1.

The use of conjunctions

Generally, conjunctions perform linking functions. Conjunctions perform the following

functions: to link two or more words, groups or clauses, to link two clauses especially
the main or independent and the dependent or subordinate, to link two identical words
or phrases in order to emphasise the degree of something or to suggest that something
continues or increases over a period of time (e.g. Day by day I am getting better and
better), to introduce a question which follows logically from what somebody has just
said, to link two or more alternatives, to be used between numbers to give estimation
(e.g We will stay there a day or two), to introduce a comment for correction, to
introduce something for explanation or justification, to show contrast, for adding, to
change a subject in a discussion, to be used as a condition in conditional statements, to
be used for warning (e.g. or else), etc.

Since English language involves both speaking and writing, it is important to know and
understand conjunctions well, so that effective and good flow of communication may be
maintained in an efficient manner.

Conjunctions when used properly, allow for more natural flow and rhythm in speech
and writing, whereas the improper use of them often results in writing that sounds
abrupt and disjointed. Consider the following sentences, for example:

 “I went to the shop. They didn’t have apples. They also didn’t have juice.
 Inácio saw the dog on the road. He decided to adopt the dog. Inácio brought the
dog home”.

While technically not incorrect, however, these sentences would sound much better as
separate sentences joined together by conjunctions:

 “I went to the shop, but they had neither apples nor juice
 Inácio saw a dog on the road and decided to adopt the dog, so he brought the
dog home”.

1.1. Semantic use of conjunctions

Conjunctions contribute to discourse structure by indicating the semantic meaning or

relationship between what has been said and what is to come.
As reported by Schleppegrell (1996, p.280) […] this they do by creating cohesion in
texts, either spoken or written, by indicating linkages across varying spans of discourse,
and by signalling transitions and displaying the purpose or direction of development of
the discourse.

Note that there are instances where, though a conjunction “stands‟ between two words,
phrases, clauses or sentences, it is strikingly and unusually far from being used as
performing a linking function. Such an instance involves the most frequently used
conjunction (or coordinator) and.

According to Lang, as cited by Hertwig, Benz and Krauss (2005, p.740), its
commonness and plainness as the most general connective in English language do not
mean that it lacks the ability to convey a wider range of relationships between the state
of affairs described by the conjuncts. In fact, one reason for linguists enduring
fascination with and is that among all coordinating conjunctions, e.g. or, but; it has the
least semantic and syntactic limits, the least specific meaning, and the highest context
dependency.

Example:

 Her husband is in the hospital and she is seeing other men.

As Kitis, also cited by Hertwig, Benz and Krauss (1980, p.740) points out, the
conjunction and in this sentence does much more than conjoin, connect or link the two
clauses. Rather, it functions as an “emotional device” that communicates the speaker’s
emotional attitude, surprise, or even outrage.

1.2. Pragmatic use of conjunction

According to Schleppegrell (1996, p.280), in speech and writing, the interactional and
discourse structuring role of conjunctions is often emphasized, and the pragmatic rather
than the semantic meaning of them (conjunctions) is foregrounded. In a paper titled The
Pragmatics of and-conjunctions: The non-narrative cases.

Examples:

a) He gave up Semantics and felt much happier

b) He felt much happier and gave up Semantics.

They report that the above example consists of how the non-truth functional suggestions
which are conveyed by utterances containing the expression in question are in fact due
to principles which are about general properties of discourse or communication

Referring to Grice, they say that this maxim, a sub-maxim of the category of manner,
requires that speakers present their material in an orderly fashion, which in the case of
narrative means that their utterances should match the chronology of the events being
described. Furthermore, consider the example of the and-conjunction below and its
pragmatic value:

 Bukola is a linguist and he cannot spell.

 Bukola cannot spell and he is a linguist.

It might be argued that the first example is just the sort of example that we do not need
to be worried about. After all, it is equivalent to the second example, which suggests
that this is a use of and in which it is equivalent to the logical operator &. However, this
is to assume that an account of the interpretation of and-conjunctions should be limited
to the explanation of temporal relations. It should be noted that and-conjunctions like
the examples above communicate suggestions over and above the truth of their
conjuncts. So, if the arguments for minimal semantics are to be maintained, we need to
be able to show that these effects can be accommodated in the pragmatic theory.

One solution might be to retain the special-purpose sequencing principle, like Grice’s
sub-maxim of manner, for discourse sequences which do present events in
chronological order and to regard other sequences as exception to this principle.

