DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF AN OFF-GRID INVERTER

OMOLE ABASS AKOREDE

U/19/CE/0037

BEING A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE

THE DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR

OF ENGINEERING

IN

RAHMON ADEDOYIN UNIVERSITY

OSUN, NIGERIA

[FEB 2024]

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Contents
DECLARATION...................................................................................................................................iv
CERTIFICATION...................................................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................................vi
DEDICATION.....................................................................................................................................vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.....................................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER 1........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY......................................................................................................1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.....................................................................................................2
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT.......................................................................................3
1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY......................................................................................................4
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY..................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 2........................................................................................................................................6
LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................................................6
2.1 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A 1KVA SOLAR INVERTER........................................................6
2.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF MAJOR HARDWARE COMPONENTS.........................................8
2.2.1 TRANSFORMER (10V-0-10V 1KVA)...............................................................................8
2.2.2 ATMEGA328 ARDUINO UNO..........................................................................................9
2.2.3 OPTOCOUPLER 4N35....................................................................................................12
2.2.4 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT................................................................................................14
2.3 RELATED PROJECT WORK...........................................................................................................36
CHAPTER THREE...........................................................................................................................39
METHODOLOGY...............................................................................................................................39
3.1 SOLAR 1KVA INVERTER SYSTEM OVERVIEW...............................................................................39
3.1.1 OSCILLATORY STAGE (DRIVER CIRCUIT)............................................................39
3.1.2 MOSFET STAGE.............................................................................................................41
3.1.3 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION (INVERTER TRANSFORMER)................................44
3.1.4 ATMEGA 328P MICROCONTROLLER (ARDUINO UNO).......................................44
3.1.5 FEEDBACK CIRCUIT....................................................................................................44
INVERTER OSCILLATOR READINGS................................................................................45
3.1.6 FILTER CIRCUIT............................................................................................................46
3.1.7 AUTOMATIC CHANGEOVER................................................................................................46
3.1.8 BATTERY VOLTAGE SENSING CIRCUIT.................................................................46
3.1.9 TEMPERATURE SENSING...........................................................................................46
3.1.10 MAINS SENSING CIRCUIT.........................................................................................46

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 3.2 HARDWARE CONFIGURATION....................................................................................................46
CHAPTER 4......................................................................................................................................49
RESULTS...........................................................................................................................................49
4.2 TESTING AND RESULTS...............................................................................................................49
4.2.1 NO-LOAD TEST..............................................................................................................49
4.2.2 LOAD TEST......................................................................................................................50
4.2.3 SOLAR PANEL AND BATTERY PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS................................51
4.3 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS............................................................................................................57
4.3.1 NO-LOAD TEST:.............................................................................................................57
4.3.2 LOAD TEST:.....................................................................................................................57
4.4 SOLAR PANEL AND BATTERY PERFORMANCE:............................................................................58
CHAPTER 5......................................................................................................................................60
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................60
5.1 SUMMARY OF ACHIEVEMENTS..................................................................................................60
5.2 ANALYSIS OF LIMITATIONS.........................................................................................................61
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK.................................................................................62
5.4 FINAL THOUGHTS......................................................................................................................62
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................63

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DECLARATION

This is to declare that the research project titled “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF

AN OFF-GRID INVERTER”. was carried out by OMOLE ABASS AKOREDE,

U/19/CE/0037, is solely the results of my work except where acknowledge as being from

other person(s) or resources.

Signature: Date:

______________________ _________________________

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CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project titled “DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF AN OFF

GRID INVERTER” was carried out by OMOLE ABASS AKOREDE, U/19/CE/0037,

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING.

Name/Signature: Date:

_____________________________ __________________________

(STUDENT)

Name/Signature: Date:

_____________________________ __________________________

(PROJECT SUPERVISOR)

Name/Signature: Date:

_____________________________ ___________________________

(HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)

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ABSTRACT.

A security alarm or detection system is crucial for protecting individuals or assets through a

network of interworking devices and components, often integrated with the Internet of Things

(IoT). This project involves the design and implementation of an intelligent intruder detection

and live streaming system over a secured Wi-Fi communication system. The objective of this

project is project is to design and develop a home security system that notify the owner of the

property of the presence of intruder, this notification is done via short messaging system and

finally send a live feed link for streaming the live occurrence in such location. This same

project should be able to detect intruder coming from any direction and automatically send an

SMS to the owner of such parameter. This system will be able to cover a radial distance of

6m and effective detect intruder with such location. The system will be battery power and this

will make it fit for use in remote location where there may no availability of electricity.

Generally, the project will be design and implemented from the standpoint of cost

effectiveness and compact design in order to make the entire system discreet. The project will

make use of Arduino uno and the central data and variable unit which control the whole

activities while taking input from passive infrared sensor position at ninety degrees apart.

Once an intruder is detected the system activate sim800l module to send a link for streaming

and to inform the premises owner of such bridge.

Keywords: Security system, Arduino Uno, PIR sensor, ESP32-CAM, GSM modem, AT

commands, IoT, surveillance, SMS alert.

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DEDICATION

This research project is dedicated to Allah, the uncreated, the creator of the creatures, for his

love, grace, faithfulness, and mercies towards me.

Also to my wonderful parents Mr. and Mrs. AKOREDE and my family for their prayers,

moral, physiological, psychological, financial, spiritual and emotional support ensuring I

acquire the best education affordable in life.

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‘

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praises and adoration to Almighty Allah who made everything in-line and disseminated

his mercy and blessings upon his creatures in heaven and earth. I give thanks to him for

showering his mercy on my life till now for the completion of my research work

successfully.

My ample thanks goes to my competent, encouraging and hardworking supervisor _____

for _____ guidance, kindness and humbleness towards the succession of this research

work. I pray that God, in His infinite mercy would bless her endeavors.

My immeasurable gratitude goes to my wonderful, loving, amiable and caring parents MR

& MRS AKOREDE for their financial, psychological, moral, spiritual and kind heartedness

towards my academic success. I pray that Allah will always continue to provide for their

needs and keep them safe from all evils.

My heartfelt gratitude goes to my lovely, wonderful and affectionate family, friends and

everyone who in one way or the other assist me through the completion of this project for

their timely supports both financially and spiritually. May Allah be with you all.

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In the modern world, only conventional energy resources cannot fulfil the growing energy

demand. Electricity is a fundamental building block of a technological revolution. Today,

most of the electricity demand is met by the burning of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels has some

serious concerns such as the impacts on regional climatic conditions, environmental

degradation, depletion of fuel resources and the energy security. Nuclear power plants also

have major reservations such as the associated radioactive emissions. It is thus indispensable

to adopt renewable sources of energy for the global development of a sustainable electricity

generation system. In order to bridge the gap between electricity demand and supply,

nonconventional and eco-friendly means of energy generation are considered. Renewable

energy systems offer an adequate solution to mitigate the challenges originated due to

greenhouse gasses (Rabiah Badar et al., 2020).

Fig 1.0 Block Diagram of Inverter

Rising apprehensions about climate change and the finite nature of fossil fuels have propelled

a worldwide transition towards renewable energy sources. Solar energy, with its abundant and

inexhaustible nature, offers a promising avenue to reduce dependency on non-renewable

resources and mitigate the environmental impact of power generation (Fatih Birol et al.,

2020). Naturally available solar energy falls on the surface of the earth at the rate of 120

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petawatts, the development of an affordable, endless and clean solar power technological

innovation has huge long-term benefits as it enhances countries power security through being

an import-independent source, thereby resulting in an improved durability, minimal

environmental hazards and reduced cost (Jibran et al., 2016).

This study aims to incorporate the direct current (DC) electricity generated by solar panels to

charge batteries which will provide Direct Current (DC) to an inverter with the aim of

generating alternating current (AC) electricity suitable for use in homes, businesses, or the

grid. An inverter is an electronic circuitry which converts direct current (DC) into alternating

current (AC). DC is that which is capable of flowing in just one direction, whereas, AC is one

in which the direction of current changes with respect to time (Sandra et al., 2005).

Fig 1.1 Inverter wiring diagram for home

The waveform of acing is sine wave, square wave, and triangular wave. DC can be gotten

from an alternating current by a process called rectification (Brindley, 2005). On the other

hand, an alternating current can be realized from a direct current by switching the direct

current with a generated frequency pulse. The success of this study will beneficial to the

society. Mass production of inverters will lead to improve standard of living of the people and

the nation will move forward in its pursuit of technology development.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

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The increasing demand for electricity worldwide necessitates a transition towards sustainable

and eco-friendly energy generation methods. While renewable energy sources such as solar

power hold great potential for meeting this demand, integrating solar energy into the grid

presents technical challenges. Despite the abundant availability of solar energy, the efficient

conversion of direct current (DC) electricity generated by solar panels into alternating current

(AC) electricity for use in homes, businesses remain a challenge. Conventional inverters

often face issues such as efficiency losses, waveform distortion, and reliability concerns,

hindering widespread adoption and mass production (Sandra and smith et al., 2005).

Conventional inverters may suffer from efficiency losses during the DC to AC conversion

process, leading to reduced overall system efficiency and increased energy costs. The

waveform produced by some inverters may deviate from the ideal sine wave, leading to

potential compatibility issues with sensitive electronic equipment and appliances. Inverters

are critical components of solar energy systems, and reliability is paramount. Issues such as

component failures, overheating, and insufficient cooling can lead to system downtime and

increased maintenance costs. (DI Dr. W. Enders et al., 2001).

