Lab 1: Measurement in physics lab

In this lab, you’ll learn about measurement in a physics lab. After this lab, you
should be able to assess the uncertainty in a single measurement that you make
using either digital or analog tools, calculate the average and uncertainty in that
average from a set of measurements, and calculate a Z-score to assess whether two
values are consistent with each other.
Introduction
In this lab, you will learn how measurements are properly conducted and data analyzed through a series of activities.
This document will be both your notes from this lesson for future reference as well as your worksheet for this lab.

Uncertainty in single measurements

Scientists use the terms uncertainty and error interchangeably but using either term doesn’t mean that the scientist
(or student) did something wrong. Scientific measurements always contain some uncertainty. In this lab you will
begin learning how to assess and handle that uncertainty. In general, values with uncertainties are written in the
form:
x± δx .
where x is the best assessment of the measured value and δ x is the uncertainty in that value. This communicates a
reasonable range from x−δx to x +δx .
 How to assess uncertainty in a single, direct measurement:
1. Assess the measurement precision of your tools.
a. For an analog tool (such as a meter stick), this is 1/2 of the least count1, because you can make
some estimation of the value between the markings.
b. For a digital tool (such as a stopwatch), this is 1/2 of the least count, because the tool rounds for
you.
2. Assess your setup/measurement procedure for specific factors that would make you less confident in your
measurement and inflate your uncertainty accordingly.
a. Reasons need to be specific to the measurement you are making: the phrase human error is vague,
doesn’t provide the reader any descriptive information, and should be avoided.
b. Inflating your uncertainty to make your results “correct” is unethical and usually leads to false
conclusions.
 How to present a measured value with uncertainty in a single, direct measurement.
1. Round the uncertainty to one or two significant figures.
2. Round the value to the same decimal place as the uncertainty.

By definition, an uncertainty describes how precisely you know a value. So, your reported uncertainty should only
ever be one or two digits long this is because we do not know all the sources of uncertainty or the uncertainty with
arbitrary accuracy unless a large number of measurements have been conducted. Empirically, we would keep one
significant figure for the reported uncertainty if the first non-zero digit is 2 or larger. Then you should round the
reported value to the same decimal place as the uncertainty. Common practice, however, sanctions one exception to
this rule. If the first significant digit in the uncertainty is a one, then keeping two digits in the uncertainty is
frequently justified. I will give a few examples below:
T =(105.1824 ±1.83)℃ becomes T =(105.1824 ±1.8)℃ becomes T =(105.2± 1.8)℃ .
m=( 23.0427 ± 0.046 ) kg becomes m=( 23.0427 ± 0.05 ) kg becomes m=( 23.04 ±0.05 ) kg
F=( 204.2745 ± 0.036 ) N becomes F=( 204.2745 ± 0.04 ) N becomes F=( 20427 ± 4 ) × 10−2 N

1.1 (10 points): Use the box below to record the examples of correct rounding that your TA gave in class. Record
both the unrounded and rounded versions.

1
The least count of a tool is the smallest marked increment that can be resolved on the tool’s scale or display.

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1.2 (20 points): You’re going to make two measurements: one using a digital tool and the other using an analog
tool. For each measurement, answer the following questions:
1. What is the value of your best measurement? (Don’t forget units!)
2. Is your instrument an analog or digital tool?
3. What is the measurement precision of your measurement device?
4. Are there any specific factors that make you less confident in your measurement? If there are, describe
those factors and estimate by how much you should inflate your uncertainty to account for these.
5. Write your full measurement (value and uncertainty) in the x ± δ x form, rounding appropriately.
Use this box for your measurement of the pendulum period. . (Your TA will ask you to record the periods of both
pendulums. You only need to report the period of one pendulum below.)

Use this box for your measurement of your lab table width

Uncertainty in many measurements

In physics experiments, taking multiple measurements is crucial for ensuring the reliability and validity of results.
Multiple measurements help to identify and minimize random errors, which can occur due to slight variations in
experimental conditions or measurement techniques. By averaging these measurements, we obtain a more accurate
representation of the true value, reducing the impact of outliers or anomalies. This practice also enhances the
precision of the data, as it allows for the assessment of the consistency of the results. Ultimately, multiple
measurements provide a more robust and trustworthy dataset, leading to more credible and reproducible scientific
conclusions.