As reported by Blackemore & Carston (2014, p.2), this seems to be the approach of
Dowdy who opposes a temporal discourse principle to account for the effects which are
sometimes attributed to the semantics of a narrative past tense; he suggests that it only
applies to cases in which time moves forward, and not to sequences in which the second
segment describes a state.

1.3. Use of conjunctions in logic

One of the most basic semantic roles of conjunctions, especially coordinators, is to
express the logical relations of conjunction and disjunction, corresponding
approximately to English and and or respectively.

According to Lyons (1996 p.115), the conjunction of p and q by means of the

conjunctive (or conjoining) connective is the conjunction, p-and-q or p & q. Another
commonly used symbol for conjunctive connective is ˄. Thus, p ˄ q and p & q are
equivalent or similar. A conjunction is true if (and only if) the component propositions,
the conjuncts, are both true: otherwise it is false.

Similarly, according to Huddleston (1980, p.195), if we join two propositions “p” and
“q” by conjunction, the resultant compound proposition “p and q” will be true if both
component propositions are true, otherwise is false. For example: “Her daughter was a
dentist and her son was studying law” is true provided “Her daughter was a dentist” and
“Her son was studying law” are both true: if either is false (or if both are), then the
compound proposition is false. In addition, the order of elements can be changed
without affecting the propositional meaning of the sentence.

1.4. Summary

We normally use conjunctions to:

 Show an additional or similar idea

And, yet (coordinating conjunctions); not only . . . but also, both . . . and
(correlative conjunctions); after, although, even though, since (subordinating
conjunctions)

 Contrast an idea

But, yet (coordinating conjunctions); either . . . or, neither . . . nor (correlative

conjunctions); although, even though, unless, whereas (subordinating conjunctions)

 Show cause or effect

For, so (coordinating conjunctions); because, since, if, so that (subordinating
conjunctions)

 Show the relationship of time

And, but, so (coordinating conjunctions); when, whenever, until, before, after, while,
once, as soon as, as long as (subordinating conjunctions)

 Show the relationship of place

And, but (coordinating conjunctions); either . . . or, neither . . . nor (correlative

conjunctions); where, wherever (subordinating conjunctions)

 Show purpose

And, so (coordinating conjunctions); not only . . . but also, whether . . . or, and both . . .
and (correlative conjunctions); in order that, so that (subordinating conjunctions)

2. Wish and if

2.1. If

A conditional sentence expresses the idea that the action in the main clause (the result
clause) can only happen when a certain condition (the clause that begins with if) is
fulfilled. The if clause states the condition, and the main clause states the result.

Conditional sentences have two parts or clauses that give a condition in the dependent
clause and a result in the independent clause. The condition clause usually contains an if
statement. There are several different forms of conditional sentences that allow the
writer to express various meanings using different tenses.

 General formula: Condition (if) clause + result clause

2.1.1. Types of conditionals

i. Zero conditional
The zero conditional uses the present tense in both clauses and is used to talk about
something that is always or generally true. The present tense signifies that these actions
are both possible and typical.

General Formula: If + simple present, simple present

Example 1: If it rains, I take an umbrella with me to work.

Example 2: If I wake up early, I always read in bed.

Example 3: if you touch fire, you burn

Example 4: if you walk too much, you die

Example: if you eat chocolate, you enjoy it.

ii. First conditional

The first conditional uses the present tense in the if clause and the future tense in the
result clause. This form is used to talk about something that is a probable future result of
a condition.

Formula: If + simple present, will + base verb

Example 1: If I see you later, I will say hello.

Example 2: If I don’t see you later, I won’t be able to say hello.

Example 3: if you go to school, you will pass

Example 4: if you eat healthy food, you will get better soon

Example 5: if you rush, you will meet Luis

iii. Second conditional

The second conditional uses the past tense in the if clause and a modal and base
verb in the result clause. This form is used to talk about a hypothetical situation that cannot
happen or is unlikely to happen.

Formula: If + simple past, modal + base verb

Example 1: If I had a million dollars, I would buy a large vacation home.

Example 2: If I were you, I wouldn’t wait to study for the test.

Example 3: if I were rich, I would buy an expensive house

Example 4: If were the president of Mozambique, I would not let people die from
hunger.

Example 5: If I were a bird, I would fly high

iv. Third conditional

The third conditional uses the past perfect in the if clause and a modal and present
perfect in the result clause. This form is used to talk about a hypothetical situation in the
past that did not happen – typically with an outcome that did not happen and is perhaps
the opposite of what did happen.