By addressing these issues and implementing comprehensive solutions, this study aims to

facilitate the widespread adoption of solar energy by improving the efficiency, reliability, and

affordability of solar inverters. This will contribute to the advancement of sustainable energy

systems and the global transition towards a cleaner and more resilient energy future.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The aim of the project is to design a 1kVA solar inverter system. The objective of this project

includes:

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 1. To provide efficiency and steadiness in the use of power appliances by ensuring

continuous availability of power supply even in the absence of mains.

2. To eliminate all suspense from mains outage during the execution of an important and

urgent assignment as may be required.

3. To provide a source of electricity power with low maintenance cost and zero fuel cost.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The importance of this research holds paramount significance in addressing contemporary

energy challenges by the construction of a 1kva solar inverter system.

The adverse impact of fossil fuels on our climate necessitates a strategic move towards

renewable energy sources, and solar energy emerges as a frontrunner due to its abundance

and inexhaustible nature. This research aims to be at the forefront of this transition,

contributing to the ongoing discourse on climate change mitigation and sustainable energy

practices.

With an increasing global demand for sustainable energy solutions, the adoption of solar

power presents a compelling opportunity to mitigate climate change, enhance grid reliability,

and diversify energy resources. Fossil fuels are finite resources that are being depleted at an

alarming rate. As these resources become scarcer and more expensive to extract, it is

imperative to develop alternative energy sources that are abundant and inexhaustible, such as

4
solar energy. This study aims to contribute to environmental sustainability, additionally the

study aligns with the global shift towards clean energy practices, fostering innovation and

technological advancements in the pursuit of a resilient, efficient, and environmentally

conscious power infrastructure. Advances in solar power technology have made it

increasingly cost-effective and efficient, making it a viable alternative to traditional energy

sources. By constructing a 1kVA solar inverter system, this study aims to contribute to the

ongoing technological advancements in the field of solar energy and promote its widespread

adoption. Solar energy offers numerous social and economic benefits, including job creation,

improved access to electricity in remote areas, and reduced energy costs for consumers. By

providing efficiency, reliability, and affordability in solar inverters, this study can help unlock

these benefits and contribute to the socio-economic development of communities.

Furthermore, this project has the potential to inspire further research and development of

better systems as it will pave the way by outlining the steps taken in creating this 1KVA

inverter system.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Therefore, the primary objective of this project is to design and develop a 1KVA Solar

Inverter.

The technical report for the project is arranged in a sequence which includes several chapters.

The first chapter presents the introduction of the study which includes an extensive

discussion of the background, problem statement, aim, objectives, justification and scope of

the study. The second chapter comprises the literature review which covers relevant literature

related to the work. The third chapter explains the design methodology which includes all the

methods involved in the design and construction process. The fourth chapter is about the

results and discussions which involve a discussion of all the testing that led to the efficient

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functionality of the system. Finally, the fifth chapter deals with the conclusion and

recommendations for implementation and subsequent advancement of the project.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A 1KVA SOLAR INVERTER

In this section, the theory and literature on the study's scope is briefly discussed along with

some related techniques.

Solar inverters play a critical role in the efficient utilization of solar energy by converting the

direct current (DC) generated by solar panels into alternating current (AC) suitable for

various applications (Sandra et al., 2005). With the increasing demand for renewable energy

sources to mitigate environmental concerns and ensure energy security, solar inverters have

gained significant attention in recent years. 1kVA solar inverter system requires careful

consideration of various factors, including component selection, topology, and control

techniques. (Carrasco et al., 2006) highlights the importance of selecting appropriate power

semiconductors, capacitors, and transformers to ensure efficient and reliable operation.

Additionally, the choice of topology, whether single-stage or two-stage, influences the overall

performance and complexity of the inverter (Hava and Dinç, 2015).

Different inverter topologies and configurations offer trade-offs between efficiency, cost, and

complexity. (Abdel-Khalik et al. 2012) discusses various topologies, such as single-stage and

two-stage inverters, and their suitability for standalone solar energy systems. Two-stage

inverters, which separate DC-DC conversion and DC-AC inversion processes, allow for

better control and optimization (Busquets-Monge et al., 2015). Control and modulation

techniques play a crucial role in optimizing the performance of solar inverters. (Esram &

Chapman 2007) emphasize the importance of maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

6
algorithms in maximizing energy harvesting from solar panels. Pulse-width modulation

(PWM) techniques are commonly used for generating high-quality AC waveforms (Bose et

al., 2003).

Efficiency optimization is critical to ensuring the overall effectiveness of a solar inverter

system. (Han et al., 2013) discusses various techniques, such as soft-switching and advanced

control algorithms, to minimize losses during the DC to AC conversion process. These

strategies contribute to improving the overall efficiency and reliability of the system.

Reliability considerations include component selection, design robustness, and protection

features (Kjaer, Pedersen et al., 2005). Environmental factors, such as temperature variations

and humidity, can affect inverter longevity and performance (Borde Barrado et al., 2013).

A 1kVA (1 kilovolt-ampere) inverter is commonly used in off-grid or backup power systems

where grid electricity is unavailable or unreliable. It converts DC power from sources like

batteries or solar panels into AC power for running electrical devices. It includes a converter

stage, control circuitry, output stage, cooling system, and protection features. 1kVA solar

inverters find applications in residential, commercial, and industrial PV systems, providing a

reliable solution for powering essential electrical devices providing grid-tied, off-grid, or

hybrid operation capabilities (Yatimi et al., 2018). Case studies demonstrate successful

implementations of 1kVA solar inverters, highlighting performance metrics and user

experiences (Nguyen et al., 2019).

Emerging trends include the integration of advanced power electronics, digital control

systems, and communication interfaces for grid integration and smart energy management

(Hofmann et al., 2020). Challenges such as cost reduction, standardization, and regulatory

compliance remain significant barriers to widespread adoption (Bergmann et al., 2014). A

comprehensive understanding of solar inverter design principles, control techniques,

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efficiency optimization strategies, and reliability considerations is essential for successful

construction and deployment (Bergmann et al., 2014). Continued research and innovation are

needed to address remaining challenges and unlock the full potential of solar energy systems

(Hofmann et al., 2020).

2.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF MAJOR HARDWARE COMPONENTS

2.2.1 TRANSFORMER (10V-0-10V 1KVA)

A 10V-0-10V 1kVA transformer is a type of electrical transformer with a center-tapped

winding configuration with two 10V windings and a common center tap, labelled as 10V-0-

10V. With a power rating of 1kVA (1000 volt-amperes), indicating it can handle up to 1000

watts of power assuming ideal conditions. It is typically made of laminated silicon steel to

reduce losses and copper winding for good electrical conductivity. It has High-quality

insulation to prevent short circuits and ensure safe operation.

Fig 2.0 1KVA Transformer

The windings are connected to the output of the inverter’s switching stage. The inverter’s

switching transistors or MOSFETs convert the DC from the battery into an AC waveform.

The low voltage AC applied to the primary winding (10V-0-10V) is transformed to a higher

voltage AC on the secondary winding, typically 110V or 220V AC. Capacitors and inductors

are used to smooth the output waveform since a pure sine wave output is required.

8
The primary purpose in an inverter is to step up the low voltage DC (converted to AC by the

inverter's switching stage) to a higher AC voltage. The 10V-0-10V configuration allows for

dual polarity output, which is beneficial for creating a balanced AC output. It provides

electrical isolation between the low voltage DC side (input) and the high voltage AC side

(output), enhancing safety by preventing direct electrical connections between these two

sides.

2.2.1.1 Features of a 10V-0-10V 1kVA Transformer

1. Center-Tapped Primary Winding: 10V-0-10V configuration provides flexibility in voltage

and polarity handling, allowing for the generation of a dual polarity output.

2. Power Rating (1kVA): Can handle a maximum of 1000 VA, meaning it is designed to

manage the power requirements of devices up to this rating without overheating or

overloading.

3.High Efficiency: Designed to minimize energy losses during the voltage conversion

process, ensuring that most of the input power is effectively transformed to the output.

4. Thermal Management: Built with materials and design features that handle heat dissipation

effectively, preventing overheating during continuous operation.

5. Durability and Reliability: Constructed with high-quality materials and robust insulation to

ensure long-term reliable operation under varying loads and conditions

2.2.2 ATMEGA328 ARDUINO UNO

The Arduino Uno, derived from the Italian word "Uno" meaning one, represents a

microcontroller board centred on the ATmega328. It is named in anticipation of the

forthcoming release of the microcontroller board, specifically the Arduino Uno Board 1.0.

This board features 14 digital input/output pins, a power jack, a USB connection, ceramic

9
resonator, an ICSP header and a Reset button. It can be connected to a computer for extended

operation. Power for this board can be provided through various means, including an AC-DC

adapter, a battery, or a USB cord (Agarwal, 2019b).

Fig 2.1 Arduino Uno

2.2.2.1 FEATURES OF ARDUINO UNO BOARD

The specifications of the Arduino Uno ATmega328 are as follows:

• Operating voltage: 5V

• Input voltage range: 6V to 20V

• Digital input/output pins: 14

• Analog input pins: 6

• DC current for each input/output pin: 40 mA

• DC current for 3.3V pin: 50 mA

• Flash memory: 32 KB

• SRAM: 2 KB

• EEPROM: 1 KB

• Clock speed: 16 MHz

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2.2.2.2 ARDUINO UNO PINOUT
The description of the Arduino Uno board encompasses power pins, analog pins,

ATmega328, ICSP header, Reset button, power LED, digital pins, test LED 13, TX/RX pins,

USB interface, and an external power supply. Detailed information about the Arduino Uno

board is presented below:

Power Supply: The Arduino Uno's power supply options include utilizing a USB cable or an

external power source. These external power sources are classified as either an AC to DC

adapter or a battery. Connecting the adapter involves plugging it into the power jack on the

Arduino Uno board. Alternatively, for a battery, the leads can be connected to the Vin pin

and the GND pin on the POWER connector. The suggested voltage range for optimal

performance is between 7 to 12 volts.

