Reliability and Maintenance

Engineering
INME 511
Lecture 4: Condition Monitoring-Based
Maintenance
Faculty of Engineering
Dr. K. Orapeleng
[email protected]
Recommended text: Engineering Maintenance – A Modern
Approach, by B.S. Dhillon

23/09/2024
Lecture 5 Learning Outcomes
 Present common principles of Condition Monitoring – Based
Maintenance (CMbM)

 Articulate methods of Condition Monitoring

 Articulate the advantages and disadvantages of Condition

Monitoring-Based Maintenance method

 Outline
Condition Monitoring
• Condition monitoring (CM) is a process of monitoring a parameter of
condition in machinery eg. Vibration , temperature etc.
• The aim is to identify a significant change in the parameter which is
indicative of a developing fault.
• By monitoring the parameter we monitor the condition of the machine
by proxy, and are able to tell when the machine is deteriorating. This
improves preparedness to identify and rectify faults and further
increases the efficiency of the machine.
• Condition monitoring provides real time information about the
condition of the machine which gives the ability to minimize or to
eliminate the factors responsible for occurrence of faults.
• Additionally, condition monitoring can be extended to provide primary
protection, but its main function is to spot the development of faults at
an early stage.
Condition Monitoring e.g.
• At BCL, Air Liquide used to provide oxygen for the processing
plant. Air Liquide had a CMS system that kept them abreast
of the state of their own plant. The plant manager’s phone
had an app of the system that alerted him of any abnormal
operating conditions wherever he was.

• They were able to reliably supply BCL with oxygen and avoid
affecting BCL’s ability to be productive. Any dip in
performance of the Air Liquide plant was immediately picked
up and management could quickly decide to arrest the fault
before it propagated to their client.
 Condition Monitoring
It is recommended for equipment that is critical to a company’s
performance. In such cases, periodic visits and site inspections
may not be sufficient. Examples:

• Aircraft fleet

• O2 supply equipment

• Cooling systems for smelters etc

• Systems that operate Just-In-Time

• Etc.
 Condition Monitoring based M
• Condition monitoring (CM) is a process of monitoring a parameter of
condition in machinery eg. Vibration, temperature etc.
• The aim is to identify a significant change in the parameter which is
indicative of a developing fault.
• By monitoring the parameter we monitor the condition of the
machine by proxy, and are able to tell when the machine is
deteriorating.
• Condition monitoring provides real time information about the
condition of the machine which gives the ability to minimize or to
eliminate the factors responsible for occurrence of faults .
Conditioning Monitoring based
Maintenance
 Condition Monitoring System
Types
• Condition monitoring systems are of two types, namely
periodic and permanent.
• In a periodic monitoring system (also called an off-line
condition monitoring system), machinery parameters
are measured (or recorded & later analyzed) at selected
time intervals in the field, after which an analysis is
made either in the field or in the laboratory.
• Advanced analysis techniques are usually required for
fault diagnosis and trend analysis.
 Periodic/Off-line Monitoring
System
• Intermittent monitoring provides information at a
very early stage about incipient failure and usually is
used where:
1. Very early warning of faults is required

2. Advanced diagnostics are required

3. Measurements must be made at many locations on a

machine

4. Machines are complex.

Permanent Monitoring Systems
• In a permanent monitoring system (also called an on-line
condition monitoring system), machinery parameters are
measured continuously at selected points of the machine and
are constantly compared with acceptable levels.
• The measurement system may be
– Permanent: parallel acquisition systems where one transducer and
one measurement chain are used for each measurement point, or
it may be
– quasi-permanent: multiplexed systems where one transducer is
used for each measurement point but the rest of the measurement
chain is shared between a few points with a multiplexing interval of
a few seconds.
Permanent Monitoring Systems
The principal function of a permanent condition monitoring
system is to
• protect machines by providing a warning that the machine is
operating improperly, and/or
• to shut the machine down when a preset safety limit is
exceeded, thereby avoiding catastrophic failure and
destruction.
 Permanent Monitoring Systems
Transducers are mounted permanently at each selected
measurement point.
For this reason, such a systems can be very costly, so it is usually
used only in critical applications where:
1. No personnel are available to perform measurements
(offshore, remote pumping stations, etc.),
2. It is necessary to stop the machine before a breakdown occurs
in order to avoid a catastrophic accident,
3. An instantaneous fault may occur that requires machine
shutdown.
 Permanent Monitoring Systems
For this reason, such a systems can be very costly, so it is usually
used only in critical applications where:
4. The environment (explosive, toxic, or high temperature) does
not permit the human involvement required by intermittent
measurements.
5. Performance of the equipment needs to be monitored
continuously.
Before a permanent monitoring system is selected, preliminary
measurements should be made periodically over a period of time
to become acquainted with the characteristics of the machine.
Data Collection in CMbM
Data can be collected from the system by two different
methods:
1. Spot readings at regular intervals using portable
instruments
2. Sensors retrofitted to equipment or installed during
manufacture for continuous data collection
Critical systems that require considerable upfront capital
investment, or that could affect the quality of the product that
is produced, need up to the minute data collection. More
expensive systems have built in intelligence to self-monitor in
real time.
For example, sensors throughout an aircraft monitor numerous
systems while inflight and on the ground.
 Methods of Data collection in
CMS
1. Screen monitoring records video or static images, detailing the contents or screen
capture of the entire [video display] or the content of the screen activity within a
particular program or computer application.