Formula: If + past perfect, modal + present perfect

Example 1: If it had rained last week, the plants would not have died.

Example 2: If I had finished college, I would have become a doctor.

Example 3: if I had cooked beans, I would have be happy

Example 4: if I had finished high school, I would have be at college

Example 5: if I had slept yesterday, I would not have tired.

2.2. Wish

Using the verb wish + clause about the wish is a very common construction in English,
especially in spoken language.

The verb after wish is one tense before the actual time. In other words, if you want to
wish for the present time, use past tense. If you want to wish for the past time, use past
perfect tense. If you want to wish for the future time, use would.
Sentences with wish are similar in meaning to unreal conditions in the present,
future, or past. The situation is imaginary, does not exist, or did not happen. Using
wish expresses the fact that you want the opposite of the real situation to
be true.

i. General rules

There are many types of wishes, they follow a structure which differentiate
the wishes, below are some rules of how we use the wish.

 To make a wish about the present time, use the past tense.

Example: I wish I could play guitar better.

Example 2: I wish I could run faster.

Example 3: I wish I could hug you.

Example 4: I wish I could fly.

Example 5: I wish I could walk.

 To make a wish about the past time, use the past perfect
tense.

Examples:

1. We got home from vacation last night. We really wish we had had more
vacation time
2. He wishes he had had many books.
3. She wishes she had had some water
 3. Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that link or connect two words, phrases, clauses or sentences
together, either in speech or in writing. Conjunctions are one of the eight parts of speech
in English, according to the traditional grammar.

Traditionally, the conjunction is one of the eight parts of speech in English. A

conjunction, as reported by Malmkjӕr (1991, p.478), is defined as an indeclinable part
of speech that links other parts of speech, in company with which it has
significance, by classifying their meaning or relations.
Halliday and Hasan (1976) treat them as “linguistic devices that create cohesion”, while
Sanders and Maat describe them as a “semantic relation that is explicitly marked” (p.1-
2).

3.1. Types of conjunctions

Conjunctions are divided into two classes: coordinating and subordinating

conjunctions, However, there are traditionally basically three types of conjunctions,
which are: coordinating, subordinating, and correlative conjunctions.

 Coordinating conjunctions

These are used to link words, phrases and clauses. They are conjunctions which are used
to join together clauses of equal rank. In other words, they generally connect sentence
elements of the same grammatical class such as nouns with nouns, adverbs with
adverbs, phrases with phrases and clauses with clauses. They also link two sentences
that do not depend on each other for meaning. They are simply referred to as
coordinators, and the art of joining two words, phrases, clauses or sentences using
coordinators is known as coordination.

Huddleston (1980, p.194) divides coordination into two:

Basic coordination

This can be described directly, e.g. Her daughter is a dentist and her son is studying
law;

Non-basic coordination

This can be described indirectly, in terms of its relation to the more elementary type.
E.g. Okosun says he is innocent and she is a disinterested witness.

According to Aarts (2001, p.45-6), we treat coordination as an instance of parataxis, a

term derived from Greek, meaning syntactic side-by-side arrangement, Furthermore, all
cases of coordination that involve an overt coordinator are referred to as syndetic
coordination. Where there is no overt coordinator, it is referred to as asyndetic
coordination. Asyndetic coordination is exemplified as follows:
 a) She is honest, hardworking, intelligent.
b) We need bananas, apples, oranges, pears.
c) Luis laughed, john cried, Isaque grinned

Coordinating conjunctions include: and, nor, but, and or.

Sentential examples:

a) I bought a computer and a keyboard.

b) When his wife left him, he did not bother nor went to plead for her return.
c) She is poor but she is happy
d) The books are on the table or in the cupboard
e) I like orange but I cannot resist to mango.

According to Murthy (215), coordinating conjunctions are divided into three kinds,
namely:

 Cumulative or copulative conjunctions

 Adversative conjunctions
 Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions

i. Cumulative or Copulative Conjunctions

These are used to join statements, or they add one statement to another. They include:
and, so, both … and, as well as, not only … but also, no less than, etc.

Sentential examples:

a) He looked and smiled at me.

b) He is my father so I respect him
c) They gave me money and stood by me in my trouble
d) As well as writing the letter for me, he posted it.
e) She, no less than her friend, tried to disappoint me.

ii. Adversative Conjunctions

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976, p.250), the meaning of the adversative relation
is „contrary to expectation‟. The expectation may be derived from the content of what is
being said, or from the communication process, in a speaker hearer situation. They
include: but, still, only, etc.