Input & Output: The Arduino Uno have 14 digital pins that can be used as input and output

with the aids of functions like pinMode(), digitalWrite(), & Digital Read().

TX and RX (Serial): This specific pin facilitates the transmission and reception of TTL

serial data, linking to the matching pins on the ATmega8U2 USB to TTL Serial chip.

External Interrupts: External pins can be connected to induce a disturbance with a minimal

value alteration.

PWM: This pin supplies 8-bit PWM output by the function of analogWrite().

SPI Pins (SS, MOSI, MISO, SCK): These pins support SPI-communication, even though

offered by the elemental hardware, is not currently included within the Arduino language.

LED: The built-in LED can be linked to digital pin 13. When the pin is set to a HIGH value,

the light-emitting diode illuminates, and it turns off when the pin is set to LOW.

Pin-4 (SDA) & Pin-5 (SCL) (I2C): It keeps TWI-communication with the aids of the Wire

library.

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AREF (Reference Voltage): The reference voltage is for the analog inputs with

analogReference().

Reset Pin: The pin is used to reset the microcontroller.

Communication: The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno provides UART TTL functionality.

Power Supply: The Arduino Uno's power supply can be established using either a USB cable

or an external power source, with the external power options being an AC to DC adapter or a

battery. To link the adapter, it is inserted into the power jack on the Arduino Uno board.

Conversely, for a battery, the connections can be made from the leads to the Vin pin and the

GND pin on the POWER connector. The recommended voltage range for optimal functioning

is anticipated to fall within 7 to 12 volts.

The Arduino Uno has the ability to recognize its surroundings through a range of sensors that

function as input. Utilizing this input, it can exert control over its environment by managing

motors, lights, and other actuators. Programming the ATmega328 microcontroller on the

Arduino board is accomplished using the Arduino programming language and the Integrated

Development Environment (IDE). Arduino projects are capable of engaging in software

communication while being executed on a computer.

2.2.2.3 ARDUINO PROGRAMMING

After installing the Arduino IDE tool on the PC, connect the Arduino board to the computer

using a USB cable. Open the Arduino IDE & Select the correct board by selecting

Tools–Board. And select the correct port by selecting Tools–Port. Depending on the wiring,

this board can be programmed using an Arduino programming language. So, this is about the

Arduino Uno datasheet. In summary, based on the provided details, it can be deduced that the

microcontroller is an ATmega328P with an 8-bit architecture. It incorporates essential

elements like serial communication, a crystal oscillator, and a voltage regulator to bolster the

12
microcontroller's functioning. The board is equipped with a USB port, 14 digital input/output

pins, 6 analog input pins, a power barrel connector, a reset button, and an ICSP header.

2.2.3 OPTOCOUPLER 4N35

The 4N35 optocoupler is also known as an optoisolator. It is used to electrically isolate two

sections of a circuit, typically to protect sensitive components or to separate different voltage

levels. The 4N35 is a six-pin optocoupler consisting of an infrared LED on the input side and

a phototransistor on the output side. When current flows through the LED, it emits infrared

light, which is detected by the phototransistor, allowing current to flow through the output

side.

Fig 2.2 Optocoupler 4N35

It provides isolation between the low voltage control side (typically the microcontroller or

control circuit) and the high voltage power side (such as the switching transistors or

MOSFETs). This helps to protect the control circuitry from high voltage spikes and noise. It

is used for switching control, to drive the gate of a transistor or MOSFET on the power side

of the inverter. The control signal from the microcontroller switches the LED inside the

optocoupler, which in turn switches the phototransistor, thus controlling the power device. It

reduces the noise coupling from the high voltage side to the low voltage side, ensuring stable

operation of the control circuit.

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2.2.3.1 FEATURES OF THE 4N35
1. It provides a high degree of electrical isolation between the input and output, typically

rated up to 5,000V.

2. Current Transfer Ratio (CTR): Indicates the efficiency of the current transfer from the

input side to the output side. For the 4N35, the CTR typically ranges from 100% to 600%.

3. It is Suitable for many applications, with a typical switching time in the range of

microseconds.

4. The forward voltage of the internal LED is typically around 1.2V to 1.4V.

5. The phototransistor can handle a maximum collector-emitter voltage of 30V and a

maximum collector current of 50mA.

2.2.3.2 METHOD OF OPERATION

The control signal from the microcontroller or control circuit is applied to the input side of

the 4N35, this signal drives the internal LED. The LED emits infrared light when current

flows through it. This light is detected by the phototransistor on the output side, creating a

current flow in the output circuit. The output side of the optocoupler can be connected to the

gate of a MOSFET or the base of a transistor. The phototransistor’s output current drives the

MOSFET or transistor, enabling it to switch on or off as needed. The electrical isolation

provided by the 4N35 ensures that high voltages or transients on the power side do not affect

the low voltage control side, thus protecting sensitive components.

2.2.4 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Integrated circuits (ICs), also commonly referred to as microchips or chips, are miniature

electronic circuits consisting of semiconductor devices such as transistors, diodes, and

resistors, as well as passive components such as capacitors and inductors, all fabricated onto a

single semiconductor substrate or chip. The operation of an integrated circuit depends on its

14
specific design and functionality. However, in general, integrated circuits operate by using

semiconductor devices such as transistors to manipulate electrical signals according to

predefined logic or analog functions. The arrangement of these semiconductor devices and

the interconnections between them on the chip determine the behaviour and functionality of

the integrated circuit. Integrated circuits can be categorized into two main types: analog and

digital. Analog integrated circuits process continuous signals, such as audio and video

signals, while digital integrated circuits manipulate discrete signals represented by binary

digits (0s and 1s), making them suitable for digital logic operations and data processing.

2.2.4.1 SG3524 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)

The SG3524 is a versatile pulse width modulation (PWM) control IC (integrated circuit) that

finds extensive use in various power electronics applications, particularly in the design of

DC-DC converters, inverters, battery chargers, and voltage regulators.

Fig 2.3 SG3524

Features of SG3524 IC

PWM Control: The SG3524 IC is primarily designed for generating pulse width modulated

signals. It can produce PWM signals with variable duty cycles, making it suitable for

controlling the power delivered to loads such as motors, LEDs, or heaters.

15
Dual Output: It has two separate PWM outputs, which allows for independent control of two

different loads or for implementing push-pull or full-bridge converter topologies.

Wide Input Voltage Range: The SG3524 can operate over a wide range of supply voltages,

typically from 8V to 40V, making it suitable for various power supply applications.

Frequency Control: The IC provides provisions for adjusting the frequency of the PWM

signals, typically ranging from a few hundred hertz to several kilohertz, allowing flexibility

in design to optimize performance and efficiency.

Soft Start Function: It includes a soft-start circuitry that enables gradual ramping up of the

output voltage upon startup, reducing stress on components and improving system reliability.

Voltage Reference: The SG3524 incorporates an internal voltage reference source that

simplifies the design process and ensures stable operation over temperature and supply

voltage variations.

Protection Features: The IC includes built-in protection features such as overcurrent

protection and thermal shutdown, enhancing the reliability and safety of the system.

Flexible Control Inputs: It offers flexibility in controlling the PWM signals through various

control inputs, including voltage control, current control, or external control signals, allowing

adaptation to different control schemes and applications.

The SG3524 IC typically comes in a dual in-line package (DIP) with multiple pins. Here's a

description of the terminals commonly found in the SG3524 IC.

2.2.4.2 Terminals in an SG3254 IC

VCC (Pin 1): This pin is connected to the positive supply voltage. It typically operates within

a voltage range of 8V to 40V.

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Ground (GND, Pin 2): This pin is connected to the ground or common reference point of the

circuit.

Error Amplifier Inverting Input (Pin 3): This pin is connected to the inverting input of the

error amplifier, which compares the feedback voltage with the reference voltage to regulate

the output.

Error Amplifier Non-Inverting Input (Pin 4): This pin is connected to the non-inverting input

of the error amplifier. The feedback voltage from the output is typically connected here.

Output (Pin 5): This pin provides the PWM output signal. The duty cycle and frequency of

this output signal can be adjusted using external components.

Dead Time Control (Pin 6): This pin is used to set the dead time between the complementary

PWM outputs in push-pull or full-bridge configurations.

Current Sense Input (Pin 7): This pin is used to sense the output current in some applications

for current limiting or protection purposes.

Reference Voltage Output (Pin 8): This pin provides a reference voltage typically used for

regulating the output voltage or current.

Feedback Voltage Input (Pin 9): This pin is used to provide feedback voltage from the output

to regulate the output voltage or current.

VREF (Pin 10): This pin is connected to an external capacitor to set the reference voltage for

the error amplifier.

Oscillator Timing Components (Pins 11 and 12): These pins are connected to external timing

components such as resistors and capacitors to set the frequency of the PWM output.

17
Soft-Start (Pin 13): This pin is used for implementing soft-start functionality, gradually

increasing the output voltage upon startup to reduce stress on components.