Monitoring tools may collect real time video, accelerated or [time-lapse] video or
screen shots, or may take video or still image captures at regular intervals (e.g., once
every 4 minutes). They may collect images constantly or only collect information while
the user is interacting with the equipment.

2. Data monitoring tracks the content of & changes to files stored on the local [hard
drive] or in the user's "private" network share.

3. Keystroke monitoring (e.g., number of keystrokes per minute) may track the
performance of keyboard-intensive work such as word processing or data entry.
Keystroke logging captures all keyboard input to enable the operator to monitor
anything typed into the monitored machine.

4. Idle time monitoring keeps track of time when the operator is away from the
computer, or the computer is not being actively used.
Data Collected for CBM
Sensor selection
• Sensor robustness
– The sensor must handle the environmental conditions
• Sensor range
– the highest – the lowest value the transducer can measure
• Sensor accuracy
– How close the instrument reading is to the true value of
the parameter being measured.
• Sensor reliability
– whether the sensor will return the same value each time
the same measurement is taken
Sensor selection
• Sample rate
– The number of samples per second from the sensor must
be enough to represent the variation in a dynamic signal.
• Sensor resolution
– the smallest change in a measured value giving a change in
instrument reading
• Sensor sensitivity
– the ability of the instrument to change reading with change
in measured parameter
Measurements used for CBM

Vibration Analysis

Thermography Survey

Oil Analysis
Measurements used for CBM

• Vibration analysis: Rotating equipment such as compressors,

pumps, motors all exhibit a certain degree of vibration. As
they degrade, or fall out of alignment, the amount of
vibration increases. Vibration sensors can be used to detect
when this becomes excessive.
• Infrared, also known as Thermography: IR cameras can be
used to detect high temperature conditions in energized
equipment
• Ultrasonic: Detection of deep subsurface defects such as
boat hull corrosion
• Acoustic: Used to detect gas, liquid or vacuum leaks
• Oil analysis: Measure the number and size of particles in a
sample to determine equipment wear
Measurements used for CBM

• Electrical: Motor current readings using clamp-on

ammeters
• Operational performance: Sensors throughout a system to
measure pressure, temperature, flow etc.
Vibration Monitoring Systems (VMS)
• Vibration monitoring systems are used for condition-based
maintenance of machines and installations, helping to
detect machine damage in good time and prevent costly
consequential damage.

• Vibration transmitters and sensors detect damaged bearings

and imbalance in drives and rotating machine parts.

• Often, sophisticated vibration data analysis using a modern

dedicated vibration monitoring system (VMS) is required.

• Vibration Diagnostics can provide vibration specification and

commissioning services.
Vibration Analysis
Facilitates early detection of mechanical fatigue
and breakdown

The following issues can

be found EARLY…and
avoid disassembly and
unplanned downtime
Thermographic Survey

A widely used tool in all facets of industry to

measure anywhere a fault can be predicted by a
temperature differential.
Non-destructive tool in the analysis and
evaluation of electrical distribution equipment.
Reference point of equipment temperature
under normal operating conditions.
Thermography
Overheating electrical connection indicating a serious fire hazard

What you see What Thermography sees

Thermography Applications
What Thermograph Survey can prevent:

Fire-damaged Electrical System Fire-damaged Cruise Ship

 Oil Analysis
Because lubricants are critical to most industrial
equipment, oil analysis has become one of the
most powerful predictive tools for identifying
potential failures.
Oil Analysis is a non-destructive test used to
assess the condition of lubricants and determine
the type & amount of contamination present.
3 basic categories of elements affecting the
lubrication effectiveness: wear metals,
contaminants, and additives.
 Oil Analysis
 Improves oil sampling methods with emerging
technologies
 Improves machine condition and reliability
 Increases the remaining useful life of the lubricant
 Reduces maintenance costs associated with
unplanned downtime
 Early detection with oil analysis can allow for
corrective action such as repairing an air intake leak
before major damage occurs.
 Makes it possible to anticipate problems and schedule
repair work to avoid downtime during a critical time of
use.
Consequences of Oil Failure
 Oil Analysis
Wear Debris Analysis
• A sample of debris suspended in lubricating oil (taken
from filters or magnetic chip detectors) is taken from
a carefully chosen site.

