (Wopt): is the water content required to allow a soil
to attain its maximum dry unit weight following a specified means of
compaction.
Zero Air Voids (ZAV): The curve represents the fully saturated condition
(S=100%). ZAV cannot be reached by compaction.
Gs w
Generally  d  1  Va  is obtained from;
1  mGs
Total volume V  Va  Vw  Vs and assuming a unit volume of soil V  1
Ms M Ms M
Va  V  Vw  Vs ; Va  1   w;  w  1  Va ;
Gs w  w Gs w  w
M s  M wGs  1  Va Gs w ; M s  M sGs  1  Va Gs w ; M s 1  Gs   1  Va Gs w

Ms 
1  Va Gs w ; But d 
Ms Ms
  Ms
1  Gs V 1
Gs w 1  Va 
 d 
1  Gs
Gs w
For saturated soil, Va  0 then  d 
1  Gs
Line of Optimum: A line drawn through the peak points of several compaction
curves at different compactive efforts for the same soil parallel to a 100
% S curve.
Entrapped Air: is the distance between the wet side of the compaction curve
and the line of 100% saturation.
Relative compaction is the ratio of the achieved field density to the
arbitrary laboratory obtained maximum value. This is used for checking the
effectiveness, potential or represent the end results of a compaction
Achieved  d
Dr   100
Max lab  d
Relative dry density – may also be calculated from either saturated
densities or dry densities. For representing the end results of a field
test.
 
Dd  d max d in  situ
  d min 
 100
 din situ  d max   d min 
A relative compaction of 90 – 95% is required but may vary depending on the
contract and plant used
Relative compaction states
Density index % 0 – 15 15 – 35 35 – 65 65 – 85 85 – 100
State of Very Loose Medium Dense Very
compaction loose dense
Factors affecting/or Variables of compaction quality Control
1. Water content/moisture content
2. The energy supplied by the compaction equipment (referred to as the
compactive effort).
3. Nature of the soil
4. Method of compaction
5. Admixtures
1. Moisture content
Water lubricates the soil grains so that they slide more easily over each
other and can thus achieve a more densely packed arrangement.
I.e. A little bit of water facilitates compaction while too much water
inhibits compaction.
(ii) Increasing the water content at which soil is compacted:
o Increases the likelihood of obtaining dispersed soil structure
with reduced shear strengths.
o Increases the pore pressure in the soil, decreasing the short
term shear strength.
2. Nature/type of the soil
In general, the coarse grained soil can be compacted with a higher dry
density than fine grained soils
With addition of small quantity of fine to the coarse grained soils, the
soil attains much higher dry density for the same compactive effort.
However, if the quantity of fine is increased to a value more than that
required to fill the voids of coarse grain soil, the maximum dry density
reduces.
A well graded soil attains much higher dry density than a poorly graded
soil.
3. Compactive effort
The effect of increasing the amount of compaction effort is to increase the
maximum dry density and to decrease the optimum water content
At the water content less than optimum, the effects of increase compaction
is more predominant.
At water content greater than optimum, the air voids volume become almost
constant and the effect of compaction is not significant.
4. Method of compaction
E.g. Vibration, Rolling and ramming
For the same amount of compactive effort; the dry density will depend on
whether the method of compaction neutralizes kneading action, dynamic
action, or static. E.g. in a compaction test, the soil compacted by
kneading action, the compaction curve obtained is different from that
obtained from compaction test with equal compactive efforts.
Different methods of compaction give different curves consequently line of
optimum value is also different.

Importance Proper compaction

This improves the field mass of the soil in the following ways;
 Higher shear strength and bearing capacity
This means that larger loads can be applied to compacted soils since they
are typically stronger.
 Reduced or Low compressibility
This also means that larger loads can be applied to compacted soils since
they will produce smaller settlements.
Compressibility of compacted clays is function of stress level.
Low stress level: Clay compacted wet of optimum are more compressible.
High stress level: The opposite is true
 Higher CBR valve
The CBR (California bearing ratio) CBR= resistance required to penetrate a
3-in2 piston into the compacted specimen/ resistance required to penetrate
the same depth into a standard sample of crushed stone.
A greater compactive effort produces a greater CBR for the dry of optimum.
However, the CBR is actually less for the wet of optimum for the higher
compaction energies (over compaction).
 Lower permeability
This inhibits soils’ ability to absorb water, and therefore reduces the
tendency to expand/shrink and potentially liquefy.
Permeability at constant compactive effort decreases with increasing water
content and reaches a minimum at about the optimum.
If compactive effort is increased, the permeability decreases because the
void ratio decreases.
 Controls Swelling & Shrinking
Swelling of compacted clays is greater for those compacted dry of optimum.
They have a relatively greater deficiency of water and therefore have a
greater tendency to adsorb water and thus swell more.
 Reduce Liquefaction Potential

Compaction Tests

(a) Laboratory tests this include the;

1. Standard proctor test
The Proctor compaction test is a laboratory method of experimentally
determining the optimal moisture content at which a given soil type will
become most dense and achieve its maximum dry density.
This test applies to the standard compaction effort of 2.5kg to a soil
sample in order to determine the maximum Dry Density & Optimum Moisture
Content.
Procedures
o The cylindrical mould 1000 cc 0r 0.001m3 in volume is filled with
soil sample in 3 layers each being compacted by 27 blows of a
standard hammer weight 2.5kg through a height of 300mm drop for each
blow.
o The mould is them trimmed & weighed
o The dry density is determined & the test is repeated for other values
of Moisture Content (MC).
o A plot of dry density against mc values is made from which maximum
Dry Density & Optimum Moisture Content can be obtained.

2. Heavy or modified compaction test

This test was introduced because more powerful compactions plants have
become available. It tends to accurately reflect the heavier compaction
effort available on site.
The test is basically same as the standard except that it uses a 4.5kg
weight falling a 450mm height instead of 300mm for 2.5kg weight & the soil
is compacted in five layers.
Energy comparison
Protector test
27/layer  3 layers  2.5  300 60750
EP    60.75kJ/m 3
1000 1000
Modified compaction test
27/layer  5 layers  4.5  450 273375
E MP    273.375kJ/ m 3
1000 1000
E MP 273 .375
  4.5;  Modified protor test  4.5 times Proctor test
EP 60.750

Comparison of different compaction tests as described in BS 1377

Popular/ Common Name of test
Proctor Test Modified AASHTO Vibrating
Test hammer Test
BS Designation 2.5kg Method 4.5kg Method Vibrating
hammer method
Soil: Quantity 5kg 5kg 25kg
Size 20mm 20mm 37.5mm
Mould: Volume 1000cm3. 1000cm3. 2305cm3.
Internal Diam 105mm 105mm 152mm
Height 115.5mm 115.5mm 127mm
Rammer: Mass 2.5kg 4.5kg Vibrating
Face Diam 50mm 50mm hammer
Drop 300mm 450mm 145mm diam.
No. of layers 3 5 3
No. of blows per 27 or 25 27 or 25 Vibrated for
layer 60s

Example
Standard proctor compact test carried out on sample of sandy – clay yielded
the following results
Bulk density 2058 2125 2152 2159 2140
kg/m3
Moisture content 12.9 14.3 15.7 16.9 17.9
%

(i) Plot the curve of dry density against the moisture content and
hence find the max. Dry density & the optimum moisture content.
(ii) Calculate moisture content necessary for complete saturation at
this maximum dry density if the specific gravity of the solids is
2.73.
(iii) Plot the zero air void line & 5% air void line.

Solution
Bulk Density
Using the relationship Dry Density 
1  Moisture content
ρb Gs w 1  Va 
 ρd  and d  for air voids
1 ω 1  Gs
And the graph of Dry density against Moisture Content is plotted as below

From the graph Maximum Dry Density, ρ d  1865kg/m 3 and Optimum MC  14.9%

Gs w 1  Va 
(ii) From  d  for Air voids
1  Gs
Gs w
For saturated soil, Va  0 then  d 
1  Gs
2.73  1000
 1865  ;
1  2.73 
  2.73  1000  
 1865   1
  
ω   0.169
2.73

Moisture Content ω  17%

Bulk density kg/m3 2058 2125 2152 2159 2140

Moisture content % 12.9 14.3 15.7 16.9 17.9
M.C 0.129 0.143 0.157 0.169 0.179
1+ω 1.129 1.143 1.157 1.169 1.179
Dry Density 1,823 1,859 1,860 1,847 1,815
GsƳw 2730 2730 2730 2730 2730
1 +wGs 1.352 1.390 1.429 1.461 1.489
Zero Air Void 2019 1963 1911 1868 1834
GsƳw(1-Va) 2594 2594 2594 2594 2594
5% Air Voids 1918 1865 1815 1775 1742

Compaction Curve & Air void lines

2,050
2,000
Dry Density kg/m3

1,950
1,900
1,850
1,800
1,750
1,700
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Moisture Content %

Dry Density Zero Air Void 5% Air Voids

(b) Field density measurements

1. Sand replacement method of determining in situ density of soil
Suitable for granular soils and involves the use of sand pouring cylinder.
The in situ density of the soil is its bulk density in its natural
undisturbed state in the ground. It’s sometimes called the wet density.
Procedures

o A hole is excavated in the soil and all the soil removed is collected
and its mass & moisture content determined
o The volume of the hole excavated is measured by means of sand pouring
cylinder.
o The mass of the cylinder filled with sand of unknown density is
measured
o The cylinder is placed over the hole, valve opened and the sand falls
from the container into hole until the hole & the cone are full.
o The mass of partially empty container is found using a balance so
that the amount pouring out is known.
o The container is calibrated to find how much sand is required to fill
the conical section.
o Hence the mass of the sand to fill the hole is found.
o The density of the soil is then found by calculation
Example 1
In the field determination of the in situ density of a compacted soil
layer, the following results were obtained

- Weight of pouring cylinder and sand before the test is 12,021gm

- Weight of pouring cylinder & sand after filling the hole is 9816gm
- The bulk density of the sand was determined by filling it in a cylinder
of 1000cc capacity. The weight of the soil extracted from the hole was
1705gm and empty cylinder was 932gm and the weight of the cylinder
filled with sand was 2534gm.
(i) Determine the bulk density of the soil
(ii) If the moisture content is 10.5%, what is the dry density of the
compacted layer

Solution

Weight of soil extracted

Bulk of Density of the soil ρ soil 
Volume of the hole
But weight of soil extracted M  1705gm
Mass of sand Ms 2534  932 1602
Density of sand ρ b      1.602 gm/cc
Volume of container Vcont 1000 1000

Weight of sand to fill the hole 12021  9816 gm 2205

Volume of the hole Vhole     1376 .4 cc
Density of sand 1.602gm/cc 1.602

Weight of soil extracted 1705

Bulk of Density of the soil ρ soil    1.2387 gm/cc
Volume of the hole 1376.4

ρd 1.2387
Dry density of the soil ρ d    1.121gm/cc
1 ω  10.5 
1  
 100 

2. Immersion in water method or water displacement method

The method is suitable for cohesive or stabilized soils where an irregular

shaped intact lump of soil has been obtained. The lump sample is weighed
(Ms) and after coating with paraffin wax is weighed again (Mw). The coated
sample is then suspended in water from a balance arm and the submerged mass
recorded (MG).