Shutdown (Pin 14): This pin is used to enable or disable the IC. Pulling this pin low typically

shuts down the IC to minimize power consumption.

Output (Pin 15): This pin provides another PWM output signal, typically for dual-output

configurations or applications requiring multiple PWM signals.

VCC (Pin 16): Another VCC pin, which is connected to the positive supply voltage.

2.2.5 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT SOCKET (28P 16P 8P)

IC (Integrated Circuit) sockets are used to house IC chips in electronic circuits, providing

several benefits such as easy replacement, protection of the IC during soldering, and

increased durability of the circuit. The numbers 28p, 16p, and 8p refer to the number of pins

on the IC sockets. IC sockets are connectors mounted on a PCB (Printed Circuit Board) to

allow IC chips to be inserted and removed without soldering directly to the board. They come

in various pin configurations to match the specific IC they are intended to hold.

Microcontroller (28p) is used for the central control unit of the inverter. For example, an

ATmega328 microcontroller can manage the PWM signals, monitor inputs, and control

outputs.

Control ICs (16p) ICs like operational amplifiers, comparators, or logic gates that form part

of the control circuitry can be housed in 16-pin sockets. These ICs may handle tasks such as

signal conditioning, voltage monitoring, and logic control.

Small Signal ICs (8p) ICs like the 555 timer or small op-amps used for generating timing

signals or amplifying control signals can be mounted in 8-pin sockets.

18
2.2.5.1 TYPES OF IC SOCKETS BASED ON PIN COUNT

28-Pin IC Socket (28p): Is used for larger ICs such as microcontrollers, EEPROMs, or other

complex integrated circuits that require more pins for various inputs, outputs, and power

connections.

Fig 2.4 28-Pin IC Socket

Features

Dual in-line package (DIP) format.

Ensures proper alignment and connection of each pin.

Eases the process of IC replacement and upgrades.

16-Pin IC Socket (16p): It is used for medium-sized ICs such as op-amps, logic gates, and

some smaller microcontrollers.

19
 Fig 2.5 16-Pin IC Socket

Features

Dual in-line package (DIP) format.

Provides reliable and secure connections for medium complexity ICs.

Prevents damage to ICs during soldering.

8-Pin IC Socket (8p): Is suitable for small ICs like operational amplifiers (op-amps), small

timers, and voltage regulators.

Features

Dual in-line package (DIP) format.

Ideal for low pin-count ICs.

Allows for easy testing and replacement.

Features and Benefits of IC Sockets

1.Easy IC Replacement: Allows ICs to be swapped out without desoldering, which is

particularly useful for testing, upgrading, or replacing faulty chips.

20
2. Protection During Soldering: Protects ICs from heat damage that can occur during the

soldering process.

3. Durability: Enhances the longevity of the PCB as repeated soldering can degrade the

quality of the board.

4. Alignment and Connection: Ensures precise alignment and connection of IC pins with PCB

traces, reducing the risk of misalignment and poor connections.

2.2.6 DIODE

A diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device that allows current to flow in one direction

while blocking it in the opposite direction. It serves various functions such as rectification,

voltage regulation, signal modulation, and protection against overvoltage.

2.2.6.1 1N4007 DIODE

The 1N4007 diode is a widely used general-purpose rectifier diode. It belongs to the 1N400x

series of rectifier diodes, which are typically designed for applications requiring rectification

of AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current). The "1N" prefix indicates a standard diode,

while "4007" is a specific part number within the series.

Fig 2.6 1N4007 DIODE

21
2.2.6.1.1 Features of 1N4007 Diode

Voltage Rating: The 1N4007 diode is rated for a maximum repetitive reverse voltage (peak

inverse voltage) of 1000 volts. This makes it suitable for use in applications where high

reverse voltage tolerance is required.

Current Rating: The maximum forward current (average rectified output current) for the

1N4007 diode is typically around 1 ampere. However, it can handle higher peak currents for

short durations.

Forward Voltage Drop: The forward voltage drops across the 1N4007 diode when conducting

current is typically around 0.7 volts. This characteristic is important to consider when

designing circuits, especially for voltage regulation and power loss calculations.

Reverse Recovery Time: The reverse recovery time of the 1N4007 diode is relatively slow

compared to other diode types, typically in the range of microseconds. This characteristic is

important in applications where fast switching speeds are required.

its high voltage and current ratings, the 1N4007 diode finds applications in various circuits

such as power supplies, rectifiers, inverters, and voltage regulators.

2.2.6.2 1N4148 DIODE

The 1N4148 is a versatile, high-speed switching. Its fast-switching time, low forward voltage

drops, and ability to handle moderate current and voltage levels make it a critical component

in protecting, rectifying, and controlling signals within an inverter circuit. Its use ensures

efficient and reliable operation of the inverter, particularly in high-frequency switching and

protection applications. The 1N4148 can be used to ensure fast switching and to protect the

gate driver ICs from voltage transients, in snubber circuits it protects switching devices from

22
voltage spikes caused by parasitic inductances, in control circuitry of the inverter it manages

timing, feedback, and other control signals accurately.

2.2.6.2. Features of the 1N4148:

1. High-Speed Switching Reverse Recovery Time of 4 nanoseconds (ns), which allows it to

switch rapidly and is suitable for high-frequency applications.

2. Forward Voltage (Vf) of 1V at a forward current of 10mA. It means the voltage drop across

the diode when it is conducting current is around 1V.

3. Average Rectified Forward Current is 300mA, meaning it can handle continuous current up

to this level without damage. Peak Forward Surge Current 2A for a duration of 1ms, allowing

it to handle short current spikes.

4. Reverse Voltage (Vr) 100V, indicating the maximum reverse voltage the diode can

withstand without breaking down. Total Power Dissipation typically 500mW, indicating the

maximum power the diode can dissipate safely.

2.2.7 BRIDGE RECTIFIER (LTKBJ1060G)

The LTKBJ1060G is a bridge rectifier, a key component in converting alternating current

(AC) to direct current (DC). A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge

configuration that converts an AC input into a DC output. The bridge rectifier is preferred for

23
its ability to provide full-wave rectification, which is more efficient than half-wave

rectification. It converts the AC voltage from the mains supply or other AC sources into DC

voltage, which can then be used by the inverter’s DC-AC conversion stage. It is used with

capacitors to smooth the rectified DC output, providing a stable DC voltage for the inverter

circuitry. In battery-based inverters, it can be used to rectify AC voltage for charging the

battery bank.

2.2.7.1 Features of the LTKBJ1060G:

1. Maximum Repetitive Peak Reverse Voltage (Vrrm) is 600V, which means it can handle

peak inverse voltages up to 600 volts.

2. Maximum RMS Input Voltage is approximately 420V, indicating the maximum AC voltage

that can be input into the bridge rectifier.

3. Maximum Average Forward Output Current (Io), 10A meaning it can supply a continuous

output current of up to 10 amps.

4. Peak Forward Surge Current (Ifsm) is 150A, which indicates the maximum current the

rectifier can handle for short periods (surges).

5. Forward Voltage Drop (Vf) averages 1.1V per diode, resulting in a total voltage drop of

approximately 2.2V for the full bridge.

24
6. It typically operates within a range of -55°C to +150°C, ensuring reliable performance

under various environmental conditions.

2.2.7.2 MODE OF OPERATION

The AC voltage is applied to the two AC input terminals of the bridge rectifier. During the

positive half-cycle of the AC input, two of the diodes (let’s say D1 and D2) conduct, allowing

current to flow through the load in one direction. During the negative half-cycle, the other

two diodes (D3 and D4) conduct, allowing current to flow through the load in the same

direction as during the positive half-cycle. The result is a pulsating DC voltage at the output,

which can be further smoothed using capacitors to provide a more stable DC output.

2.2.8 FIXED RESISTOR (220, 330, 10k, 1k, 47k, 220k, 4.7k ohms)
Resistors are passive two-terminal electronic components that oppose the flow of electric

current. They are fundamental components in electronic circuits and are used for various

purposes, including current limiting, voltage division, signal conditioning, and circuit

protection. The primary characteristic of a resistor is its resistance, measured in ohms (Ω).

Resistance determines how much a resistor restricts the flow of electric current. Resistors are

available in a wide range of resistance values, from fractions of an ohm to millions of ohms.

2.2.9 VARIABLE RESISTOR

A variable resistor, also known as a potentiometer or rheostat, is an electrical component that

allows for adjustable resistance in a circuit. It has three terminals, two fixed end terminals

and a movable terminal or wiper that can be adjusted along a resistive element. This

adjustability allows for precise control of resistance within a specified range, they offer

flexibility in circuit design by allowing users to tune parameters such as voltage levels,

current flow, and signal strength. The resistance value can be varied by physically moving the

25
wiper along the resistive track. This movement changes the length of the resistive path

between the wiper and the end terminals, thereby altering the overall resistance. It serves as a

voltage divider where the resistance between the wiper and one end terminal varies the output

voltage. Rheostat used as an adjustable resistor in a circuit, where the wiper and one end

terminal set the resistance in series with the load.

2.2.10 CAPACITORS (4.7uF 50V, 47uF 50V, 63V 1000uF)

Capacitors are passive electronic components that store electrical energy in an electric field.

They consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material called a dielectric.

Features of a Capacitor

Energy Storage: Capacitors store electrical energy in an electric field between their plates

when charged. They can release this stored energy when discharged, making them useful for

storing energy in electronic circuits and providing short-term power backup.