• A Scanning Electron Microscope is then used to reveal

the elements contained in the sample, their
proportions, size & morphology.

• Using this method, the site, the mechanical failure,

the mechanism & the time to eventual failure may be
determined. This is called WDA - Wear Debris Analysis
 Establishing a Condition
Monitoring Program
• It may be established to check the satisfactory operation
of a single machine or, more usually, it is established to
check the operation of a number of machines, perhaps all
the machines in an entire plant.
• The steps in the next slides are usually considered in the
establishment of such a program, depending on the type
of machine and impact of failure of operation the
machines might have.
 Steps to Establishing a
Condition Monitoring Program
• Step 1. Determine the type of condition monitoring system,
that best meets the needs of the plant.
• Step 2. Make a list of all of the machines to be monitored,
based on the importance of these machines in the
production line.
• Step 3. Tabulate the characteristics of the machines that are
important in conducting vibration analyses of the machines
of Step 2.
• Step 4. Select the most appropriate measurement
parameter. E.g vibration, temperature, audio frequency, etc
Steps to Establishing a
Condition Monitoring Program
• Step 5. Select one of the following parameter pickups that
will best meet the requirements of Step 4.
– Displacement transducers
– Accelorometer and velocity pickups

• Step 6. Select the measurement locations.

– When a periodic (off-line) monitoring system is employed,
measurements can be made at unlimited # of points, only
time will limit the number of points.
Step 7. Select the time interval between measurements.
Step 8. Establish an optimum sequence of data acquisition.
 Steps to Establishing a
Condition Monitoring Program
• Step 1. Determine the type of condition monitoring system, that
best meets the needs of the plant.
• Step 2. Make a list of all of the machines to be monitored, based
on the importance of these machines in the production line.
• Step 3. Tabulate the characteristics of the machines that are
important in conducting vibration analyses of the machines of
Step 2.
– Step 3 characteristics are associated with machine construction
such as the natural frequencies of shafts, casings, and pedestals,
and operational and defect responses.
 Step 3: Machine characteristics to
tabulate for fault analysis:
• Shaft rotational speeds, bearing defect frequencies, number of teeth in
gears, number of vanes and blades in pumps and fans, number of motor
poles, and number of stator slots and rotor bars.
• Vibratory forces such as misalignment, mass imbalance, and reciprocating
masses.
• Vibration responses due to process changes, such as temperature and
pressure.
• Fault responses associated with specific machine types, such as motors,
pumps, and fans.
• Sensitivity to instability in components, such as fluid film bearings and
seals due to wear and clearance.
• Loads or changes in operating conditions.
• Effects of mass unbalance, misalignment, distortion, and other
malfunction/defect excitations on vibration response.
 Step 4: Selecting Measurement
Parameters
Step 4. Select the most appropriate measurement parameter. When
an accelerometer is employed as a vibration sensing device in a
condition monitoring system, the resulting acceleration signal can be
electronically integrated to obtain velocity or displacement, so any
one of these three parameters may be used in measurements.

• The appropriate parameter may be selected by application of the

following simple rule:
Use the parameter which provides the “flattest” spectrum.
• The flattest spectrum requires the least dynamic range from the
instrumentation which follows the transducer.
• The flattest spectrum rule applies only to the frequency range of
interest. Therefore, the parameter selection, to some extent,
depends on the type of machine and the type of faults
considered.
 Step 5: Selecting a parameter
pickup
• Step 5. Select one of the following parameter (e.g.
vibration) pickups that will best meet the requirements of
Step 4.
• Displacement Transducer. A displacement transducer
converts a mechanical displacement input into an electrical
output that is proportional to the input displacement.

• Displacement transducers are commonly used to measure

the relative motion between a shaft and its bearings.

• This information can be related directly to physical values

such as mechanical clearance or oil-film thickness.
 Step 5: Selecting a parameter pickup
• Shaft vibration provides information about the current
condition of a machine and is principally used in
permanent monitoring systems, which immediately shut
the machine down in the event of trouble.