The average of many measurements of the same physical quantity is represented as x (“ex-bar”) and is calculated as
x 1+ x 2 +…+ x N 1 N
x= = ∑ xi
N N i=1
where x 1 , x 2 ,… , x N are all the measurements and N is the total number of measurements and the large Σ
indicates a sum.
The standard deviation2 of many measurements, σ , is calculated as

2
Technically, this is the population standard deviation.

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 σ=
√ 1
N −1
¿¿¿

The standard deviation of the mean (SDOM) or the standard error of the mean (SEM or SE) is the uncertainty
in the average. In this course, we will in general represent uncertainties with the Greek lowercase letter delta, δ ,
usually with a second variable or a subscript. Here, we’ll use the variable δ mean to represent the uncertainty in the
mean, which is calculated as
σ
δ mean= .
√N
Comparing two measurements
2.1 (5 points): Your class took period measurements of two different pendulums. Your TA will write the periods
recorded by different groups on the board. You will then calculate the two class averages, with uncertainties and
rounded appropriately, in the box below.

2.2 (15 points): In this course, you will use a Z-score as a quantitative metric that helps us understand whether two
values are consistent with each other. We calculate the Z-score as
|x 1−x 2|
Z=
√δ 2
1
2
+δ 2
where x 1 and x 2 are the two values you’re comparing and δ 1 and δ 2 are the uncertainties in those values.
A small Z-score means that the two measured values x 1 and x 2 are consistent with each other. Large Z means the
two measurements are unlikely to be consistent with each other and we need to worry whether it was due to a fluke
of luck or whether there is something fundamental that we are misunderstanding. The exact threshold depends on
the details of the experiment, but in this lab course, we will define a small Z-score to be less than or equal to 2.

Are the two measurements in 2.1 the same? Support your argument with quantitative calculation.

Statistical vs. systematic error

In general, statistical error manifests as randomness in the data and affects the precision of the measurement, but not
the accuracy. Systematic uncertainty manifests as patterns in the data and affects the accuracy.
 Precision refers to the consistency of repeated measurements. It indicates how close the measurements are to
each other, regardless of whether they are close to the true value. High precision means the measurements are
very similar to each other.
 Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. High accuracy means the
measurement is very close to the actual value.
It’s important to note that measurements can be precise without being accurate and vice versa. Ideally, you want
your measurements to be both precise and accurate.

3.1 (10 points): In the box below, describe one example of systematic error and one example of statistical error.

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Wrap up exercises
Try out what you’ve learned in class today!
4.1 (5 points): Define “reasonable range” in your own words.

4.2 (5 points): Show that you know how to identify analog and digital measurement tools by giving an example of
each. To make it clear that you understand the difference, you may need to describe the relevant features of each
tool.

4.3 (5 points): The measurement precision of a measuring tool is the minimum uncertainty that you should assign to
an individual measurement. Sometimes there are good reasons to report an uncertainty larger than the measurement
precision. Give an example of a good reason to quote a larger uncertainty and give an example of a bad reason to
inflate your uncertainty.

4.4 (5 points): If my measurement were 205.34 kg with an uncertainty of 1.63 kg, how would I write this? Be sure
to round properly.

4.5 (20 points): Class A and Class B each took 20 measurements of how long it took a ball to roll down a ramp. The
measurements are below. What is the average and uncertainty in that average for each class? Are those two averages
consistent with each other? To answer this second question, calculate a relevant quantity and write a full sentence
answering that question, referring to that quantitative evidence. You must show your work for all calculations, but if
you use a spreadsheet to do your calculations, you may show your work by also submitting that spreadsheet.
Regardless, place your final answers in the box below.

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 Group A Group B
2.4s 3.32s
2.56s 2.81s
2.63s 3.38s
2.31s 3.36s
2.36s 3.26s
2.3s 2.85s
2.18s 2.87s
2.29s 3.1s
2.61s 2.89s
2.2s 3.22s
2.84s 3.26s
2.28s 3.2ss
1.9s 3.09s
2.35s 3.19s
2.28s 3.03s
2.35s 2.77s
2.56s 2.83s
2.37s 2.88s
2.2s 3.06s
2.49s 3.04s

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