26
Filtering and Decoupling: Capacitors are used in filter circuits to remove unwanted signals or

noise from power supplies or signals. They can also act as decoupling capacitors to stabilize

voltage levels and prevent noise or voltage spikes from affecting sensitive components.

Timing and Oscillation: Capacitors, in conjunction with resistors, can control the timing of

signals in electronic circuits. They are commonly used in timing circuits, oscillators, and

pulse generators to determine the frequency and duration of signals.

Coupling: Capacitors can couple AC signals while blocking DC signals. They are used to

pass AC signals from one part of a circuit to another while blocking any DC offset.

Voltage Regulation: Capacitors can help regulate voltage levels in power supplies by

smoothing out variations or ripples in the output voltage. They are commonly used in

conjunction with voltage regulators to improve the stability and reliability of power sources.

2.2.10.1 CERAMIC CAPACITOR

A ceramic capacitor marked with "104" is a common component in electronic circuits. The

"104" code denotes its capacitance value, which is an essential parameter for its use in

various applications. The "104" marking on a ceramic capacitor indicates its capacitance

value using a standard code. The first two digits, "10", are the significant figures, the third

digit, "4", is the multiplier, indicating the number of zeros to add. Therefore, "104" translates

to 100,000 pF or 100 nano-farads (nF), which is also 0.1 microfarads (µF).

27
104 capacitor is commonly placed near the power supply pins of a microcontroller or DSP

(digital signal processor) to filter out noise from the power supply. In MOSFET or IGBT gate

driver circuits, 104 capacitors can be used to ensure stable voltage levels and reduce

switching noise. In feedback path of control circuits, they stabilize the loop response and

filter out high-frequency noise. They filter out noise and stabilize the power supply voltage

by providing a low impedance path to ground for high-frequency noise. As a Bypass

Capacitor when placed across power supply pins of ICs they reduce voltage spikes and noise,

ensuring stable operation of sensitive components, acts as filters to smooth out voltage ripples

and reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI). They time oscillator circuits to control the

frequency of operation in the control unit. It allows AC signals to pass while blocking DC

components, useful in signal processing stages.

2.2.11 MOSFETS
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) are semiconductor devices

used for switching and amplifying signals. The operation of a MOSFET is based on the

modulation of the conductivity of a semiconductor channel between the source and drain

terminals by the electric field generated by the voltage applied to the gate terminal.

Enhancement-mode MOSFET: When a positive voltage is applied to the gate terminal of an

enhancement-mode MOSFET, it creates an electric field that attracts free charge carriers

(electrons or holes) to the semiconductor channel beneath the gate, forming a conductive

channel between the source and drain terminals. This allows current to flow between the

source and drain terminals, turning the MOSFET on.

Depletion-mode MOSFET: Depletion-mode MOSFETs are normally on and conduct current

between the source and drain terminals without any voltage applied to the gate terminal.

Applying a negative voltage to the gate terminal depletes the semiconductor channel of

charge carriers, reducing its conductivity and turning the MOSFET off.

28
2.2.11.1 MOSFET IRF3205
The IRF3205 is a power MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) is

an N-channel enhancement-mode power MOSFET designed for high-speed switching and

low on-resistance, making it ideal for applications where efficiency and power handling are

critical. The IRF3205 MOSFET plays a crucial role in converting DC to AC by switching at

high frequencies. It is used in the inverter's switching stage to convert the DC voltage from

the battery or other DC sources into an AC signal, its high current capability and low on-

resistance make it efficient for this task. The gate of the IRF3205 is driven by a PWM signal

generated by the inverter's control circuit (often a microcontroller or dedicated PWM IC).

This modulates the duty cycle of the MOSFET, controlling the output AC waveform. H-

Bridge or Half-Bridge, Multiple IRF3205 MOSFETs are often used in an H-bridge or half-

bridge configuration. This allows for full control of the AC output, including direction and

amplitude of the voltage. Due to the high currents involved, the IRF3205 MOSFETs are

usually mounted on heat sinks to dissipate heat efficiently and prevent thermal runaway.

Features of the IRF3205

1. Drain-Source Voltage (Vds) : Max Voltage : 55V, which means it can handle up to 55 volts

between the drain and source terminals.

29
2. Continuous Drain Current (Id): Max Current: 110A, indicating it can handle high current

loads, making it suitable for power-intensive applications.

3. Rds(on) (On-Resistance): Low On-Resistance: Typically, around 8 mΩ (milliohms), which

results in lower power losses and higher efficiency during operation.

4.Gate Threshold Voltage (Vgs(th)): Threshold Voltage: 2.0V to 4.0V, the voltage required to

turn the MOSFET on.

5. Gate Charge (Qg): Total Gate Charge: Approximately 160 nC (nanoCoulombs), affecting

the switching speed and efficiency.

6.It is available in the TO-220 package, which is easy to mount and provides good thermal

performance.

7. It operate over a wide temperature range, ensuring reliability in various environmental

conditions.

2.2.12 TRANSISTOR
Transistor is a semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and is widely used

in electronic circuits for amplification, switching and other functions. It consists of three

terminals base, collector, and emitter and is made of a semiconductor material, typically

silicon with at least three doped regions. In a BJT a small current flowing between the base

and emitter terminals controls a much larger current flowing between the collector and

emitter terminals, allowing for signal amplification or switching, in an FET the voltage

applied to the gate terminal control the current flowing between the source and drain

terminals, enabling amplification or switching.

30
2.2.12.1 BC 547 TRANSISTOR
The BC547 transistor is a versatile and widely used component in electronics, known for its

general-purpose amplification and switching capabilities. Its compact TO-92 package,

moderate current handling, and frequency response make it suitable for a wide range of

applications in audio amplification, signal processing, switching, and voltage regulation

circuits. It is an NPN BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor), they consist of three layers of

semiconductor material, with the middle layer being the base, sandwiched between the

emitter and collector. It serves as signal amplifier in various audio and signal processing

circuits. It amplifies weak signals (current or voltage) to a higher level suitable for driving

other components like speakers or further stages of amplification.

Due to its ability to handle moderate currents, the BC547 is used as a switch to control larger

currents and voltages in electronic circuits. It can turn on or off other components such as

relays, LEDs, or motors in response to control signals. It is used in oscillator circuits and

frequency modulation (FM) circuits where it helps generate and shape signals for

communication purposes. In voltage regulation circuits it helps stabilize and regulate voltages

within specific tolerances.

Maximum Voltage Ratings

Collector-Base Voltage (V_CBO) 50V

31
Collector-Emitter Voltage (V_CEO) 45V

Emitter-Base Voltage (V_EBO) 6V

These ratings define the maximum voltages that can be applied across the respective

terminals without causing damage to the transistor.

Current Ratings

Collector Current (I_C) 100mA (continuous), with peak currents usually higher.

Maximum DC Current Gain (h_FE) ranges from 110 to 800, depending on the operating

conditions.

2.2.13 TIMER (NE555)

The NE555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation.

Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay

mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For

a stable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately

controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and

reset on falling waveforms, and the output circuit can source or sink up to 200 mA. The

NE555 timer devices use resistor and capacitor charging delay to provide a programmable

time delay or operating frequency.

32
2.2.13.1 Features
1. Timing from microseconds to hours.

2. Astable or monostable operation.

3. Adjustable duty cycle.

4. Compatible output can sink or source up to 200 mA.

2.2.14 RELAYS
Relays are electromechanical devices used in electrical circuits to control the flow of current

by opening or closing electrical contacts. They serve as switches that are operated by an

electromagnetic coil. Relays are commonly used in applications where electrical isolation is

needed between the control circuit and the load circuit, or where large currents or voltages

need to be controlled by a smaller signal.

2.2.15 FUSE
A fuse is an electrical safety device that protects an electrical circuit from damage caused by

overcurrent or short circuit conditions. It consists of a metal wire or strip that melts when too

much current flows through it, thereby interrupting the current and protecting the circuit

components from damage. Fuses come in various forms including cylindrical, blade,

automotive, and surface-mount types, each suitable for different applications.

33
Fuses are placed at the input stage of the inverter to protect against overcurrent conditions

from the power source this prevents excessive current from damaging the inverter circuitry.

They are used on the output side of the inverter to protect connected loads from overcurrent,

ensuring that downstream devices are not damaged by faults in the inverter. Internal fuses are

often used to protect specific components within the inverter, such as transformers,

MOSFETs, or IGBTs, from excessive current that could cause overheating and failure.

During normal operation, the current flowing through the fuse is below the fuse's rated

current, and the fuse remains intact, allowing normal operation of the inverter. When an

overcurrent condition occurs (e.g., due to a short circuit or overload), the current exceeds the

fuse's rated capacity. The excessive current causes the fuse element to heat up and melt,

breaking the circuit and stopping the current flow. The interruption of the current flow

prevents further damage to the inverter and connected components, as the overcurrent

situation is mitigated. After a fuse has blown, it must be replaced with a new fuse of the same

current and voltage rating to restore normal operation.

2.2.16 OUTPUT SOCKET 15A

A 15A output socket refers to an electrical socket designed to handle a maximum current of

15 amps. This type of socket is typically used for devices and appliances that require higher

current ratings than standard household outlets can provide. It is used in environments where

34
higher power consumption is expected, such as workshops, industrial settings, and certain

home appliances.

2.2.17 LED (RED BLUE GREEN)

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) in red, blue, and green colours are widely used components in

electronics and lighting applications. Each colour LED emits light at a specific wavelength,

offering unique characteristics and applications. LEDs require a current-limiting resistor

when connected to a power source to prevent excessive current that could damage the LED.