Mass of paraffin wax M p  M w  M s

If the density of the paraffin wax is  p and the density of water is  w

Mw  MG MP
Volume of specimen, VS  
w P
 MS
And Bulk Density  b 
VS

Example

An irregular sample of a firm clay was cut from a trial hole and sent to a
lab for testing. In order to determine its bulk density, the sample was
coated with paaffine wax and its volume found by displacement. The
following data were collected.

Mass of soil received = 924.2g

Mass of soil after coating with paraffin wax = 946.6g

Volume of water displaced = 513.1ml

Specific gravity of wax = 0.9

Determine the bulk density of the soil

Solution

Mass of paraffin wax used 946.6  924.2  22.4 g

22.4
Volume of paraffin wax used  24.9ml
0 .9

Volume of soil Ms  513.1  24.9  488.2ml

Ms 924 .2  10 6
Bulk density of soil     1.89 Mg / m 3
Vs 488 .2  10 6

General Applications

Example 1
In a BS compaction test, the following data was collected:
Moisture 5 8 10 13 16 19
content %
Bulk density 1.87 2.04 2.13 2.20 2.16 2.09
Mg/m3
Gs = 2.70
Draw the graph of dry density against moisture content and from it
determine the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.
On the same axes, draw the  d M curves for zero and 10% air voids and
hence determine the air void content at the maximum dry density.
Solution
Bulk Density
Using the relationship Dry Density 
1  Moisture content
 ρb Gs w 1  Va 
 ρd  and d  for air voids
1 ω 1  Gs
And the graph of Dry density against Moisture Content is plotted as below

From the graph Maximum Dry Density, ρ d  1.96Mg/m 3 and Optimum MC  11.9%

3
Bulk density Mg/m 1.87 2.04 2.13 2.2 2.16 2.09

Moisture content % 5 8 10 13 16 19
M.C 0.05 0.08 0.1 0.13 0.16 0.19
1+ω 1.05 1.08 1.1 1.13 1.16 1.19
Dry Density 1.78 1.89 1.94 1.95 1.86 1.76
GsƳw 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
1 +wGs 1.14 1.22 1.27 1.35 1.43 1.51
Zero Air Void 2.38 2.22 2.13 2.00 1.89 1.78
GsƳw(1-Va) 2.57 2.57 2.57 2.57 2.57 2.57
5% Air Voids 2.26 2.11 2.02 1.90 1.79 1.70
GsƳw(1-Va) 2.43 2.43 2.43 2.43 2.43 2.43
10% Air Voids 2.14 2.00 1.91 1.80 1.70 1.61

Compaction Curve & Air voids lines

2.50 0%
5%
Dry Density Mg/m3

2.00 10%

1.50

1.00

0.50

-
0 5 10 15 20
Moisture Content %

Dry Density Zero Air Void 5% Air Voids 10% Air Voids

Gs w 1  Va 
Form d  at maximum dry density
1  Gs

2.7  1.001  Va 
1.96  ; 1 - Va  0.96
1  0.119  2.7
Va  1 - 0.96  0.0408  4%
Optimum Air Content Va  4%

Example 2
A sand replacement test was carried out to determine the in-situ bulk
density of a soil. From the following recorded data, determine the value of
density required.
Mass of soil removed from hole = 2764g
Initial total mass of sand pouring cylinder = 5724g
Final total mass of sand pouring cylinder = 3172g
Volume of cone in sand pouring cylinder = 248cm3.
Density of pouring = 1560kg/m3.
Solution
Mass of sand run out of cylinder  5724  3172   2552 g  2.552 kg
Mass of sand in cone cylinder  248  10 6  1560  0.387 kg
Mass of sand required to fill the hole  2.552  0.387  2.165 kg
2.165
Volume of the hole   1.388  10 3 m 3
1560
2764  10 6
Bulk Density of insitu soil   1.99 Mg / m 3
1.388  10 3
Example 2
The following results were obtained from a test
Mass of the soil extracted from the hole = 4.0kg
Water content of the soil 18%
Mass of dry sand to fill the hole is 3.12kg
Mass of dry sand to fill the container of volume 4.2L is 5.8kg
(i) Calculate the weight & dry density of the soil if the specific
gravity of the particles is 2.68.
(ii) Find the degree of saturation of the soil
Solution
Mass of sand Ms
Density of sand ρ b  
Volume of container Vcont
Ms 5.8
ρb    1380.95kg/ m 3
Vcont 0.002259
Mass of sand to fill the hole
Volume of the hole Vhole 
Density of sand
3.12
Vhole   0.002259 m 3
1380.95
Mass of soil extracted
Bulk of Density of the soil ρ soil 
Volume of the hole
4.0
ρ soil   1770 .45kg/m 3
0.002259
 Mω
Moisture Content ω  100
Ms
18 Mω
 ; Mω  0.18Ms - - - - - (i)
100 Ms
But M  Mω  Ms  4 - - - - - -(ii)

4
Substituti ng eq(i); 0.18Ms  Ms  4; Ms   3.39kg
1  0.18
Using eq(i); Mω  0.18  3.39  0.610 kg

Mω 0.610
Volume of water Vω    0.00061m 3
ρω 1000
Ms 3.39
Dry Density ρ d    1500 .66kg/m 3
V 0.002259
Vω ωGs
Degree of saturation Sr  
Vv e
Ms Ms 3.39
From  Gsρ ω ; Vs    0.001265 m 3
Vs Gsρ ω 2.68  1
From Phase diagram, V  Vv  Vs; Vv  V  Vs  0.002259  0.001265  0.000994 m 3
Vω 0.00061
 Degree of saturation Sr    100  61.4%
Vv 0.000994

Example
The results of a standard compaction test is shown in the table below.
Moisture content % 6.2 8.1 9.8 11.5 12.3 13.2
Bulk density kg/m3 16.9 18.7 19.5 20.5 20.4 20.1

(i) Determine the maximum dry unit weight and optimum water content.
(ii) What is the dry unit weight and water content at 95% standard
compaction?
(iii) Determine the degree of saturation at the maximum dry density.
(iv) Plot the zero air voids line.

Examples

(a) An embankment for a highway is to be constructed from a soil

compacted to a dry unit density of 18kN/m3. The clay has to be trucked
to the site from a borrow pit. The bulk unit weight of the soil in the
borrow pit is 17kN/m3 and its natural water content is 5%. Calculate the
volume of clay from the borrow pit required for 1cubic meter of
embankment. Assume Gs =2.7.
(a) If the borrow soil in (a) above were to be compacted to attain a dry
unit weight of 18kN/m3 at a water content of 7%, determine the amount of
water required per cubic of embankment, assuming no loss of water
during transportation
Solution

Use the ratio of the dry unit weights of the compacted soil to the borrow
pit soil to determine the volume.

Find the dry unit weight of the borrow pit soil

γb 17
γd    16.2kN/m 3
1  ω 1  0.05

Find the volume of the borrow pit soil required

γ d compactedsoil 18
Volume of borrow pit soil required per m 3 V    1.11m 3
γ d Borrowpit soil 16.2

Alternatively we use the specific volume i.e. need for the void ratio for
the borrow pit clay and the desired void ratio for the embankment. We can
then relate the specific volumes of the embankment and the borrow pit clay.

Define parameters of the borrow pit and embankment. Let

V '1 , e1  Specific volume and void ratio respectively of borrow

V ' 2 , e 2  Specific volume and void ratio respectively of compacted clay
Determine e1 and e1
γb 17 Gsγ 
γd    16.2kN/m 3 but γ d 
1   1  0.05 1  e1

And
Gsγ   2.7  9.8 
Therefore e1  1     1  0.633
γd  16.2 
Gsγ   2.7  9.8 
e2  1     1  0.470
γd  18 

V'1 1  e1 1  0.633
V    1.11m 3
V' 2 1  e1 1  0.470

Solution (b)

Water content is related to the weight of solids and not the total weight,
so we need to use the data given to find the weight of the solids.

Determine the weight of solids per unit volum e of borrow pit soil

γb 17
Unit weigh t per unit volum e  γ d    16.2kN/m 3
1   1  0.05
Determine the amount of water required
Additional water  7 - 5  2%
Weight of water  w   ωWs  0.02 16.2  0.32kN
Wω 0.32
Vω    0.033m 3  33litres
γ ω1 9.8

Example

An embankment for a highway 30m wide and 1.5m in compacted thickness is to

be constructed from a sandy soil trucked from a borrow pit. The water
content of the sandy soil in the borrow pit is 15% and its void ratio is
0.69. The specification requires the embankment to be compacted to a dry
unit weight of 18kN/m3. Determine, for 1km length of embankment, the
following:

(a) The weight of sandy soil from the borrow pit required to
construct the embankment.
(b) The number of 10.0m3 truckloads of sandy soil required for the
construction
(c) The weight of water per truckload of sandy soil
(d) The degree of saturation of the sandy soil in situ

Solution

γ ω Gs 9.81  2.7
Calculate γ d for the borrow pit material γ d    15.7kN/m 3
1 e 1  0.69

Determine the volume of borrow pit soil required

Volume of finished embankment V  30  1.5  1  45  10 3 m 3

γ d required 18
Volume of borrow pit soil required V   45  10 3  51.6  10 3 m 3
γ d Borrow pit 15.7

Determining the number of trucks required

Volume of borrow pit soil required 51.6  10 3 m 3

Number of trucks    5160
capacity of the truck 10.0

Determine the weight of water required

Weight of dry soil in one truckload : Wd  10  15.7  157kN

Weight of water : Wd  0.15  157  23.6kN

Determine the degree of saturation

ωGs 0.15  2.7

Sr    0.59  59%
e 0.69

Example
The natural bulk density of soil from a borrow area is 1.92gm/cc and its
moisture content is 9.3%. It has been found that the MDD of the soil is
1.86gm/cc at an OPM of 13.5%. The specific gravity of the soil particles is
2.65. If the embankment layer is to be compacted to the MDD at OPM;

(a) What is the quantity of water to be added per m3 of borrow soil?