• The use of displacement transducers is essential in

machinery having journal bearings.

• However, proximity probe transducers

(1) Are usually difficult to calibrate absolutely,
(2) Have limited dynamic range because of the influence of
electrical and mechanical runout on the shaft
(3) Have a limited high-frequency range.
Step 5: Selecting a parameter pickup

Accelerometers and Velocity Pickup. Pickups of this

type are usually lightweight and rugged.
• They are always used for detecting faults which occur
at high frequencies (say, above 1000 Hz), for
example, to detect rolling element bearing
deterioration or gearbox wear.
• Acceleration measurements of bearing vibration will
provide very early warning of incipient faults in a
machine.
 Step 6: Selecting Measurement
Locations
• Step 6. When a periodic (off-line) monitoring system is
employed, the number of points at which measurements
are made is limited only by the requirement for keeping
measurement time to a minimum.
• As a general rule, bearing vibration measurements are
made in the radial direction on each accessible bearing,
and in the axial direction on thrust bearings.
• It is not usually necessary to measure bearing vibration in
both the horizontal and the vertical direction, since both
measurements give the same information regarding the
forces within the machine, the information being merely
transmitted through two different transmission paths.
 Step 6: Selecting Measurement
Locations
• However, in order to subsequently diagnose the origin of
the impending fault, measurements in both the horizontal
and the vertical direction may give valuable information.

• When measuring shaft vibrations with permanently

mounted proximity transducers, it is convenient to use two
probes on each bearing, located at appropriate distances
from each other, thereby providing an indication of the
orbit of the shaft within the bearing.

• Axial displacement transducers, programmed to shut the

machine down on preset levels, are mounted where a
thrust measurement will protect the machine rotating
parts, such as blades, from rubbing the stationary casing
due to fault induced axial forces.
 Step 6: Selecting Measurement
Locations
• When a permanent (on-line) monitoring system is employed
using a seismic pickup, the number of measurement points is
usually minimized for reasons of economy.
• Selection must be made following a study of the vibration
spectra of different bearings in order to locate those points
where all significant components related to the different
expected faults are transmitted at measurable vibration levels if
full spectrum comparison is performed.
• If only broadband measurements are monitored, then a further
requirement is that all frequency components related to the
expected faults must be of approximately the same level within
the selected frequency range. Otherwise, measurements must
be made in selected frequency bands.
 Step 7: Selecting Interval Between
Measurements
• Step 7. Selection of the time interval between measurements
requires knowledge of the specific machine. Some machines
develop faults quickly, and others run trouble-free for years.
A compromise must be found between the safety of the
system and the time taken for measurements and analysis.
• Measurements should be made frequently in the initial
stages of a condition monitoring program to ensure that the
vibration levels measured are stable and that no fault is
already developing.
• When a significant change is detected, the time interval
between measurements should be reduced sufficiently so as
not to risk a breakdown before the next measurement. The
trend curve will help in determining when the next
measurement should be performed.
Step 8: Establishing an Optimum
Sequence of Data Acquisition
• Step 8. The sequence in which data acquired in a
condition monitoring program must be planned
so that the data is acquired efficiently.
• For example, the data collection may be planned
on the basis of plant layout, on the type of data
required, or on the sequence of components in
the machine train, from driver to driven
components.
In conclusion CBM
Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) is the best
maintenance practice for equipment that we have
today.

It is a strategy aimed at extending machine life,

increasing productivity, by detecting faults early
and intervening well in time to prevent failure.

Unlike preventative maintenance which is based

on servicing a machine at scheduled intervals,
CBM is based on specific equipment conditions
including operating environment & application.
Condition Monitoring
CM Based maintenance provides
• Workforce optimization - IT technology can
support the workforce and optimise site personnel,
allowing the company to only keep personnel that
is needed to do the job.
• Fewer gaps in data –Data is accurate &
comprehensive. Spikes in monitored parameter are
identifiable even when there is no plant failure.
• Improved diagnostics –Historical trends are
available to ensure consistent analysis, without
overreliance on personnel experience.
Choosing a Condition
Monitoring System
• Determine what is monitorable on your plant &
what changes in the parameter mean.
• The number, size, & quality of your assets may
justify getting a CMS.
• Ability of CMS solution to be scalable as needs
evolve and company grows. Your morula oil making
plant may grow in number in time.
• What if you get newer machines, will your CMS be
compatible to the new technology?
• Is it adaptable to newer analysis techniques, or old
ones? What if you use Excel? Can you import data?
Choosing a CMS
• Is it interchangeable with third party hardware and
software packages? Your CMS should integrate
with critical clients’ and stakeholders’ existing
Computer Maintenance Management Systems
(CMMS) and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
software.