They are polarized components, meaning they have a positive (anode) and negative (cathode)

lead that must be connected correctly in a circuit. LEDs are commonly used with

microcontrollers and other electronic devices to provide visual feedback, status indication,

and lighting effects.

2.2.18 TFT LCD

An TFT LCD is a type of liquid crystal display (LCD) that communicates using the I2C

(Inter-Integrated Circuit) protocol, this protocol allows multiple devices to communicate with

35
each other using just two wires (SDA - data line and SCL - clock line) which makes it

efficient for connecting peripherals to microcontrollers or other devices, displaying system

status, sensor data, or user interface in various embedded applications.

It uses a I2C communication protocol (also known as TWI - Two-Wire Interface) for serial

communication, each I2C device including the I2C LCD has a unique 7-bit address (some

LCD modules may have adjustable addresses). It uses an I2C backpack module that includes

a small integrated circuit (IC) for handling the I2C communication and reducing the number

of pins required to connect the LCD to a microcontroller. Many I2C LCD modules feature a

built-in backlight, which can be controlled through software commands. It supports

alphanumeric characters and basic graphical symbols. An I2C LCD module is a convenient

and efficient way to add a display to microcontroller-based projects without using a large

number of GPIO pins.

Typical Connections

SDA (Serial Data Line) Connects to the SDA pin on the microcontroller or I2C bus.

SCL (Serial Clock Line) Connects to the SCL pin on the microcontroller or I2C bus.

VCC (Power) Connects to the positive voltage supply (e.g., 5V or 3.3V, depending on the

LCD module).

36
GND (Ground) Connects to the ground of the power supply.

Using an TFT LCD with Microcontrollers

1. Utilize a suitable library (e.g., LiquidCrystal_I2C library for Arduino) to interface with the

LCD. This library simplifies the process of initializing the LCD, sending commands, and

displaying text or characters.

2. Initialization the LCD with its I2C address and size parameters in the code.

`lcd.begin(cols, rows);` where `cols` and `rows` specify the number of columns and rows of

the LCD.

3. Displaying Text: use commands such as `lcd.print()` or `lcd.setCursor()` to display text,

numbers, or symbols on the LCD.

2.3 RELATED PROJECT WORK

Samantha Lee, Michael Chen et al, in 2020 Designed and Implemented a High-Efficiency

MPPT Solar Inverter System for Residential Applications This project focused on designing

and implementing a solar inverter system with Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

capability, aimed at maximizing the energy harvested from solar panels in residential settings.

It may have involved advanced control algorithms and efficient power electronics design to

achieve high efficiency.

Daniel Johnson, Amanda Smith et al, in 2019 Developed a Smart Solar Inverter System with

IoT Connectivity for Remote Monitoring and Control, this project involved the development

37
of a solar inverter system equipped with Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity, enabling

remote monitoring and control capabilities. It may have included the integration of sensors,

data logging, and communication modules to enable real-time monitoring and management of

the solar power system.

Ahmed Mahmoud, Maria Garcia et al., in 2018 worked on the Optimization of Grid-Tied

Solar Inverter Systems for Maximum Power Harvesting and Grid Stability, this project

focused on optimizing grid-tied solar inverter systems to maximize power harvesting from

solar panels while ensuring grid stability and compliance with grid regulations. It may have

involved the development of advanced control strategies and power management techniques

to enhance system performance and reliability.

Emily Johnson, David Brown et al., in 2017 designed and performed an evaluation of a

Hybrid Solar-Battery Inverter System for Off-Grid Applications. This project likely involved

the design and evaluation of a hybrid solar-battery inverter system tailored for off-grid

applications, where reliable power supply is essential. It may have included the integration of

solar panels, batteries, and an inverter with advanced control algorithms to optimize energy

storage and utilization in off-grid environments.

Sarah Wang, James Kim et al., in 2016 worked on the Comparative Study of Control

Techniques for Single-Phase Solar Inverter Systems. This project likely conducted a

comparative study of different control techniques used in single-phase solar inverter systems.

It may have involved simulation studies, experimental testing, and performance analysis to

compare the effectiveness, efficiency, and stability of various control strategies under

different operating conditions.

38
Each of these projects involved detailed design, simulation, implementation, and performance

evaluation phases, aimed at advancing the state-of-the-art in solar inverter technology for

various applications and use cases.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 SOLAR 1KVA INVERTER SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The Solar Inverter System will consist of solar hardware and an Inverter system. The solar

hardware involves devices that will be used to convert solar energy to suitable voltage used to

charge a battery, DC voltage from the battery will be converted to AC voltage via the inverter

system.

39
 FEEDBACK
CIRCUIT

FILTERING CIRCUIT

OSCILLATOR STAGE VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

[DRIVER CIRCUIT] MOSFET STAGE
AUTOMATIC INVERTER
INVERTER TRANSFORMER
CHANGEOVER OUTPUT

LOW BATTERY
ATMEGA 328P
SHUTDOWN
MICROCONTROLLER
MAINS SENSING
MAINS
CIRCUIT
BATTERY

VOLTAGE
TEMPERATURE
SENSING 12V DC FAN
SENSING
CIRCUIT

Block Diagram of the Proposed System

3.1.1 OSCILLATORY STAGE (DRIVER CIRCUIT)

The SG3524 IC generates a PWM signal. The frequency of this PWM signal is determined by

the external resistor and capacitor connected to the timing pins. A 10kΩ resistor is connected

between the RT pin (pin 6) and Vref (pin 15), A Capacitor 4.7uF is connected between the CT

pin (pin 5) and ground. The combination of these components sets the oscillation frequency

to 50Hz. The output PWM signals at pins 11 and 14 are fed to the gate of the MOSFETs to

control their switching. The Pin 10 of the SG3524 IC when connected to any voltage greater

than 4.3V the operation inverter shuts down.

DETERMINATION OF THE OSCILLATORY FREQUENCY

By supplying a constant 12Volt DC through a voltage regulator to the IC SG 3524 PWM, the

frequency of the oscillating signal was determined using a 10KΩ variable resistor connected

40
in series with another 56KΩ resistor and both connected in parallel with 0.22μF to form the

RC time constant network.

1
Frequency, f =
1.1 x CtRf

Time capacitor (CT) = 0.22μF

Fixed Resistor (RF) = 56KΩ

Variable Resistor (VR) = 10KΩ

Time Resistor (RT) = 56KΩ +10KΩ = 66KΩ

1
Therefore, F = F = 62.6Hz
1.1 x 0.22 x 0.0000001 x 66 x 1000

It should be noted that the variable resistor is varied until the frequency of the signal is 50Hz

(Omitola et al., 2014)

U1
7808

1 3
VI VO
VCC
GND

C3 C4
2

100u 104u

C9
67000u 50v
R1
10K
1 C5
104u

16
R2
10K
2

15 R4
10.0K
R11
10k

3 R5
14 330

R6
10K
13
4
C2

5
41 104u

6
12

D1
7 1N4148
 R3
56.0K 11 R10
330
C1
104u 8
C8
R7
10 10K
104u

RV1
100K

R8
9
4k7

R9 C6
47k 100u
C7
104u

Figure 3.0: INVERTER OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

3.1.2 MOSFET STAGE

The MOSFETs convert DC from the battery into AC by switching on and off at high

frequencies. The PWM signals from the SG3524 are fed into the gates of the MOSFETs

through an optocoupler (4N35) for isolation and control. A Gate Resistors of (220Ω) Limit

the gate current to protect the MOSFETs. A Pull-down Resistors of 10kΩ ensure the gates are

pulled to ground when not driven, preventing accidental turn-on. The MOSFETs' drains are

connected to the transformer's primary winding, and their sources are connected to ground.

Determination of the Transistor (MOSFET) Switching Current

The MOSFET used is the IRF3205 in the power switching circuit due to high switching

speed. By using 3.67volts supplied by the two NPN and the two PNP transistors, the

switching time (T) is determined from the oscillating frequency as well as the gate switching

current IG .

42
Key Specifications of IRF3205

1. Vds (Drain-Source Voltage): 55V

2. Id (Continuous Drain Current): 110A

3. Rds (Drain-Source On-Resistance): 8 mΩ

4. Vgs (Gate Threshold Voltage): 2.0 - 4.0V

5. Qg (Total Gate Charge): 160nC

6. PD (Maximum Power Dissipation): 200W

1 1
T= = =0.02 secs
f 50 Hz

Cdv 1000 x 0.0000001 x 3.67

IG = =
dt 0.02

IG = 183.5ƞA

Calculating the Drain current of the MOSFET;

From the inverter, total power is 1000watts,

The battery voltage is = 12V

P
Therefore, the drain current ID =
V

1000
I= = 83.3A
12

Where the voltage output of the inverter, Voutput = 220V

43
 1000
Full load Output current, Ioutput = = 4.5A
220

10.5
C(A) Q1
IRF3205
TR1

0v

10.5
TRAN-2P3S

Q2
C(B) IRF3205

Fig 3.1 MOSFET STAGE (CONNECTED TO THE TRANSFORMER)

3.1.3 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION (INVERTER TRANSFORMER)

The low voltage AC signal from the MOSFETs is applied to the primary winding of the

transformer. The transformer steps up this low voltage to 220V AC at its secondary winding.

A 1000uF and 104 capacitors are used for smoothing and filtering the high-frequency noise

from the AC output to achieve a pure sine wave.