(b) If the embankment has a top width of 12m, side slopes of 2:1 and a
height of 2m, what is the quantity of the borrow area needed for 1km of
road if the depth of borrow pit is to be restricted to 0.6m

Solution
γb 1.92
Dry density γ d for the borrow pit material γ d    1.757kN/m 3
1  ω 1  0.093
Considerin g 1cc of soil
Ws
γd  ; Ws  1.757  1  1.757 gm
V
Ws 1.757
Volume of solids Vs    0.663cc
Gs 2.65
Ws 1.92  1.757
Volume of water Vω    0.163cc
γω 1

For the compacted soil

Ws
γd   1.86; Ws  1.86  1  1.86gm
V

Ws 1.86  1.702
Volume of water Vω    0.251cc
γω 1

Ws 1.86
Volume of solids Vs    0.702cc
Gs 2.65

Extra water needed per 1m 3  0.251 - 0.163  0.088cc  88ltrs

Volume of the earth in 1km of road

V
12  12  2  2  2  2  1000  32000m 3
2
0.702
Volume of the borrow area earth needed  32000   33882 m 3
0.663
33882
Area of borrow needed   56470 m 2
0. 6

Methods of compaction
The available techniques can be classified as:
1. Static - a large stress is slowly applied to the soil and then
released.
2. Impact - the stress is applied by dropping a large mass onto the
surface of the soil.
 3. Vibrating - a stress is applied repeatedly and rapidly via a
mechanically driven plate or hammer. Often combined with rolling
compaction (see below).
4. Gyrating - a static stress is applied and maintained in one direction
while the soil is a subjected to a gyratory motion about the axis of
static loading. Limited to laboratory applications.
5. Rolling - a heavy cylinder is rolled over the surface of the soil.
Commonly used on sports pitches. Roller-compactors are often fitted
with vibratory devices to enhance their effectiveness.
6. Kneading - shear is applied by alternating movement in adjacent
positions. An example, combined with rolling compaction, is the
'sheepsfoot' roller used in waste compaction at landfills.

Suitability of compaction plant verses basic soil properties

Type of plant Suitable for Unsuitable for

Smooth wheeled Well graded sand & gravels; Uniform sands, silty
roller Silts & clays of low plasticity sands, soft clays
Grid roller Well graded sand & gravels; Uniform sands, silty
Soft rocks, stony cohesive sands, silty clays
soils
Sheepsfoot roller Sands & gravels with more than Very coarse – grained
(tamping roller) 20% fines, most fine grained soils, gravels without
soils fines
Pneumatic – tyred Most coarse- grained & fine Very soft clay, soils of
roller grained soils highly variable
consistency
Vibrating roller Sands & gravels with no fines, Silts & clays, soil with
wet cohesive soils 5% or more fines, dry
soils
Vibrating plates Soils with up to 12 – 15% fines Large – volume work
confined areas
Power rammer Trench backfill, work in small Large – volume work
areas or where access is
restricted

Benefits of soil compaction

Compaction is the most popular technique for improving soils. The soil
fabric is forced into a dense configuration by the expulsion of air using
mechanical effort with or without the assistance of water. The benefits of
compaction are:
1. Increased soil strength.
2. Increased load-bearing capacity.
3. Reduction in settlement (lower compressibility).
4. Reduction in the flow of water (water seepage & permeability).
5. Reduction in soil swelling (expansion) and collapse (soil contraction).
6. Increased soil stability.
7. Reduction in frost damage.
Improper compaction can lead to:
1. Structural distress from excessive total and differential settlements.
2. Cracking of pavements, floors, and basements.
3. Structural damage to buried structures, water and sewer pipes, and
utility conduits.
4. Soil erosion.

Exercise

Question One

The MDD of a soil specimen is 1.82gm/cc at an optimum moisture content of

15%. The specific gravity of solid particles is 2.65. Calculate the degree
of saturation and percentage air voids of the specimen. Determine the
theoretical maximum dry density with zero air voids at the above moisture
content. Sr  87.2% A  4% 

Question Two

A standard proctor compaction test carried out on a sample of sandy clay

yielded the following results;

Bulk 2048 2025 2025 2150 2140

Density(kg/m3)

Moisture Content % 12 14.2 15.5 16.9 17.5

(a) Plot the curve the compaction curve and determine the Max Dry density
and Optimum Moisture content
(b) Find the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content
(c) Calculate the moisture content necessary for complete saturation at
max dry density if the specific gravity of the solid constituents is
2.73

Sub module 5: Filtration and drainage of water through soils; Groundwater

issues

Permeability, Total and effective stress, Capillarity, Darcy and Bernoulli

laws, Seepage flow through Soils, Flow Nets for Sheet-pile, Cut-off Walls
and Earth Dams, Total flow Computations, Pore Water Pressure Calculations,
Uplift Pressure, Piping and Control of piping

Subsurface water
This is the term used to define all the water bemeath the earths surface ,
the main source being rainfall which percolates downwards to fill up the
voids and interstices of the soil or rock.
Its subdivided into two distinct zones; Saturation zone and Aeration zone
Saturation zone is the depth which all the fissures are filled with water
under hydrostatic pressure. The upper of this water being the water table,
phreatic surface or ground water level. The water within this zone is the
phreatic water or ground water.
Flow of water in this zone is reffered to as saturation flow induced by
excavation, construction or natural variation in hydrostatic head or
piezometric head within the soil mass. Hydrostatic or hydraulic head is the
head of water acting at a point in a submerged soil mass expressed by
v2 P
bernoulli’s equation h    Z . i.e. hydrostatic head = Velocity
2g  w
head + Pressure head + Elevation head
Head refers to the mechanical energy per unit weight
When the water table reaches the surface, springs, lakes, swamps and
simillar features can be formed.

Aeration Zone
Its Sometimes reffered to as the vadose zone, this zone occurs between the
water table and the surface. The flow is termed as unsaturated and is
divided into three sections.

Capillary water or fringe – water drawn up above the water table into the
interstices of the soil or rock. In general, The finner the voids the
greater the capillary rise.
Intermediate belt or water – amount of water held in the soil by surface
tension, capillarity , adsorption or chemical action deep enough not to be
affected by plants as rain water percolates downwards to the water table.
Soil water, belt or hygroscopic water – this zone is constantly affected
by evaporation and plant transpiration. It’s the moist soil in cintact
with the atmosphere which either evaporates or condenses water into itself
untill its vapour pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure.

PERMEABILITY OF SOILS – ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW

Permeability is the measure of the ease with which water freely flows
through rocks and soil.
It is important to a civil engineer when dealing with seepage under dams,
land drainage or ground water lowering.

Provided the hydraulic gradient is less than 1.0, as is the case in most
seepage problems, the flow of water through a soil is linear and Darcy’s
law applies, i.e. velocity of fluid flow through a porous medium is
directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient causing the flow.
v  i; v  ci
Where i  hydraulic gradient (the head loss per unit length)
c  A constant involving the properties of both the fluid and the
porous material
Q
But Rate of discharge  Av
t
In one dimension, water flows through a fully saturated soil in accordance
with
Darcy’s empirical law:
q
q  Aki or v   ki Where;
A
Q
q Is the Quantity or volume of water flowing per unit time q  ,
t
A The cross-sectional area of soil corresponding to the flow q,
h
i The hydraulic gradient i  ; h – Hydraulic gradient across the
l
soil and l – length of flow path through soil and
v - The discharge velocity. The units of the coefficient of permeability
are those of velocity (m/s).
Q
k The Coefficient of Permeability, therefore equals to k  t , and
Ai
defined as the rate of flow per unit area of soil under a unit hydraulic
gradient.
The coefficient is expressed in m/s or mm/s .
The coefficient of permeability depends primarily on or factors affecting;
 o The average size of the pores- porosity of the soil
o The particle size Distribution,
o Particle shape and Soil structure or orientation of soil particles.
o The degree of saturation or presence of air
o The type of cation and thickness of adsorbed layers associated with
clay minerals
o The viscosity of the soil water which varies with temperature; Hence
w
k K Where  w is the unit weight of water,  the viscosity of

water and K (units m 2 ) an absolute coefficient depending only on
the characteristics of the soil skeleton.

In general, the smaller the particles, the smaller is the average size of
the pores and the lower is the coefficient of permeability.
In granular materials k varies approximately inversely with specific
6  10 3 6  10 2 2
surface value SS  mm 2 / g or S S  m /g
dGs dGs

In cohesive soils, it’s more complex as fissures as well as the factors

like moisture content & temperature are very significant.
The values of k for different types of soil are typically within the ranges

Soil Type Value of Permeability Drainage Properties

(mm/s)
Gravels 1000 – 10 Good
-2
Sands 10 – 10 Good
-2 -5
Silts (and fissured 10 – 10 Poor
clay)
Clays 10-5 Impervious

For sands, Hazen showed that the approximate value of k is given

2
by k  10 D10 mm / s , where D10 is the effective size in mm.
2

Seepage velocity
The movement of water through a soil mass is generally termed seepage. From
a practical point of view through a microscope, it’s assumed to follow a
straight line path. In Darcy’s equation, the velocity v is interpreted as
apparent or superficial velocity i.e. velocity of flow relative to a soil
section area A . The velocity through the pores will be greater and its
termed as seepage velocity; i.e. seepage velocity v s or v' is the average
velocity at which the water flows through the soil pores obtained by
dividing the volume of water flowing per unit time by the average area of
voids  Av  on a cross-section normal to the macroscopic direction of
q
flow. v' 
Av
vv
The porosity of a soil is defined in terms of volume n However, on
V
Av
average, the porosity can also be expressed as n  Av  nA
A
q v ki
Hence, v'   or v' 
nA n n

Example 1
A soil sample 10cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1m long. A constant
supply of water is allowed to flow into an inclined tube at end A of the
soil and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker as shown below.