Sentential examples:

a) She is beautiful but poor.

b) You are intelligent still you have to work hard.
c) He is a good servant only he has greed for food.
d) My mum loves me, but my dad I doubt
e) My brother and me still taking bath together

iii. Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions

These are used to express a choice between two alternatives. They include: or, nor,
either…or, neither…nor, else, whether…or, otherwise, etc.

Sentential examples:

a) You must tell me the truth or I cannot help you.

b) She is not a teacher nor a nurse
c) You must either return my money or sell your house to me.
d) She neither loved him nor liked to marry him.
e) You must do the work sincerely else you will lose the job.

 Subordinating Conjunction

Subordinating conjunctions are words which are used to link subordinate clauses with
the main clauses in a complex sentence. They are conjunctions used to join clauses of
unequal rank. In other words, they are used to join an independent or main (principal)
clause with a dependent (subordinate) one that relies on the main clause for meaning
and relevance. This means that main clauses can stand alone and do not depend on
subordinate clauses while subordinate clauses cannot stand alone.
According to Quirk and Greenbaum (p. 309), subordination is a non-symmetrical
relation, holding between two clauses in such a way that one is a constituent or part of
the other.

Also according to Huddleston (1980, p.194), subordination in contrast with

coordination, involves inequality, that is, a relation between a dependent (the
subordinate element) and a head (the superordinate one). A subordinating conjunction
can appear at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.

According to Sahebkeir & Aidinlou (2014, p.125), subordinating conjunctions are also
known as transitional conjunctions.

They include: after, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless, as, when,
where, while, than, whether, in order that, nevertheless, etc.

Sentential examples:

a) He came after I had finished my work.

b) He was sacked from office because of his stance against corruption.
c) I wonder if he will ever change.
d) He thinks that we will agree.
e) Though he is your brother, you should not trouble him like that.

According to Baskervill and Sewell (2015, p.3), subordinating conjunctions are divided
into eight classes. They include: time, cause or reason, purpose, result or consequence,
condition, concession and comparison.

i. Time

These are subordinators that express consequence in time or succession in time between
clauses. Examples include: before, after, till, since, when, while, etc.

Sentential examples:

a) Mary had left before my arrival.

b) I began my work after they had gone.
 c) I have not seen Mercy since she was married.
d) She will be happy when her mother returns from the market.
e) He was speaking with his friends while I was trying to sleep.

ii. Cause or Reason

These are subordinators that express causal relations in the simplest form that mean „as
a result of this‟ or „because of this‟. Examples include: because, since, as, and for.

Sentential examples:

a) He travelled home because of the death of his mother.

b) Since it is dark, take the torch with you.
c) As she is my sister, I like her.
d) He was speaking as he was writing.
e) I have been teaching for three years.

iii. Result or Consequence

Result/consequence and cause/reason are closely related but the main subordinator here
is so and that. These have the relation that is expressed to mean „for this reason‟ which
leads to something else.

Sentential examples:

a) He talked so fast that I could not understand him.

b) I was so tired that I could not eat after cooking.

iv. Purpose

Purpose and cause/reason are closely related and the subordinators involved have the
sense of „for this reason‟ or „for this purpose‟. They include: that, so that, in order
that, lest, etc.

Sentential examples:

a) We eat that we may live.

b) I will help him now so that he can help me tomorrow.
c) Emeka travelled to Abuja in order that he could see his brother.
 d) He walked quietly lest he should wake the child.

v. Condition

According to Quirk and Greenbaum (2004, p.323), conditional subordinators state the
dependence of one circumstance or set of circumstances on another. The main
subordinators in English are if and unless. The if-clause could either be a positive or a
negative condition while the unless-clause is a negative one.

For example:

a) If you do the job well, I will pay you.

b) If you do not do the job well, I will not pay you.
c) Unless the strike is called off, there will be no lecture tomorrow.

vi. Circumstance

These subordinators express a fulfilled condition, or to put differently, a relation

between a premise in the subordinate clause and the conclusion drawn from it in the
main clause. An example of this is a special circumstantial compound conjunction:
seeing that.

Sentential example:

a) Seeing that the weather has improved, we shall enjoy our game.

vii. Concession

These are subordinators that express the sense of reluctant yielding. They are usually
introduced by though and its more formal variant although, even if and occasionally if.
Others include however, whereas, etc.