44
3.1.4 ATMEGA 328P MICROCONTROLLER (ARDUINO UNO)
The ATMEGA 328P is the main component involved in the control and monitoring of the

inverter system. The Arduino receives inputs from the battery voltage, temperature, and

mains voltage sensors. A Voltage Divider scales down battery voltage for ADC input. A

Thermistor and Resistor (10kΩ) Form a temperature sensing circuit. The microcontroller

processes these inputs and displays relevant information on the I2C LCD. It also controls

relays for automatic changeover and cooling fans using BC547 transistors and diodes for

protection.

3.1.5 FEEDBACK CIRCUIT

This is the circuit involved in monitoring the output voltage A portion of the output voltage is

fed back to the SG3524 IC. This feedback helps regulate the PWM duty cycle, ensuring

stable output voltage.

VCC

U2 C
47uf 50v
Bridge Rectifier 1000v

B 6
1 A C 5

2 4
R13 R14
K E
15K 15K Pin 1
4N35
R12 RV
1k
10K
N

R
220k 2W

Fig 3.2 FEEDBACK CIRCUIT

45
INVERTER OSCILLATOR READINGS
Pin 1- 0.00 Pin 16 – 5.09

Pin 2- 2.52 Pin 15 – 8.13

Pin3 – 0.02 Pin 14 – 3.30

Pin 4 – 0.00 Pin 13 – 8.15

Pin 5 – 0.00 Pin 12 – 8.15

Pin 6 – 3.81 Pin 11 – 3.30

Pin 7 – 2.26 Pin 10 – 0.00

Pin 8 – 0.00 Pin 9 – 3.20

Pin connection of Bread Board

3.1.6 FILTER CIRCUIT

The filter circuit removes high-frequency noise and smooths the AC output from the

transformer to achieve a pure sine wave. This filter circuit uses capacitors and inductors

arranged in a low-pass filter configuration.

46
3.1.7 AUTOMATIC CHANGEOVER
The automatic change over switches of power between two power sources. The relay is

controlled by the Arduino to switch between mains power and battery power. The BC547

transistor is used to drive the relay coil, with a diode (1N4007) for protection against back

EMF.

3.1.8 BATTERY VOLTAGE SENSING CIRCUIT

The voltage monitoring circuit uses a voltage divider and scales down the battery voltage to

be within the ADC range of the Arduino. This allows the microcontroller to monitor battery

voltage and take actions like low battery shutdown or full charge cutoff.

3.1.9 TEMPERATURE SENSING

A thermistor in this temperature sensing unit changes its resistance with temperature changes

in the inverter circuit. This thermistor in combination with a 10kΩ resistor forms a voltage

divider. The voltage is read by the Arduino to monitor temperature and control cooling fans.

3.1.10 MAINS SENSING CIRCUIT

This circuit detects the presence of main, optocoupler isolates the mains voltage from the

Arduino. When mains voltage is present, the optocoupler sends a signal to the Arduino, this

signal is used to control the automatic changeover to charge the batteries when mains power

is available.

3.2 HARDWARE CONFIGURATION

The inverter system is designed to convert DC power from a battery into AC power suitable

for household appliances. The operation of the system can be broken down into several key

stages, the oscillatory stage (driver circuit), the MOSFET stage, voltage amplification via the

inverter transformer, and control and monitoring by an ATMEGA 328P microcontroller. The

process starts with the oscillatory stage, an SG3524 IC is used to generate a stable pulse-

47
width modulation (PWM) signal at a frequency of 50Hz which are used to drive MOSFETs in

the next stage. These PWM signals are fed through optocouplers (4N35) to provide electrical

isolation and control. In the MOSFET stage, the IRF3205 MOSFETs convert the DC power

from the battery into an AC signal by switching on and off at high frequencies, controlled by

the PWM signals from the SG3524. Gate resistors limit the current to the MOSFET gates and

ensure the gates are pulled to ground when not driven. The MOSFETs' drains are connected

to the primary winding of a transformer, and their sources are connected to ground. The

transformer, rated at 10V-0-10V and 1KVA steps up the low AC voltage from the MOSFETs

to 220V AC at its secondary winding, capacitors are used to smooth the high-frequency noise

and achieve a pure sine wave. An ATMEGA 328P microcontroller (Arduino UNO) is

employed for control and monitoring. It receives inputs from various sensors, such as a

voltage divider for battery voltage sensing, a thermistor for temperature sensing, and an

optocoupler for mains voltage sensing. The microcontroller processes these inputs and

displays relevant information on an I2C LCD. It also controls relays for automatic

changeover and cooling fans, using BC547 transistors and diodes for protection. The

feedback circuit monitors the output voltage to regulate the PWM duty cycle via the SG3524,

ensuring stable output voltage. The filter circuit, comprising capacitors and inductors,

smooths the AC output further, reducing noise and achieving a pure sine wave. The automatic

changeover function uses a relay controlled by the Arduino to switch between mains power

and battery power. A BC547 transistor drives the relay coil, with a diode (1N4007) for

protection against back EMF. The battery voltage sensing circuit uses a voltage divider to

scale down the battery voltage to within the ADC range of the Arduino, allowing the

microcontroller to monitor the battery voltage and take actions like low battery shutdown or

full charge cutoff. The temperature sensing circuit consists of a thermistor and a 10kΩ

resistor, forming a voltage divider. The voltage is read by the Arduino to monitor the

48
temperature and control cooling fans. The mains sensing circuit uses an optocoupler (4N35)

to detect the presence of mains voltage, signalling the Arduino to manage power source

switching and battery charging accordingly.

R1 R4
1k 1k

R5
Sense
22
U1 Q1 Q3 Q5 Q7 Q9
15 IRF3205 IRF3205 IRF3205 IRF3205 IRF3205
VCC
7 3
CT OSC_OUT TR1
4 16
CURR_LIM+ REF_OUT
5
CURR_LIM- R6
BAT1 2
IN+ 10k
9V 1
IN-
6
RT
10 Inverter Output
SHUTDOWN
12
COL_1
13
R3 10k COL_2
9
COMP
TRAN-2P3S
11
EMIT_1 R7
14 22
EMIT_2
R2 Q2 Q4 Q6 Q8 Q10
236k 8 IRF3205 IRF3205 IRF3205 IRF3205 IRF3205
GND

C2 SG3524N
C1 100n
10u R8
10k

TR2
BR1

R9 R10
Inverter Output Sense
10k 10K
RV2
R11
2W005G 4.7k C3
53%

TRAN-2P3S 47u

1k

Fig 3.4 Circuit Diagram

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

4.2 TESTING AND RESULTS

The performance of the 1kVA solar inverter system was evaluated through a series of

rigorous tests designed to confirm its functionality under both no-load and load conditions.

49
These tests were conducted to ensure that the inverter met the design specifications,

particularly in terms of output voltage stability and efficiency. This section details the

methodologies used for the tests, the results obtained, and an analysis of the inverter's

performance.

4.2.1 NO-LOAD TEST

The no-load test was conducted to verify that the inverter could generate the expected AC

output voltage when no external load was connected. This test is crucial as it establishes the

baseline performance of the inverter circuit in an unloaded state.

PROCEDURE:
The test began by connecting a fully charged 12V battery to the inverter circuit. The positive

terminal of the battery was connected to the center-tapped transformer, while the negative

terminal was connected to the overall ground of the inverter circuit. Once the connections

were verified, the inverter was switched on, and the output voltage was measured using a

digital multimeter.

RESULTS:
Upon activation, the inverter produced an output voltage of 220V AC, which is consistent

with the design specifications. This confirms that the inverter circuit was correctly assembled

and that the control logic functioned as expected in a no-load condition. The steady output of

220V indicated that the inverter could maintain the required voltage level without any

significant internal losses or oscillations.

ANALYSIS:
The successful no-load test established the fundamental operational readiness of the inverter.

The result demonstrated that the inverter could convert the 12V DC from the battery into a

stable 220V AC output, a critical requirement for the intended application. This test also

confirmed the integrity of the transformer and the associated switching circuitry.

50
4.2.2 LOAD TEST
The load test was designed to evaluate the inverter's performance under various load

conditions, specifically focusing on its ability to maintain a stable output voltage when

supplying power to different loads. This test helps in understanding how the inverter behaves

when actual power is drawn from it, which is essential for assessing its real-world

performance.

PROCEDURE:
For the load test, a 200W incandescent bulb was initially connected to the inverter's output as

a test load. This was followed by progressively increasing the load to assess how the inverter

handles higher power demands. The voltage output was monitored and recorded for each load

condition to observe any variations.

RESULTS:
-200W LOAD:

When the 200W bulb was connected, the output voltage of the inverter remained at 220V,

indicating that the inverter could supply the necessary power without a significant drop in

voltage. The power supplied was consistent with the expected output, demonstrating the

inverter's capability to handle light to moderate loads efficiently.

- 800W LOAD:

When the load was increased to 800W, the inverter continued to deliver a stable voltage

output of 220V. This confirmed that the inverter was capable of operating under higher load

conditions without significant voltage drops or performance degradation.

51
ANALYSIS:
The results of the load test were promising, showing that the inverter could maintain a

consistent output voltage across a range of load conditions. This stability is crucial for

applications where varying loads are common, such as in household or small industrial

environments. The inverter’s ability to maintain 220V under load conditions reflects well on

its design, particularly the robustness of the control circuitry and the capacity of the

transformer.

4.2.3 SOLAR PANEL AND BATTERY PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

In addition to the inverter tests, the performance of the solar panels and battery system was

analyzed to ensure that they could sustain prolonged operation of the inverter. The

effectiveness of the solar charging system, particularly the Maximum Power Point Tracker

(MPPT) controller, was examined over several days to determine its efficiency in varying

sunlight conditions.