3
The average amount of water collected is 1cm for every 10 seconds.
Determine the; (a) hydraulic gradient, (b) flow rate, (c) average velocity,
(d) seepage velocity, if e = 0.6, and (e) coefficient of permeability.
Solution
First Define datum position i.e. Select the top of the table as datum,
therefore the total heads at A (inflow) and B (outflow) are;
H A = (h p )A + (h z )A = 1 + 1 = 2m
H B = (h p )B + (h z )B = 0 + 0.8 = 0.8m
H H A  H B 2  0.8
(a) The hydraulic gradient i  =   1.2
L L 1.0
It is often simpler, for calculation purposes, to select the exit flow
position as the datum. Then point B, as the datum,
head H A = 1m +  1  0.8m   1m + 0.2m = 1.2m and H B = 0 . The head loss is ΔH =
1.2m, which is the same value as obtained using the table’s top as the
datum.
(b) The flow rate.
Q 1
Flow: Q = 1cm 3 , t = 10 seconds  q    0.1cm3 /s
t 10
 q d 2  10 2
(c) The average velocity v ; but A    78.5cm 2
A 4 4
1
v   0.0013cm/s
78.5
v e 0.6
(d) Seepage velocity vs  ; but n    0.38
n 1  e 1  0.6
0.0013
 vs   0.0034 cm/s
0.38
v 0.0013
(e) Coefficient of permeability k   1.08  10 3 cm/s
i 1.2
A drainage pipe (Fig. Ex. 2.10a) became completely blocked during a storm
by a plug of sand, 1.5m long, followed by another plug of a mixture of
clays, silts and sands, 0.5m long.

When the storm was over, the water level above ground was 1m. The
coefficient of permeability of the sand is 2 times that of the mixture of
clays, silts and sands.
1. Plot the variation of pressure, elevation and total head over the length
of the pipe.
2. Calculate the pore water pressure at (a) the center of the sand plug and
(b) the center of the mixture of clays, silts and sands.
3. The average hydraulic gradients in the sand and in the mixture of clays,
silts and sands.
Solution
The continuity equation provides the key to finding the head loss over each
plug.
Step 1: Select a datum
Select the exit at B along the center line of the drainage pipe as datum.
Step 2: Determine heads at A and B
(h ) = 0m, (h ) = 0.3 + 2 + 1 = 3.3m, H = 0 + 3.3 = 3.3m
z A p A A

(h ) = 0m, (h ) = 0m, H = 0m
z B p B B

Step 3: Determine head loss in each plug.

Head loss between A and B = |H - H | = 3.3 m (decrease in head taken as
B A

positive).
Let ΔH , L , k and q be the head loss, length, coefficient of permeability
1 1 1 1

and flow in the sand; let ΔH , L , k and q be the head loss, length,
2 2 2 2

coefficient of permeability and flow in the mixture of clays, silts and

sands.

From the continuity equation, q = q

1 2

However, we know that

Solving for ΔH and ΔH from (1) and (2), we obtain

1 2

Step 4: Calculate heads at the junction of the two plugs.

Total head at C = H = H - ΔH = 3.3 -1.98 = 1.32m
c A 1

(h ) = 0
z c

(h ) = H - (h ) = 1.32m
p c c z c

Step 5: Plot distribution of heads.

Step 6: Calculate pore water pressures.
Let D be the center of the sand.

Determination of coefficient of permeability

Permeability coefficient can either be determined in the lab or on the
field.
The lab methods may not give very accurate results on the coefficient of
permeability of a true in-situ structure as samples are generally
disturbed. Field test give fairly good results.
In the main, disparities or gaps between laboratory and field conditions
may be due to;
o Variations in density & porosity
o Variation in flow direction with respect to bedding
o Limited ability of a small sample to simulate an isotropic conditions
o Variation in pore pressure and effective stress condition

Reliability of Lab measurements

The main aim in any laboratory procedure is to be able to reproduce similar
results using the same procedure or compare favorably with results using
different procedures. In lab permeability test disparities may occur due
to;
o The presence of air bubbles in permeant (water)
o Variations in sample density and porosity
o Variation in temperature and therefore viscosity of the permeant

Laboratory tests include

1. The constant head permeameter – suitable for gravels & sands (k
values > 10-4 m/s)
2. Variable or falling head permeameter – for fine sands, silts & clays
(k values between 10-4 and 10-7 m/s)
3. Row cell test – for soils with very low permeabilities both vertical
& horizontal permeability is possible.

Constant head permeameter

Water is allowed to percolate through a soil in a cylinder of sectional
area A under a constant head kept by means of the over flow arrangement.
The head loss, h between two points along the length L of the sample apart
is measured by means of a manometer.

A sand filter is incorperated above and below the sample to help prevent it
washing away.
The quantity of water Q passing through the sample in time t is collected
in the measuring cylinder
From Darcy’s law q  Aki
 Q
The unit quantity of flow, q
t
Q d 2 q Ql
 Aki ; A  k 
t 4 Ai Aht
A series of readings can be obtained from each test and an average value of
k determined.
The test is suitable for gravels and sand and could be used for many fill
materials.
Example
In a constant head permeameter test the following results were obtained;
Duration of test 4.0 mins
Quantity of water collected 300 ml
Head difference in manometer 50mm
Distance between manometer tappings 100mm
Diameter of test sample = 100mm
Determine the coefficient of permeability in m/s
Solution
d 2   100 2
 1.25ml / s  1.250  1000 mm 3 / s
300
A   7850 mm 2 ; qQ 
4 4 t 4  60
ql 1250 mm 3  100 mm
k   3.18  10 1 mm / s
Ah 7850 mm  50mm 2

k  3.18  10  4 m / s
Example 2
A constant head permeameter test has been run on a sand sample 250mm in
length and 2000mm3 in area. With a head loss of 500mm the discharge was
found to be 260ml in 130s. Determine the coefficient of permeability of the
soil.
If the specific gravity of the grains was 2.62 and the dry weight of the
sand 916g. Find the void ratio of the sample.
Solution
ql 260  1000  250
k   0.5mm / s
Aht 2000  500  130

Vs 
Ws

916 
1000

 1000 3
 350,000 mm 3
Gs w 2.62  1000
Vv  V  Vs  250  2000   350,000  150,000 mm 3
Vv 150000
voidratio e    0.428
Vs 350000
Example 3
During a test using a constant head permeameter, the following data were
collected. Determine the average value of k:
Diameter of sample = 100mm, temperature of water = 170C, distance between
manometer tapping points = 150mm.
Quantity collected in 2mins. 541 503 509 474
(ml)
Difference in manometer levels 76 72 68 65
(mm)

Solution
d 2   100 2
Cross section area of sample A    7854 mm 2
4 4
Flow quantity Q  Qml   10 mm ; Flow time t  2  60  7120 s
3 3

q Ql Q  10 3  150
 k    0.159Q / h mm/s
Ai Aht 7854  120 h

Flow Quantity Head Diff 0.159Q/h

SN Q(ml) h(mm) (mm/s)
1 541 76 1.13
2 503 72 1.11
3 509 68 1.19
4 474 65 1.16
Total 4.59
4.59
Average permeability k  1.15 mm/s
4

Falling head permeameter

For fine soils the falling-head test should be used.

In this test, a standpipe of internal area a connected to the top of a

cylinder, is filled with water, the height h1 in the stand pipe is measured
and time t1 taken for the water level.
The valve is then opened as a stop clock is started and allowed to flow
through the soil sample of length L in a cylinder of cross section A for a
measured time t2, the height h2, to which the water level has fallen is
determined.
A coarse filter is placed at each end of the specimen.
During the, the water in the standpipe falls from a height h1 to a final
height h2 for some time t (t 2 - t 1 ) .
Now, consider a small time interval dt , the variation of the head h (level
of h) during this time be  dh (falling).

The quantity flowing through the sample in time dt i.e. rate of

 adh
discharge q 
dt
Q h
From Darcy’s law, q   kA
t l
 adh h
  kA
dt l
al
dt   dh
Akh
Integrating between limits 0 to t and h1 to h2,
t h2
al l
0 dt   Ak  hdh
h1

 al  h2 
t  ln 
Ak  h1 
 al  h2   al
k  ln   ln h2  ln h1   al ln h1  ln h2 
At  h1  At At
Changing to log 10

 h 
 log 10  1  
al  h
k  2    2.3 al log  h1 

  10 
At  log 10 e  At  h2 
 
 
Three readings of H should be taken such that, the time for the head drop
from h1 to h2 is the same as that for h2 to h3 to ensure that steady flow
conditions are attained. Then
h  h 
log 10  1   log 10  2  Since 2.3, a, A, t and l are constant
 h2   h3 

 h1   h2 
    ; h2  h1 h3
 h2   h3 

Multi – layer permeability

In natural conditions soil occurs in stratified layers with varying
permeability and is rarely homogenous. Similarly, man-made filters may be
graded from coarse to fine material in layers. These variations will have a
marked effect on the overall permeability, with the average value in the
direction of stratification being quite different from the values at right
angles to it.
In series of strata, thickness h1, h2, h3 etc. with permeabilities k1, K2, k3
etc. the rate of flow per unit area along each stratum will vary but the
hydraulic gradient will be constant.
The average permeability kh in this direction
k h  k 2 h2  k 3 h3      k n hn
kh  1 1
h1  h2  h3     hn
With flow at right angles to the strata, the hydraulic gradient will vary
in stratum, but the rate of flow per unit area must be constant. The
average permeability k h at right angles to the strata.
h1  h2  h3      hn
kV 
h1 h h h
 2  3  n
k1 k2 k3 kn
kh
From above eqns. It can be seen that  1 i.e. Permeability in the
kV
direction of strata k h is always greater than the permeability at right
angles to the strata kV
Therefore, laboratory test give low values of the actual permeability on
site as they are done at right angles to the strata.