Sentential examples:

b) No goals were scored, though it was an exciting game.

c) Although I enjoyed myself, I was glad to come here
d) However hard he tried, he failed the exam
e) Whereas Sule seems rather stupid, his brother is clever.
f) Even if you dislike music, you would enjoy this concert.

viii. Comparison

These are subordinators that express comparison between dependent and independent
clauses. They are introduced by than, as-as, as, etc.

Sentential examples:
 a) She respected me more than I thought.
b) Luis walks as beautifully as a film star.
c) As sugar attracts ants, John is attracted by Mary

 Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are link words that consist of two parts and are used to give
emphasis to the combinations of two structures that are balanced (Sahebkeir &
Aidinlou, 2014).

They are regarded as team conjunctions because they are used in pairs. They get their
name from the fact that they work together (co-) and relate one sentence element to
another.

Correlative conjunctions are more similar to coordinating conjunctions in that the

sentence fragments they connect are fairly equal.

Lester (1990, P.65) notes that correlative conjunctions are very similar to coordinating
conjunctions except that they are two-part conjunctions. They include: either…or,
neither…nor, both…and, as many…as, whether…or, not only…but also, such…that,
so…that, hardly…when, scarcely…when, no sooner…than, not…but, etc.

Sentential examples:

a) I want either shoe or socks.

b) Neither a borrower nor a lender be.
c) I have both shoes and socks
d) There are as many curtains as there are windows.
e) He was not sure whether he was losing or winning.
f) She was not only mean but also rude.

 Compound Conjunctions

These are groups of words that are used as conjunctions. Quirk and Greenbaum (2004,
p.313) regard such groups of words as compound subordinators. They are compound
items which act, to various degrees, like a single conjunction. Such groups of words end
with obligatory “that‟, e.g. in order that, in that, except that, on condition that, so that,
such that, etc. while some others have optional “that‟, e.g. now (that), provided (that),
supposing (that), seeing (that), considering (that). More examples are: as well as, as
much as, rather than, etc. Other examples include: as though, in as much as, as soon
as, etc.

Sentential examples:
 (a) He applied for the job in order that he might help his father
(b) I can lend you the money on condition that you repay me next month.
(c) I shall give you the job provided that you know how to type.
(d) The pastor as well as his members received the gift of the Holy Spirit.
(e) He buries himself in the things of this world as though he will not die.

4. The structure of conjunctions

Conjunctions are a grammatical resource for indicating links within texts

(Schleppegrell, 1996, p.272). This is because they join similar grammatical elements:
noun or pronoun to noun or pronoun, verb to verb, adjective to adjective, adverb to
adverb, preposition to preposition, phrase to phrase and clause to clause.

Like prepositions, conjunctions do not have inflection because they belong to the
closed class, that is, they are not expandable. This means that they cannot be inflected
through suffixation (prefixes and suffixes) to make them change from one grammatical
class to the other like nouns, verbs and adjectives.

In other words, nouns, verbs and adjectives can generate more grammatical classes
when inflected through suffixation but that is not applicable to conjunctions. In this
regard, conjunctions are like prepositions, as both of them belong to the closed class.
This implies that prepositions too are not expandable, or cannot be inflected through
suffixation to generate more grammatical classes.

5. Articles and Nouns

4.1. Articles

The English language uses articles to identify nouns. Articles act much like adjectives.
Articles clarify whether a noun is specific or general, singular or plural. An article
appears before the noun it accompanies.

Articles communicate different things about a given noun. A and an, the indefinite
articles, show that a noun is general, or non-specific. The, the definite article, shows
that a noun is specific.

 Using Indefinite Articles

When you want to speak generally about a singular noun, use a or an before
it. In each of the following examples, there is not one specific kind of bird,
rock, or apple that the speaker is thinking of, so the article a or an is placed
before the italicized noun.

Examples:

a) I would love to have a dog. (It doesn’t matter what kind of dog.)
b) I feel like grabbing a rock and throwing it into the ocean.
c) You look like you could eat an apple.
d) My mother gave me an umbrella
e) John is looking for a job

Additionally, when you are first introducing a noun, use the articles a or an. Even if you
refer to a specific object, as long as the person you are speaking to doesn’t know what it
is, then you introduce it with a or an.

Examples of a/an When Introducing a Noun

Question: What do you have in your hand?

Answer: I have an apple in my hand.

Question 2: What do you have for lunch?

Answer: I have a sandwich for lunch.