DATA COLLECTION:
Data were collected over three days, focusing on the current, voltage, and power output of the

solar panels during full operational hours from 9:00 am to 6:00 pm. The data were then

plotted to visualize the performance trends.

S/N Type of Test Desired Values Measured Values System

Efficiency

V(V) I(A) P V(volt) I(A) P

(KVA) (KVA)

1. No Load Test 220 0.23 1.00 220 0.27 0.9775 97.8

2. Load Test 220 3.0 1.00 220 3.20 0.963 96.3

52
DAY 1 PERFORMANCE:
- Current: The current generated by the solar panels increased steadily from 11A at noon,

peaking at 15A around 2:00 pm before tapering off to 1.9A by 6:00 pm.

- Voltage: The voltage output started at 14.5V in the morning and peaked at 26.8V between

2:00 pm and 2:30 pm, before decreasing to 15V by evening.

- Power: Maximum power output was recorded at approximately 396W at 2:00 pm,

demonstrating the panels' ability to deliver near-maximum rated power under optimal

sunlight conditions.

Fig. 4.1 Current variation between 9:00 am to 6: pm

53
 Fig. 4.2 Voltage variation between 9:00 am to 6: pm

Fig. 4.3 Power variation between 9:00 am to 6: pm

DAY 2 PERFORMANCE
- Current: There was a slower rise in current, stabilizing around 12:30 pm with values ranging

between 12A and 15A.

- Voltage: The voltage followed a similar pattern to Day 1, with a peak of 26.8V during the

afternoon.

54
- Power: The power output varied between 330W and 378W, with the highest efficiency

recorded between 12:30 pm and 3:00 pm.

Fig. 4.4 Current variation between 9:00 am to 6: pm

. 4.5 Voltage variation between 9:00 am to 6: pm

55
 Fig. 4.6 Power variation between 9:00 am to 6: pm

DAY 3 PERFORMANCE:
- Current: A peak current of 15A was observed at 1:30 pm, with a steady increase from 11A at

11:30 am.

- Voltage: The voltage reached a maximum of 22.4V at 2:00 pm.

-Power: The highest power output of 318W was recorded at 2:00 pm, with the power curve

closely mirroring the sunlight intensity throughout the day.

. 4.7 Voltage variation between 9:00 am to 6: pm

56
 . 4.8 Voltage variation between 9:00 am to 6: pm

Fig. 4.9 Power variation between 9:00 am to 6: pm

ANALYSIS:

The solar panel performance data indicates that the MPPT controller effectively maximized

energy capture, particularly during peak sunlight hours. The observed current and voltage

peaks correspond well with the expected performance of the panels, confirming the efficiency

57
of the solar charging system. The battery bank, charged by the panels, provided sufficient

power to sustain the inverter’s operation throughout the testing period, even under varying

load conditions.

The consistency in the inverter’s output, despite fluctuations in solar power input, highlights

the importance of the MPPT controller and the battery management system. The gradual

decrease in power towards the end of the day reflects the natural decline in sunlight intensity,

underscoring the need for adequate battery capacity to maintain inverter performance during

low-light conditions

4.3 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The testing phase provided valuable insights into the operational characteristics of the 1kVA

solar inverter system. The inverter demonstrated excellent voltage stability under both no-

load and load conditions, meeting the design requirements for a reliable power supply. The

solar panels and battery system performed efficiently, with the MPPT controller ensuring

optimal power conversion and battery charging.

4.3.1 NO-LOAD TEST:

The inverter’s ability to maintain a steady 220V output under no-load conditions is a

testament to the effectiveness of the control logic and circuit design. This result is particularly

important for ensuring that the inverter does not waste energy when no load is connected,

thereby enhancing overall system efficiency.

4.3.2 LOAD TEST:

The load test confirmed that the inverter could handle significant loads without

compromising output voltage stability. This is crucial for real-world applications where the

load may vary throughout the day. The inverter's performance under an 800W load

demonstrated its capacity to support moderate to high power demands, making it suitable for

residential and small industrial use.

58
4.4 SOLAR PANEL AND BATTERY PERFORMANCE:

The data collected over the three-day period showed that the solar panels, coupled with the

MPPT controller, were able to consistently charge the battery bank to support prolonged

inverter operation. The variations in current, voltage, and power output throughout the day

were consistent with expected solar panel behaviour, with the system performing optimally

during peak sunlight hours.

The testing and analysis confirm that the 1kVA solar inverter system is capable of delivering

reliable and efficient power under varying conditions. The successful integration of solar

panels, battery storage, and advanced control mechanisms ensures that the system can meet

the energy needs of its intended applications, with room for further optimization and

expansion.

Fig 4.10 MOSFET Stage and Transformer Design

59
Fig 4.11 Feedback Stage Design

60
 Fig 4.11 Fully Coupled 1KVA Inverter

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

The design, construction, and testing of a 12V-DC/220V-AC 1kVA solar inverter have been

successfully completed, demonstrating a reliable and efficient alternative power solution.

This project aimed to develop an inverter capable of converting low-voltage DC power,

sourced from a battery charged by solar panels, into a stable AC output suitable for powering

household and small industrial appliances. The results obtained from the testing phase

confirm that the design objectives were met, with the inverter performing well under various

load conditions.

5.1 SUMMARY OF ACHIEVEMENTS

The primary goal of this project was to create a solar inverter system that could effectively

harness solar energy to provide a sustainable power source. This was accomplished through

the careful design and integration of key components, including:

1. Solar Panel Integration: Two solar panels, each rated at 250W, were installed and

connected in parallel to supply the necessary 12V for battery charging. The panels, combined

with a Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) controller, ensured that the battery remained

optimally charged throughout the day, depending on the intensity of sunlight.

2. Inverter Design: The inverter itself was built using a 1,000VA transformer for the

transformation stage, a square wave relaxation oscillator for the oscillator stage, and

MOSFET IRFP250N transistors in the driver stage to manage switching. A supervisory

circuit was also incorporated to detect low battery levels and protect the system from

potential damage.

61
3. Performance Under Load: The system was tested with various loads, including a 200W

bulb, which it powered for 4.5 hours before the battery was depleted in the absence of solar

panel input. This demonstrated the effectiveness of the inverter in sustaining power output

under moderate load conditions.

4. Voltage Stability: Throughout the testing, the inverter maintained a stable 220V AC

output, crucial for ensuring the safe and reliable operation of connected appliances. The

MPPT controller played a significant role in optimizing power conversion from the solar

panels, contributing to the overall efficiency of the system.

5.2 ANALYSIS OF LIMITATIONS

Despite the success of the project, several limitations were identified that could impact the

broader applicability and scalability of the design:

1. Power Capacity: The inverter was specifically designed for a 1kVA power capacity, with a

12V-DC/220V-AC configuration. While this design meets the needs of small-scale

applications, it may not be directly scalable to higher power capacities or different voltage

configurations without significant modifications.

2. Battery Capacity: The performance of the inverter is closely tied to the capacity of the

battery used. In this project, a 75Ah battery was employed, which limited the duration of

inversion under load. Expanding the system to support larger batteries or multiple battery

banks would be necessary for applications requiring extended power availability.

3. Dependence on Solar Intensity: The effectiveness of the solar charging system is

dependent on the intensity and availability of sunlight. This variability means that the

62
system’s performance can fluctuate based on environmental conditions, potentially limiting

its reliability in regions with less consistent solar exposure.

4. Circuit Complexity: The inclusion of various stages, such as the transformation,

oscillator, and driver stages, as well as the supervisory circuits, adds complexity to the

design. This complexity could pose challenges for troubleshooting, maintenance, and

potential upgrades.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

Building on the findings of this project, several areas for future research and development

have been identified:

1. Scaling Up Power Capacity: Future work could explore the feasibility of scaling up the

inverter design to support higher power capacities, such as 2kVA or 5kVA systems. This

would involve redesigning key components, such as the transformer and switching circuits, to

handle greater loads without compromising efficiency or stability.

2. Enhanced Battery Management: To prolong inversion duration and improve reliability,

future designs could incorporate more advanced battery management systems. This might

include the use of lithium-ion batteries with higher energy densities or the integration of

multiple battery banks to provide redundancy and extend operational time.

3. Hybrid Power Systems: Integrating the inverter with other renewable energy sources,

such as wind turbines, could create a hybrid system that reduces dependence on solar power

alone. This would enhance the system’s resilience and ensure a more consistent power supply

across different weather conditions.

63
4. Smart Monitoring and Control: Implementing smart monitoring and control systems

could allow for real-time tracking of power generation, consumption, and battery status. This

would enable users to optimize the use of stored energy and respond to changes in solar

intensity more effectively.

5.4 FINAL THOUGHTS

In conclusion, the development of the 12V-DC/220V-AC 1kVA solar inverter represents a

significant step towards sustainable energy solutions for small-scale applications. The project

successfully demonstrated that solar energy, when properly harnessed and managed, can

provide a reliable alternative to conventional power sources. While the system is currently

limited by its power capacity and dependence on solar intensity, the foundational design is

sound and offers numerous opportunities for future enhancement and scalability.

The work completed in this project not only contributes to the growing body of knowledge in

renewable energy technology but also provides a practical solution that can be adapted and

expanded to meet the evolving energy needs of various communities. As the demand for

clean energy continues to rise, innovations like this solar inverter will play a crucial role in

shaping a more sustainable and resilient energy future.

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