Example 1
An undisturbed soil sample was tested in a falling head permeameter.
Results were;
Initial head of water in stand – Pipe 1500mm
Final head of water in stand pipe 605mm
Duration of test 281s
Sample length 150mm
Sample diameter 100mm
Standpipe diameter 5mm
Determine the permeability of the soil in m/s
Solution
d 2   52   100 2
a   19.67 mm 2 , A  7854 mm 2
4 4 4
2.30 al h  2.30  19.67  150  1500 
k log 10  1   log 10  ;
At  h2  7854  281  605 
k  1.21  10 3 mm / s
k  1.2  10 6 m / s

Example 2
In a falling head test on a silty clay sample, the following results were
obtained, sample length 120mm, sample diameter 80mm initial head 1100mm,
final head 420mm, time for fall in head 6mins, standpipe diameter 4mm.
determine from first principles the coefficient of the soil.
On close investigation of the sample it was found to be 3 layers 20mm, 60mm
and 40mm thick each of permeabilities 3 x 10-3, 5 x 10-4, 17 x 10-4 mm/s
respectively. Check the average permeability of this sample in a direction
at right angles to sampling. Find the ratio k h and comment on the
kV
result.
Solution
The quantity flowing through the sample in time dt i.e. rate of
 adh d  42 2
  80 2
q ; a   12.57mm 2 , A   5026.55mm 2 ,
discharge dt 4 4 4
h1  1100 mm h2  420 mm, t  6  60  360 s, l  120 mm
Q h
From Darcy’s law, q  kA
t l
 adh h
  kA
dt l
al
dt   dh
Akh
Integrating between limits 0 to t and h1 to h2,
t h2
al l
0 dt   Ak  hdh
h1

 al  h2 
t  ln 
Ak  h1 
 12.57  120   420   4
k  ln     8  10 mm / s
5026 .55  360   1100  

For three layer case, permeability of laboratory sample,

h1  h2  h3      hn 20  60  40
kV  
h1  h2  h3     hn 20  60  40
k1 k2 k3 kn 3  10 3 5  10  4 17  10  4
kV  7.99  10  4 mm / s

Permeability in a direction at right – angles to sampling

kh 
k1 h1  k 2 h2  k 3 h3      k n hn 

    
3  10 3 20  5  10 4 60  17  10 4 40
h1  h2  h3    hn 20  60  40
k h  1.3  10 3 mm/s
Ratio
kh 1.3  10 3
  1 .6
k V 7.99  10  4
Comment:
It can be seen that if the flow of water on site is along the strata, the
laboratory results give an underestimate of the flow that will occur.
Example 3
During a test using a falling head permeameter the following data were
recorded. Determine the average value of k.
Diameter of sample = 100mm
Length of sample = 150mm
Recorded data Level in standpipe Time interval
Standpipe Initial h1 Final h2 (mm) (t2-t1) s
Diameter (d)mm (mm)
5.00 1200 800 82
800 400 149
9.00 1200 900 177
900 700 169
700 400 368
12.50 1200 800 485
800 400 908

d 2  100 2
Cross sectional area A   7854 mm 2 ,
4 4
 d 2
Cross sectional area a   0.25d 2 mm 2 ,
4
al ln h1 / h2  0.25d 2  150 ln h1 / h2 
k 
At 2  t1  7854  t
Coefficient of permeability
0.015 d 2 ln h1-h2 
k mm/s ,
t

Recorded data Level in standpipe Time interval k

Standpipe Final h2 (0.015d2ln(h1/h2))/t

Initial h1 (mm) (t2-t1) s
(mm)
Diameter (d)mm
5 1200 800 82 0.001854261
800 400 149 0.001744498
9 1200 900 177 0.001974767
900 700 169 0.001806787
700 400 368 0.001847645
12.5 1200 800 485 0.0019594
800 400 908 0.001789167
Total 0.012976524
0.01297652 4
Average permeability k  0.00185378 9  1.853789  10 3 mm/s
7
Or 1.853789  10 6 m/s

The Row Cell or hydraulic cell

This was introduced for purpose of carrying out consolidation tests. Its
use has been developed for permeability. Either vertical or horizontal
permeabilities may be measured with a high degree of reliability. The test
is of the constant head type, with the field values of void ratio, pore
pressure and effective stress closely simulated.

Vertical permeability
An undisturbed sample of soil is fitted into the body of the cell between
porous discs and consolidated to an effective pressure relating to site
conditions using the hydraulic pressure jack. The outlet in the base is
then connected to a constant pressure system. This can be set to simulate
field pore pressure levels. A second constant pressure system is connected
to the upper drain and set at a pressure slightly lower than that at the
outlet.
The pressure difference is monitored using a differential pressure gauge or
a pair of pressure transducers between the inlet and outlet tubes. This is
usually maintained at less than 10 per cent of the effective pressure
exerted on the sample.

The quantity of flow is obtained from observations taken of two calibrated

volume-change indicators, one on the inlet side and the other on the outlet
side. When the flow quantities for both inlet and outlet tubes are within
10 per cent of each other and steady-state conditions are assumed to
prevail the test measurements are taken.
Applying Darcy’s law q  kAi
q qL
k 
Ai Ah
Example 1
During a test using a hydraulic cell to determine the vertical permeability
of a soil, the following data were collected. Determine the value of k for
the soil.
Thickness of sample after consolidation = 73.0mm
Diameter of the sample = 254mm
Difference between inlet & outlet pressures = 65.2cm of water.
Flow rate = 2.39mm3/s
Temperature 150C
Solution
Differential pressure head, h  652mm of water
d 2   254 2
Area of sample A    50671mm 2
4 4
Length of sample l  73.00mm
qL 2.39  73
k    5.281  10 6 mm / s
Ah 50671  652
Horizontal permeability
Here flow is radial with cylindrical outer inlet surface being surrounded
by a porous drainage material and a central porous drain inserted as the
outlet. The overall diameter of the sample being slightly less than that
used in the vertical permeability due to thickness of the inlet drain. The
flow is measured by means of volume change indicators and the pressure
difference by means of either a differential pressure gauge.

Then the horizontal coefficient of permeability may be obtained from

q ln D / d 
k  Where;
2Lh
L – Length of sample or thickness after initial consolidation (mm)
D – Outside diameter of the sample (mm)
D – Inside diameter of sample or diameter of the drain spindle (mm)

Field determination of permeability

They include;
1. Well point techniques – Pumping out test and pumping in test
2. Borehole techniques
The pumping out or in test – Well point techniques
Used to measure the average value of k below the water table to an
effective depth of about 45m. It consists of pumping water out from 400mm
diameter central casing driven to bed rock or impervious stratum at a
measured rate (q) and Observing the resulting draw down in the ground water
level by means of 35mm diameter observation wells put down on radial lines
at various distances (r) from the casing (the well). Both casing & wells
are perforated to allow easy entrance of water.
Frequent recordings are made of the water levels in the boreholes, usually
by means of an electrical dipper.
The test enables the average coefficient of permeability of the soil mass
below the cone of depression to be determined.
Analysis is based on the assumption that the hydraulic gradient at any
distance r from the Centre of the well is constant with depth and is equal
dh
to the slope of the water table, i.e. i  ; Where h is the height of
dr
the water table at radius r. This is known as the Dupuit assumption and is
reasonably accurate except at points close to the well. I.e. minimum
distance between observation wells and the pumping well should be 10 times
the radius of pumping well while the radial distances greater than twice
the thickness of the ground being tested.
An aditional standpipe inside the pumping well is desirable so that a
reliable record of the draw down of the well itself can be obtained.
At distance r from the well the area through which seepage takes place is
the surface area of a cylinder A= 2rh , where r and h are variables. Then
From Darcy’s law, q= kAi
dh
q= k  2rh 
dr
Collecting like terms
dh
q= k  2rh 
dr
1 2
dr  k hdh
r q
2k 2
r2 h
1
r r dr 
q  hdh
h
1 1

r  2k 2
ln  2   
h2  h12 
 r1  2q
r  r 
q ln  2  2.3q log 10  2 
k  r1    r1 

 h2  h1
2 2
 
 h2  h12
2

Confined aquifer
The pumping rate must not be high enough to reduce the level in the pumping
well below the top of the aquifer. The interface between the top of the
aquifer and he overlaying impermeable stratum therefore forms the top
stream line.
The piezometric surface is assumed to be above the upper surface of the
aquifer and hydraulic gradient constant at a given radius.

Then, in steady state conditions, the flow is considered through an

elemental cylinder having radius r, thickness dr and height h.
dh
Hydraulic gradient (outside to inside) i 
dr
Area through which flow takes place, A  2rD
From Darcy’s equation q  kAi
dh
q  k  2rD 
dr
Collecting like terms
1 2D
dr  k dh
r q
2Dk 2
r2 h
1
r r dr 
q  dh
h
1 1

r  2Dk
ln  2   h2  h1 
 r1  q

r  r 
q ln  2  2.3q log 10  2 
k  r1    r1 
2Dh2  h1  2 D h2  h1 

Bore holes
The general principle is that water is either introduced into or pumped out
of a borehole which terminates within the stratum in question, the
procedures being referred to as inflow and outflow tests, respectively. A
hydraulic gradient is thus established, causing seepage either into or out
of the soil mass surrounding the borehole and the rate of flow is measured.
A number of formulae are recommended for calculating k as;
Variable head test
A
k
FT
 ln h1  h2 
A
k
F t 2  t1 
Constant head test
q
Hvorslev’s time lag analysis k
Fhc
q
Gibson’s root time method k
Fhc
Where, A Cross sectional area of stand pipe or bore borehole casing
F – An intake factor dependent on conditions at the bottom of the borehole
T – Basic Time lag
h1, h2 – Variable heads measured at elapsed times of t1 and t2 respectively
hc – Constant head
q – Rate of flow
q – Steady state inflow, obtained from a graph of q against 1 / t at
1/ t  0

The coefficient of permeability for a coarse soil can also be obtained from
q v
in-situ measurements of seepage velocity from Hence, v'   or
nA n
ki
v' 
n
The method involves excavating uncased boreholes or trial pits at two
points A and B.

Seepage taking place from A towards B. The hydraulic gradient is given by

the difference in the steady-state water levels in the boreholes divided by
the distance AB. Dye or any other suitable tracer is inserted into borehole
A and the time taken for the dye to appear in borehole B is measured. The
seepage velocity is then the distance AB divided by this time. The porosity
nv' nl 2
of the soil can be determined from density tests. k 
i ht
Examples
A stratum of sandy soil overlies a horizontal bed of impermeable material,
the surface of which is also horizontal. In order to determine the in -
situ permeability of the soil, a test well was driven to the bottom of
stratum. Two observation bore holes were made at distances 12 and 24m
respectively from the test well. Water was pumped from the test well at the
rate of 180l/min until the water became steady. The heights of the water in
the two bore holes were then found to be 4.2 and 6.3m above impermeable
bed. Find the value expressed in mm per sec. of the coefficient of
permeability of the sandy soil, deriving any formula used.
Solution

From Darcy’s law q  kAi

dh
q  k  2rh 
dr
1 2k
dr  hdh and integratin g
r q
2k 2
r2 h
1
r r dr  q h hdh
1 1

ln r2  ln r1   2k h2 2  h1 2 

2q
r   24 
q ln  2  180  1000 2  ln  
k  r1    12   0.03mm/s

 h2  h1
2 2
 2
 2

60 6.3  4.2  1000 2

A permeability pumping test was carried out from a well sunk into a
confined stratum of dense sand as shown in the figure below.
Initially the water table was located at a depth of 2.5m. When a steady
state was achieved at a pumping rate of 37.4m3/hr, the following drawdowns
were observed.
Pumping well d w = 4.46m
Observation wells d 1 = 1.15m and d 2 = 0.42m respectively
Calculate a value for the coefficient of permeability of the sand
Solution
Observation well data, r1 = 15m and r2 = 50m , D = 11.7m, q = 37.4m3/hr
Water table level from impermeable stratum h o = 11.7 + 7.4  2.5 = 16.6m
h 1  h o  d 1 = 16.6  1.15 = 15.45m
h 1  h o  d 2 = 16.6  0.42 = 16.18m

q ln  2 
r
 1 
r 60
37.4
 60 
ln 50 
15

Then k   2.33  10  4 m / s
2Dh2  h1  2  11.716.18  15.45 

Assuming a 20% loss, the corrected pumping well drawdown

is d w = 0.8  4.46  3.568m
Therefore h 1  h w  h o  d w = 16.6  3.568 = 13.03m and assuming that
r1  rw  0.1m

q ln  2 

r
r1 
37.4
60  60 
ln 500.1

k   2.79  10  4 m / s
2Dh2  h1  2  11.716.18  13.03
THE TOTAL STRESS, EFFECTIVE STRESS AND THE PORE WATER PRESSURE
Introduction

The total vertical pressure σ on any horizontal plane below the surface of
the unloaded soil except its own weight is equal to the force exerted by
the mass of overlaying soil over the area of the plane. Total pressure
σ  hρ sat where; h - Overlay depth &

ρ sat  Saturated density of the soil layers .