However, there are some exceptions to this rule. Uncountable nouns can be deceiving.
They are never made plural because they are not divided into parts by themselves. For
example, you cannot say two waters or two salts. They can be mistaken for singular
nouns, waiting for a person to place a or an before them, but don’t do it.

Examples of Uncountable Nouns

Incorrect: I have a water. (We don’t think about water in terms of number, but in terms
of gallons, glasses, or even bowls.

Do not precede the word with a or an.)

Incorrect: This cliff is scary to climb. It’s a good thing I have a courage. (Courage is not
something that can be divided, so do not place a before it.)
Examples of Common Uncountable Nouns (hope, love, peace, salt, sugar, milk, juice,
paper, homework, energy, confidence, advice, work)

To decide between when to use a and when to use an, think about the initial sound of
the noun that follows the article. Use a when the noun begins with a consonant sound (a
map); use an when the noun begins with a vowel sound (an otter).

 Using the Definite Article

While a and an are used for nouns that are general, the is used for nouns
that are known by you and the person you are speaking to. In the following
examples, you will notice that the is used regardless of whether or not the
noun is plural or uncountable (unlike a or an).

Examples of the before a Specified Noun

a) The apple is red.

b) Thanks for giving me the water.
c) The Spanish textbook is interesting
d) The information that you gave me is fake
e) The orange is yummy

We can also use the when a noun is preceded by a superlative adjective. Whenever an
adjective ends with {-est}, it means that the noun it is describing stands alone; it is at
the top, or the bottom, of a specific category. It could be the tallest or the shortest; it
could be the prettiest or the ugliest; it could be the nicest or the meanest. If you are
introducing a superlative adjective, it is introduced with the.

Examples of the before Superlatives

a) The smartest person in the world used to be Albert Einstein.

b) The tallest person in the world was nine feet tall.
c) Someone once said the best things in life are free.

General rules

 Place the article before the noun.

Examples: the house, the cat, a dog, a book

  Place the article before the adjective when the noun is modified by an adjective.

The purple house, the black cat, a white dog, an open book < Correct

The house purple or a dog white < Incorrect

 Do not add an article when the noun has a possessive pronoun (my, his, her, our,
their) or a demonstrative pronoun (this, that).

Examples: my house, her book, that house this book < Correct

The my house or the this book < Incorrect

6. Nouns

A noun is a word or word group that is used to name a person, place, a thing, or an idea.
Examples:

Persons: teacher, Inácio, mother, father

Places: school, Woodbridge, mall Things: lamp, book, desk

Ideas: love, courage, freedom.

Halliday and Matthiessen (2004:51) define the noun according to its functional
(semantic) and structural (grammatical) properties respectively.

Semantically a noun "expresses a person, other being, inanimate object or abstraction,

bounded or unbounded, etc." and grammatically a noun "is either count or mass; if
count, may be either singular or plural, plural usually inflected with -s; can be made
possessive, adding -’s/-s’; can take the in front; can be Subject in a clause, etc."

A Noun is the name of a person place or thing. A thing includes a quality (fear) a
material (gold), a collection (herd, army), a state (adherence) and an action (cheat,
mock, movement)

6.1. Types of noun

i. Proper nouns
A proper noun is the name of a particular person or thing, i.e. a name used for an
individual person or place, river, or mountain etc.: Mary, Rahul, Godavari, Luis, Everest
Mozambique, and Inácio.

ii. Common nouns

A common noun refers to any and every person or thing of the same kind or class, not to
a particular person or thing: cow, dog, girl, boy, man, woman

iii. Collective nouns

A collective noun is the name of a collection, group of people, or things of the same
kind: class, team, government jury, federation.

iv. Material nouns

A material noun is the name of a material, substance, or ingredient things are made of.
They can be articles of food or drink as well: iron, copper, steel, gold, coal, silver, rice,
wheat, milk, water, tea, sugar.

v. Abstract nouns

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, state, or concept: beauty, sweetness,

childhood, and love.

6.2. Nouns according to the countability

According to countability, nouns can be classified into:

 Countable nouns
 Uncountable nouns
i. Countable nouns

Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted and they often have the plural form, and
they normally answer the question, “how many”.

Example:

Book, (one book, two books), Chair, Chairs

ii. Uncountable nouns

Uncountable nouns are nouns that cannot be counted as the name says, nouns that
normally don’t have the plural form, summarizing, they normally answer the question,
“how much”

Examples:

Milk, water, ink, sugar, butter.