For different soil layers with different soil densities,

Total Stress σ  h 1ρ  h 2 ρ sat      h n ρ sat

Under equilibrium conditions, i.e. when there is no flow of water through

the soil, the total vertical pressure σ on any horizontal plane is made up
of two components

(1) Effective stress σ1

(2) Pore H 2 O pressure U
The equation σ1  U is the fundamental eqn in the soil mechanics i.e.
σ  σ1  U

Definitions

Pore H 2 O pressure, U – is the pressure exerted by a mass of pore H 2 O in

the voids below the level of H 2 O table. Pore water pressure U  ρωh

Pore H 2 O pressure can also be termed as Neutral pressure

Effective pressure σ1 – is the pressure transmitted through points of

contact of the solid particles of the soil such that any change in it,
produces a change in all the other mechanical properties of the soil. It is
s also called granular pressure since the changes in pore H 2 O pressure
have no measurable effects on the mechanical properties of the soil.

Effective pressure principle equation σ1  σ  U  ρ sat h1  ρ ω h 2

Effective stress principle

When a vertical load is applied to a dry soil, all the stress is taken by
the soil skeleton, however if the soil is saturated, part of the stress is
taken by the soil skeleton while the rest is taken up by the pore water.
Deformations of soils are a function of effective stresses and not total
stresses. The principle of effective stresses applies only to normal
stresses and not to shear stresses.
The pore water cannot sustain shear stresses and therefore the soil solids
must resist the shear forces. Thus τ = τ′ where τ is the total shear
stress and τ' is the effective shear stress. The effective stress is not
the contact stress between the soil solids. Rather, it is the average
stress on a plane through the soil mass. Soils cannot sustain tension.
Consequently, the effective stress cannot be less than 0. Pore water
pressures can be positive or negative. That latter is sometimes called
suction or suction pressure.

At the water table, pore H 2 O pressure is zero. Above H 2 O table the

water in the voids of the soils is held by the surface tension between the
particles.

The effect of these, is to increase the effective pressure due to the mass
of water held in suspension

Example 1

The layer of saturated clay 4m thick is over laid by sand of 5m thick. The
water table being 2m above the saturated clay interface; Given that
saturated density of clay and sand are 19 kN/m 3 and 20 kN/m 3 . The unit
weight of un saturated sand is 17 kN/m 3 . Calculate

(i) Effective stress below the soil mass

(ii) Plot the total vertical stress and effective stress distribution
diagram along the depth.
Solution

Effective stress = Total stress – pore H 2 O pressure

Total pressure/stress

NB: We always take γ  unit ωeight kN/m 3 and ρ  unit mass kg/m 3

At A or Om, σ A  γ b h A , but h  0; σ0

At B or 3m, σ B  γ b .h B , h B  3,  σ  17  3  51kN/m 2
At C or 5m, σ C  γ Sat .h C  σ B ,  σ  51  20  2   91kN/m 2
At D or 9m, σ D  γ Clay Sat .h C  σ C ,  σ  91  19  2   167 kN/m 2
Pore pressure

At A  B or Om and 3m, UA  γ b h A , but h  0; U 0

At C or 5m, U C  γ water .h C , h  2m  U C  9.81  2  19.62kN/m 2
At D or 9m, σ D  γ water .h D  U C ,  U D  19.62  9.81  4  58.86kN/m 2

Effective pressure/stress

At A or Om, σ A '  σ A  U A  0,
At B or 3m, σ' B  σ B - U B  51  0  51kN/m 2
At C or 5m, σ' C  σ C - U C  91  19.2  71.38kN/m 2 ,
At D or 9m, σ' D  σ D - U D  167  58.86  108 .14 kN/m 2

 Total effective pressure  108.14kN/m 2

Example 2

A layer of sand 4.5m deep overlays a thick bed of clay. The H 2 O table is
2m below the top of the sand having an average voids ratio of e  0.52 and an
average degree of saturation of Sr  0.37 . The clay has the H 2 O content
of ω or m  42% . Calculate;

(i) The total stress,

(ii) The effective stress and
(iii) The pore H 2 O pressure and
(iv) Draw the Stress distribution diagram down to this level taking
grain specific gravity Gs  2.65 for both sand & clay.
Solution
 42
Void ratio – e  0.52; Sr = 0.37;   0.42; Gs = 2.65
100

Sr = 1; When the soil is completely saturated} partially  bulk density

Sr = 0, Soil is dry

Bulk Density of the soil Derivation

M
Bulk Density; ρ b  ; But M  Ms  Mω ; Mω  ρ  Vω and V  Vv  Vs
V
Vv V Ms
Also e  and sr  ω ; Gs 
Vs Vv Vsρ ω

Ms  Mω GsVs ρ ω  ρ ω Vω ρ ω GsVs  Vω 
then ρb   
Vs  Vv Vs  Vv Vs  Vv

 Gs  esr 
 ρb  ρω  
 1 e 

Bulk Density of un saturated or partially saturated sand

m  Gs  esr 
Bulk Density ρb   ρω  1 e 
v  

 2.65  0.52  0.37 

 1000    1870kg/m 3
 1  0.52 

Unit weight of sand (partially saturated)

 1870  9.81 
γ sand     18.34kN/m
3

 1000 

Bulk Density of Saturated sand

 Gs  esr 
From Bulk Density, ρ b  ρ ω  ; Sr  1.
 le 

 Gs  e 
 Saturated Density, ρ sat  ρ ω  
 le 

 2.65  0.52 
ρ sat  1000    2086kg/m
3

 1  0.52 

 2086  9.81 
Unit weight of saturated sand ρ sat     20.46kN/m
3

 1000 

Saturated density of clay

 Gs  esr  ρ ω G s l  ω
From ρ b  ρ ω  ; ρb 
 le  le
Also, ωG s  es r , s r  1 and e sand  e clay

 1 ω 
Saturated part of clay, e  ωGs  ρ b  ρ ω Gs  
 l  ωGs 

 1  0.42 
ρ Clay  1000  2.65    1781kg/m 3
 l  0.42  2.65 

 1781  9.81 
Unit weight of saturated clay γ clay     17.5kN/m
3

 1000 

Total pressure/stress

At A or Om, σ A  γ b h A , but h  0; σ0

At B or 2m, σ B  γ b .h B , h B  2,  σ  18.34  2  36.68kN/m 2
At C or 4.5m, σ C  γ Sat .h C  σ B ,  σ  36.68  20.46  2.5  87.83kN/m 2
At D or 9m, σ D  γ Clay Sat .h C  σ C ,  σ  87.83  17.5  4.5  166 .58kN/m 2

Pore pressure

At A  B or Om and 2m, UA  γ b h A , but h  0; U 0

At C or 4.5m, U C  γ water .h C , h  2m  U C  9.81  2.5  24.5kN/m 2
At D or 9m, σ D  γ water .h D  U C ,  U D  24.5  9.81  4.5  68.65kN/m 2

Effective pressure/stress

At A or Om, σ A '  σ A  U A  0,
At B or 2m, σ' B  σ B - U B  36.68  0  36.68kN/m 2
At C or 5m, σ' C  σ C - U C  87.83  24.5  63.33kN/m 2 ,
At D or 9m, σ' D  σ D - U D  166 .58  68.65  97.93kN/m 2

 Total effective pressure  97.93kN/m 2

Home Work
Question 1

(a) Give a brief account of the two Engineering problems which make the
study of seepage through soil important to an engineer
(b) 9m thick bed of sand is under laid by a layer of clay which is 4m
thick. The water table is at ground surface level. Determine the
magnitude of vertical effective pressure at the depth 10.5m from the
ground level. Saturated density of sand = 2.2t/m 3 and saturated density of
clay = 1.9t/m 3 . The natural water content of soft saturated clay is 45%.
If Gs = 2.72, Find the void ratio, porosity and saturated density.
Question 2

Find the total active pressure on a vertical wall 5m high retaining a sand
unit weight of 1.7tones per m 3 for which   35 o . The surface of the sand
is horizontal. And also determine the thrust on the wall if the water table
rises to level of 2.5m below the surface of the sand The saturated unit
weight of the sand is 2tones/ m 3

1  sin 35
σ A  K a γ b h A , where h  5; σ  γh, Ka   0.27
1  sin 35
σ A  0.27  1.7  5  2.295t/m 2

Total pressure/stress

NB: We always take γ  unit ωeight kN/m 3 and ρ  unit mass kg/m 3

1  sin 35
At A or Om, σ A  K a γ b h A , but h  0; σ  0, Ka   0.27
1  sin 35
At B or 2.5m, σ B  γ b .h B , h B  2.5,  σ  1.7  2.5  1.15t/m 2
At C or 5m, σ C  γ Sat .h C  σ B ,  σ  51  0.272  2.5  2.5t/m 2

Pore pressure

At A  B or Om and 3m, UA  γ b h A , but h  0; U 0

At C or 2.5m, U C  γ water .h C , h  0m  U C  0  1  0t/m 2
At D or 5m, U D  γ water .h D , h  2.5m  U C  2.5  1  2.5t/m 2

Effective pressure/stress

At A or Om, σ A '  σ A  U A  0,
At B or 2.5m, σ' B  σ B - U B  1.15  0  1.15 t/m 2
At C or 5m, σ' C  σ C - U C  2.5  2.5  0t/m 2 ,

1
 Total Thrust   5  1.15  2.875tonne s
2

Question 3
(a) Calculate the effective stress for a soil element at depth 5m in a
uniform deposit of soil as shown in Figure below.

Solution 3

Step 1: Calculate unit weights.

Above ground water level

 Gs  esr 
From Bulk Density, γ b  γ ω   And
 le 

ωG s 0.3  2.7
ωG s  es r , s r  0.6 ; ω  30%  0.3  e    1.35
sr 0.6
 Gs  ωGs   1 ω 
Bulk Density,  b   ω    Gs   ω
 le   l  ωGs 

Unit Mass or Density

1 ω   1  0.3 
 b  ρ ω Gs    1000  2.7   1493.6  1494kg/m
3

 l  e   1  1.35 

9.81
Unit weigh t  b  1494   14.7kN/m 3
1000

Below groundwater level

The soil is saturated, S = 1
ωG s 0.4  2.7
ωG s  es r , s r  1 ; ω  40%  0.3  e    1.08
sr 1
 Gs  e   2.7  1.08 
 b  ω    9.81     17.8kN/m
3

 le   1  1.08 

Step 2: Calculate effective stress.

Total stress   γh 1  γh 2  2  14.7  3  17.8  82.6kPa
The pore water pressure U  γ w h  3  9.81  29.4 kPa
 Effective Pressure  1    U  82.6  29.4  53.2kPa

Alternativ ely
 
Effective pressure σ 1  2γ  3 γ sat  γ H 2 0  2  14.7  317.8  9.81  53.2KPa
Question 3
A borehole at a site reveals the soil profile as shown in figure below.
Plot the distribution of total and effective stresses with depth

(i) Under normal conditions

(ii) If the ground water level is lowered 2.4m by pumping and sand
remains saturated to original level

SUB MODULE 6: STABILITY OF SLOPES

Introduction to slopes stability, granular materials, Infinite slopes,
total stress, effective stress and planar failure analysis, Slope Analysis
by Method of Slices, Fellenius and Bishop Methods, Slope stability Charts

6.1 Introduction to stability of slopes

Highways, dams, levees, canals and stockpiles are constructed by sloping

the lateral faces of the soil because slopes are generally less expensive
than constructing walls. Natural forces (wind, water , snow etc.) change
the topography on earth and other planents, often creating unstable slopes.
Failure of natural slopes (landslides) and man made slopes have resulted in
much death and destruction. Some failures are sudden and catastrophic
others insidious.
  Slopes are the embankment or excavated inclined surfaces or inclined
masses of earth at angles greater than 0 
 Stability is the ability of the soil to support itself and without
any geometric distortion.
 Instability is the tendency of soil mass to move.
 Failure is the actual movement of mass soil

The forces which cause instability in soil masses are mainly those
associated with gravity and see page

Resistance to failure is derived from the combination of slope geometry and

the shear resistance of the rock or the soil itself. Mass movement may take
place as a result of:

(1) Shear failure along an internal surface

(2) When a general decrease in effective stress between particles
causes full or partial liquefaction

Based on the principle of geometric similarity, Taylor [19] published

stability coefficients for the analysis of homogeneous slopes in terms of
total stress.
For a slope of height H the stability coefficient (Ns) for the failure
C
surface along which the factor of safety is a minimum is N S  U
FH

For the case of U  0 , values of Ns can be obtained from the chart. The
coefficient Ns depends on the slope angle  and the depth factor D, where
DH is the depth to a firm stratum.
6.2 Slope stability assessment
In assessing slope stability, one has to pay particular attention to
geology, surface drainage, ground water, and shear strength of soils.

The analysis is based on simplifying assumptions, experience and careful

site investigation. Limiting equilibrium methods are normally used in the
analysis of slope stability in which it is considered that failure is on
the point of occurring along an assumed or a known failure surface.

Design is based on the requirement to maintain stability rather than on the

need to minimize deformation. If deformation were such that the strain in
an element of soil exceeded the value corresponding to peak strength, then
the strength would fall towards the ultimate value. Thus it is appropriate
to use the critical-state strength in analysing stability
The limit state method on which Euro code 7 (EC7) is based can be used, in
which partial factors are applied to the shear strength parameters. The
greatest uncertainties being the soil properties.
The ultimate limit state of overall stability is then satisfied if,
depending on the method of analysis, either the design disturbing force
(Sd) is less than or equal to the design resisting force (Rd) along the
potential failure surface S d  R d or the design disturbing moment is less
 
than or equal to the design resisting moment M R Cud R 2  M OT wd  .
Characteristic values of shear strength parameters c' and tan ' should be
divided by factors 1.60 and 1.25, respectively. (However, the value of c'
is zero if the critical – state strength is used.)
The characteristic value of undrained strength cu should be divided by
1.40 to give the design value. A factor of unity is appropriate for the
self-weight of the soil and for pore water pressures. However, variable
loads on the soil surface adjacent to the slope should be multiplied by a
factor of 1.30; i.e.
For undrained analyses of slopes  G  1.0  Q  1.3  Cu  1.4 while
For drained analyses of slopes,  G  1.0  Q  1.3    1.25 as an
increase in the vertical load increases the resistance on the shear plane
since the shearing resistance is a function of the normal stress due to the
soil weight that is causing the instability, so that the margin of safety
is unchanged

The following limit states should be considered as appropriate:

1. Loss of overall stability due to slip failure.
2. Bearing resistance failure below embankments.
3. Internal erosion due to high hydraulic gradients and/or poor
compaction.
4. Failure as a result of surface erosion.
5. Failure due to hydraulic uplift.
6. Excessive soil deformation resulting in structural damage to, or loss
of serviceability of, adjacent structures, highways or services.

Measure to slope instability

In problematic areas specified feature are adapted in designing high rise

embankment and cuttings some of these are

(1) Use of sand drains and weep holes

(2) Use of lightweight materials
(3) Stabilization i.e. compaction and consolidation
(4) Turfing i.e. grass planting.
(5) Partial or total removal of undesirable material
(6) Use of geotextile material
(7) Retaining wall and gabion usage
(8) Stepping the slope

Classes or forms of movement (failure)

(i) Falls. These are characterized by movement away from existing

discontinuity such as joints, tissues, steeply inclined bedding
planes, fault planes and within which failure condition may be
assisted or precipitated by the effect of water or ice pressure.
(ii) Flows. In this form of slope failure slipping mass is internally
disrupted and moves partially or wholly as a liquid or fluid. Flows
occur in weak saturated soils when the pore pressure has increased
sufficiently to produce loss of shear strength, True shear surface
development may be intermittent or absent.

(iii) Slides /slips. The soil mass remain essentially intact while sliding
along a definite failure surface. Two structural sub division are
apparent

(i) Translational slide. This tends to occur where the adjacent

stratum is at a relatively shallow depth below the surface of the
slope, the failure surface tending to be plane and roughly parallel
to the slope.
(ii) Compound slips usually occur where the adjacent stratum is at
greater depth, the failure surface consisting of curved and plane
sections
(iii) Rotational slide. It occurs in homogenous steep slope or
cohesion soil or movement takes place along curved shear surface in
such a way that slipping mass slips down near the top of the slope
and bulges up near the toe.
TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURE: or methods of slope failure

(1) Slip circular failure or rotational slip failure. It occurs

through the slope and the base of weak zones.
(2) Translational sliding. Occurs at shallow depth of a slope
(3) Sinking/ Elastic settlement
(4) Failure by plastic squeezing of the soil and heaving of the
ground surface

ANALYSIS OF ROTATIONAL SLIP OR SLIP CIRCLE FAILURE.

In analysis those types of failure, the following forces have to be dealt

with i.e. gravitational forces, weight of soil, see page forces.

Resisting forces include frictional forces, cohesion and shear strength

Types of slip circle failure:

- Base failure
- Toe failure
- Face or slope failure

Methods of slip circle failure Analysis & Design

(1) Circle arc method, This is also termed as   0 analysis or

total stress analysis
(2) Slice method. Or C  . analysis or also called the effective
stress analysis
(3)  - circle method or frictional circle method the most accurate
of analysis are the first two above developed by Tayler and skemption
[Swedish scientist]

Total Stress or Circle arc method -   0

This method is used for testing short-term stability or the soil normally
applied to freshly built embankment or cutting.

Total stress is made when the embankment or the cutting is built on a

purely cohesion soil i.e. on saturated clays of low permeability where
there is little chance to change in water content causing the priority
failure.

In such case, internal friction   0 and stability of slope depends on

shear resistance of the clay which solely depends on cohesion of the clay
(shear strength). When   0 yields a factor of safety against slipping
Resisting moment/ moment of resistance
F.S
Disturbing moment/moment of overturnin g

Also since   0 and that shear strength = cohesion [S =CU] it is therefore

assumed that the failure surface will take the x- sectional form of a
circular arc [slip circle]

The Centre of the critical slip circle will be somewhere above the top of
the slope.

The critical [failure] slip circle is one of an infinite number of

potential circles that may be drawn having different radius and centres and
is most likely to occur when the factor of safety is the lowest.

Assuming the fig. above is a critical slip circle, instability tends to be

caused due to the moment of the body weight W of the portion above the slip
circle.

Disturbing movement M OT  W.d

The tendency to move is resisted by the moment of the mobilised shear

strength acting along the circular arc AB
Length of arc AB  R
Shearing resistance force along AB  CU .R
Shearing moment of resistance M R  C U R 2
 Shear resistance moment M R C R 2
Then factor of safety Fs    U
Disturbing moment M OT Wd
The values of W and d are obtained by dividing the shaded area into slices
or triangular or rectangular segments and then taking area – moments about
a vertical axis passing through the toe or other convenient point.

NB: the most critical circle is the one for which the calculated factor
safety has the lowest value. The minimum factor of safety is clearly the
criterion required for design.
This circle can be located by;
o A process of trial and error, using a reasonable number of trial
circles and a thoughtful search pattern.
o Employing an empirical rule to prescribe an assumed critical and
setting the limiting factor of safety high enough to allow for
imperfections in the rule.
Tension cracks
In cohesive soils or any cutting, tension cracks tend to form at or near
the top of the earth slopes and these cracks may show the first indication
of slope failure. i.e. its bottom is a point the slip circle will pass. The
2CU N 2CU
theoretical depth of these cracks is given as Zo   for
 
 0

The development of the slip circle is terminated at the tension crack depth
since no cohesive resistance can develope at this depth, therefore surface
resisting rotation is really arc length AC.
If the crack fills with water, an allowance must be made for the
1
hydrostatic pressure force Pw   w Z o , which acts horizontally adding to
2

2
disturbing moment
Taking this into account, together with the fact that the slip circle arc
is reduced, the factor of safety becomes
Shear resistance moment M R CU R 2
Fs   
Disturbing moment M OT Wd  Pw y c
Example 1
A cutting in a saturated clay is inclined at a slope of 1 vertical: 1.5
horizontal and has a vertical height of 10.0m. The bulk unit weight of the
soil is 18.5kN/m3 and its undrained cohesion is 40kN/m2 ( U  0 ). Determine
the factors of safety against immediate shear failure along the slip circle
shown below;

(a) Ignoring the tension crack

Draw & measure;
The area of the slip mass ABCA A = 102.1m 2
Sector angle AOB  = 84.06 o
Centroid distance from O, lever arm d = 6.54m
Radius R = OA  5 2  16.7 2  17.43m
MR C R 2
Then factor of safety Fs   U
M OT Wd
R 2
Moment of resistance M R  R 2  ACB   Cu   Cu
180
  84.06  17.43 2
MR   40  17828 .776 kNm
180
Disturbing moment M OT  Wd  Ad  102.1  18.5  6.54  12353 .079 kNm
M R 17828.776 CU R 2 40  17.43 2  84.06  
Fs      1.44
M OT 12353.079 Wd 102 .1  18.5  6.54  180
(b) Allowing for tension crack empty of water
The effect of tension crack is to reduce the arc length from AB to AC
2C 2  40
Depth of tension crack Z o  U   4.32 m
 18.5
Sector Angle  C  67.44 o
Area of slip Mass A  71.64m 2
Centroid distance from O, d  5.86m
In this case, PW  0
MR C U R 2
Fs  
M OT Wd  Pw y c
 40  17.43 2  67.44 o   14304
Fs    1.84
71.64  18.5  5.86  180  0  9.58 7766
(c) Allowing for the tension crack when full of water
When the tension crack is full of water, a horizontal force Pw will be
exerted on the slip mass.
1 1
Pw   w Z o   9.81  4.32 2  91.54 kN/m
2

2 2
4.32
Lever arm of Pw about O, y C  6.7  2   9.58m
3
MR CU R 2 14304
Then from, Fs     1.65
M OT Wd  Pw y c 7766  91.54  9.58
Example 2
A temporary cutting has the profile. The material is homogenous clay of
density 1800kg/m3, cohesion 50kN/m2 and angle of shearing resistance zero.

Find the factor of safety for the slip circle shown, allowing for a tension
crack which may be filled with water.
Solution
The effect of tension crack is to reduce the arc length to AD
2C 2  50  1000
Depth of tension crack Z o  U   5.67 m
 1800  9.8
Sector Angle   89 o
Area of slip Mass A  184 m 2
Lever arm, la  4.6m
 8
AE   13.856 m; AF  13.856  3  10.856 m
tan 30
FO  17 2  10.856 2  13.08m
OJ  13.08  8  5.08  5.10m
1 1
In this case, hydrostatic force Pw   w Z o   9.81  5.67 2  157 .69 kN/m
2

2 2
5.67
Lever arm of Pw about O, y C  5.1  2   8.88m
3
MR C R 2
Then factor of safety Fs   U
M OT Wd
R 2
Moment of resistance M R  R 2  ACB   Cu   Cu
180
  89  17.0 2
MR   50  22445 .81kNm
180
Disturbing moment
 1800  9.81 
M OT  Wd  Pw y c  Ad  Pw y c  184   4.6   157 .69  8.88  16346 .02kNm
 1000 

MR 22445.81
Fs    1.37
M OT 16346.02

C U R 2 50  17 2  89  
Or Fs    1.37
Wd  Pw y c  1800  9.81  
184  1000  4.6   157 .69  8.88 180
  
Example 3
A 45o slope is excavated to a depth of 8m in a deep layer of saturated clay
of unit weight 19 kN/m3: the relevant shear strength parameters are cu = 65
kN/m2 and U  0 . Determine the factor of safety for the trial failure
surface of cross sectional area 70m2 specified below.

Check that no loss of overall stability will occur according to the limit
state approach.
Solution
The cross-sectional area ABCD is 70m2.
Disturbing moment due the Weight of soil mass
M OT  Wd  Aγ  d  70  19  4.5  5985kNm
Resisting moment due to arc length ABC
 πRθ  π  12.1  89.5
M r   Cu   R  65   12.1  14865.67kN m
 180  180
The factor of safety is given by
 πRθ 
 Cu R
Mr  180  14865.67kN m
F.S     2.48
M OT Aγ  d 5985kNm

This is the factor of safety for the trial failure surface selected and is
not necessarily the minimum factor of safety.
The minimum factor of safety can be estimated from chart coefficient Ns.
Hence for   45 o and assuming that D is large, the value of Ns is 0.18.
Then
Cu 65
Fmin    2.37  F .S  2.48 ok
NsH 0.18  19  8

Using the limit state method the characteristic value of undrained strength
(cuk) is divided by a partial factor of 1.40.
Cu k 65
The design value cu d    46.43
 cu 1.4
Disturbing moment per m due the Weight of soil mass
M OT  Wd  Aγ  d  70  19  4.5  5985kNm
Resisting moment per m due to arc length ABC
 πRθ  π  12.1  89.5
M r   Cu d   R  46.43   12.1  10618 .66kNm
 180  180

The design disturbing moment is less than the design resisting moment,
therefore the overall stability limit state is satisfied.
Undrained non – Homogeneous slopes  u  0
A truly homogeneous soil with the same undrained shear strength is a purely
theoretical case however a non – homogeneous nature of soil always applies
as;
o In a single layer there is a significant variation in the undrained
shear strength with depth.
o Two or more layers of distinctly different soils are present
Multilayer soil system
This occurs when;
o One soil is either tipped or built up to form an embankment on the
pre-existing surface of another soil.
o A cutting is driven through stratified deposits
Analysis depends on the comparative values of Cu in the soils on either
side of an interface.
The slip mass corresponding to a given trial circle is divided into zones
and the area, centroid position & sector angle determined for each.
Mr R 2 Cu A A  Cu B B  ......Cu n n 
F.S  
M OT W A d A  WB d B  ......  Wn d n
If the soils have reasonably similar shear strengths, the total stress
Mr CuR 2  A   B  ...... n 
analysis can be used i.e. F.S  
M OT W A d A  WB d B  ......  Wn d n

Example
The slope of a cutting is 1 vertical to 1.5 horizontal and the vertical
height is 10m. The soil mass comprises two saturated clay layers as shown
below.

Using the total stress u  0 method, determine the factor of safety
against shear failure along the trial slip circle.
Solution
The slip mass is considered as two separate zones for which a common radius
R is found as R  1  5.52  3.25  6.75  8.02  19.31m
For zone A (FBDE)
Sector Angle  A  25.32 o
Area of slip Mass AA  65.943m 2
Lever arm, d A  9.79m
For zone B (EDA)
Sector Angle  B  57.20 o
Area of slip Mass AB  53.74m 2
Lever arm, d B  2.85m
π
2 R 2 Cu A θ A  Cu B θ B 
Cuθu 180
F.S  
Wd AA γ A d A  AB γ B d B
π
19.312 50  25.32  30  57.20 
F.S  180  19407  1.29
65.94  19  9.79  53.74  18  2.85 15022

Submerged slopes u  0

In the case of retaining embankments, such as earth dams, canal banks,
lagoon banks etc. part or all of the slope may be submerged.
The weight of that portion of the slip mass below EFG (the external water
level) is calculated on the bases of the submerged unit weight  Sat   w  .
The bulk unit weight   is still used for the portion above EFG.
In effect, the water resting on the submerged part of the slope provides an
additional component of resistance moment, so that the factor of safety
increases as the water level rises and decreases as it falls.
Example
The slope of a water-retaining embankment is 1 vertical: 2 horizontal and
the vertical height is 10m. The soil is fully saturated and has an
undrained cohesion of 30kN/m2 and a unit weight of 18kN/m3. Determine the
factor of safety against shear failure along the trial circle below when;

(i) The water level is at the toe of the slope

(ii) The water level is 6m above the toe

Solution
The slip mass is first considered as two separate zones for which the
common radius R; R  3  82  6  4  102  22.83m
In each case, the hydraulic thrust in the tension crack will be included
(i) Water level at toe
For zone A (FBDE)
Sector Angle  A  76.06 o
Area of slip Mass AA  41.92m 2
Lever arm, d A  13m
For zone B (EDA)
Sector Angle  B  76.06 o
Area of slip Mass AB  144 .11m 2
Lever arm, d B  4.44m
2CU 2  30
Depth of tension crack Z o    3.33m
 18
 1 1
Hydrostatic force Pw   w Z o   9.81  3.33 2  54.4kN/m
2

2 2
2
Lever arm of Pw about O, y C  10   3.33  12.22 m
3

30  22.83 2  76.06 
CU R 2
180
F.S  
Wd  Wd  Pw y c 41.92  18  13  144 .11  18  4.44   54.4  12.22 

20757
F.S   0.944 i.e. Shear failure will occur
9808  11517  665

(ii) Water level 6.0m vertically above toe

C U R 2
F.S 
Ad   Sat   w Ad  Pw y c

30  22.83 2  76.06 
F.S  180
41.92  18  13  144.11  18  9.81  4.44   54.4  12.22 

20757
F.S   1.32
9808  5240 .36  665

The Effective stress or the C   method

It is also called the slice method– For drained stability analysis.
This is suitable for long term soils where they are to remain open long
enough for the soil to drain and the value of  to develop or if the soil
is not saturated. It’s also used to estimate long term stability in over
consolidated clays for both immediate and long term conditions.
For C   soils the shear resistance along the slip plane varies with the
normal force.
Because of variations in the stresses along a trial slip surface, the slip
mass is considered as a series of slices.
A possible slip circle with centre O, and Radius R is chosen and divided
into strips of equal width or breadth b
The forces acting on the slice of length 1m will be;
W - The weight of the slice  hb
N - The effective normal reacting force at the base of the slice  W cos
vertical component of the weight
T - The shearing force induced along the base of the slice  W sin 
horizontal component of the weight.
For one strip; disturbing moment about O  T  R
For the whole area, disturbing moment  R T 
The restraining force on one strip is made up of cohesion Cu  l  and
frictional force  N tan  
For one strip; Resisting moment about O  C u l  N tan  R
For the whole area, disturbing moment  C u R  tan   N R
C R  tan   N R C R  tan   N 
Factor of safety FS  
u u

R T   T 
Example
The cutting below is made in a homogeneous silty clay. The soil constants
for undisturbed samples are C  20kN / m 2 and   8 o .
Allowing for the developing of tension cracks, what is the factor of safety
associated with a slip circle (centre O) passing through the toe of the
bank.

Solution
2CU N 2  20 tan 49
Depth of tension crack Z o    2.7m
 1.73  9.8