Example: Stocks Botswana used Microsft Project as

an ERP, which managed their planning, resourcing,
budget, and procurement. It was possible to check &
update the status of a project in real time.
Computer Maintenance Management
Systems (CMMS)

• They collect, store and manage data.

• As well as compile experience database.
• From which:
– Analysis of the data is made
– Trends are shown
– Alerts can be sounded when there are faults
• Information from the CMMS is combined with
personnel experience to make decisions about
maintenance.
Computer Maintenance Management
Systems (CMMS)

• It gives users immediate overview of the state of

the of the maintenance needs.
• It can schedule maintenance work orders activities.
• Provides accurate inventory forecasts, i.e. parts
• And there is instant access to hundreds of reports.
Benefits of a CMS

• Reduction of personnel overtime

• Reduction of sub-supplier support
• Reduced maintenance backlog
• Reduction of repair costs
• Effective utilization of maintenance personnel’s
time
• Reduced supervisor follow-up role
• It simplifies the process of getting ISO certified
Remote Diagnostics as a
feature of CMS

• Real time machine data can be easily shared at

the same time with field personnel and with
remote central engineering HQ.
• The constant collaboration of the entire
diagnostic team (field and remote) speeds up the
troubleshooting of any kind of anomalies
occurred in site.
• Customer plant can also be monitored by a skilled
remote diagnostic engineer’s team without the
presence of technicians on site.
Remote Diagnostics as a
feature of CMS

• Remote diagnostic allows the cost reduction

avoiding the presence of the diagnostic team and
technicians in site.
• Remote diagnostic is very useful especially for
remote and offshore sites.
Remote Diagnostics as a
feature of CMS

• Customizable and Configurable to customer

needs
• Reliable
• Portable
• Saves costing
• Allows monitoring of multiple
 Advantages of Condition Monitoring
 It can be performed while the asset is working, and this lowers disruptions
to normal operations
 Reduces the cost of asset failures
 Improves equipment reliability
 Minimizes unscheduled downtime due to catastrophic failure
 Minimizes time spent on maintenance
 Minimizes overtime costs by scheduling the activities
 Minimizes requirement for emergency spare parts
 Offers optimized maintenance intervals (more optimal than manufacturer
recommendations)
 Improves worker safety
 Reduces the chances of collateral damage to the system

Hence CM translates to savings + higher system availability

Advantages of CBM
• Condition based maintenance allows preventive and
corrective actions to be scheduled at the optimal time,
thus reducing the total cost of ownership.
• Today, improvements in technology are making it
easier to gather, store and analyze data for CM.
• In particular, CM is highly effective where safety and
reliability is the paramount concern such as the
aircraft industry, semiconductor manufacturing,
nuclear, oil and gas, et cetera.

• Typically, CM is not used for non-critical systems and

where spot readings suffice.
Disadvantages of CBM
• Condition monitoring test equipment is expensive to
install, & databases cost money to analyze
• Cost to train staff – you need skilled professionals to
analyse the data
• Fatigue or uniform wear failures are not easily
detected with CBM measurements
• Condition sensors may not survive in the operating
environment
• Asset modifications to retrofit the system with sensors
may be required
• Unpredictable maintenance periods interfere with
personnel scheduling
Other challenges of CBM
• Since CBM requires an investment in measuring
equipment & staff up-skilling, the initial costs of
implementation can be high.
• CBM introduces new techniques to do maintenance,
which can be difficult to implement due to resistance
within an organization.
• Older equipment can be difficult to retrofit with
sensors & monitoring equipment, or can be difficult to
access during production to spot measure.
• With CBM in place, it still requires competence to turn
performance information from a system into
actionable proactive maintenance items.
Other challenges of CBM
• Sensor malfunction
– A Russian plane crashed and killed 71 people in 2018
because there was ice on speed sensors, which
resulted in conflicting data.
– Sometimes the airbag in cars does not deploy because
the sensor does not detect the right conditions for
deployment
• Uncertainty in measurements, which results in
difficulty detecting gradual changes in a parameter
Example of condition based maintenance
1. Motor vehicles: Motor vehicles come with a manufacturer-
recommended interval for oil replacements. These intervals
are based on manufacturers’ analysis, years of performance
data and experience. However, these intervals are based on
an average or best guess rather than the actual condition of
the oil in any specific vehicle. With CBM oil is replaced only
when a replacement is needed, and not on a predetermined
schedule.
2. Industrial equipment: In the case of industrial equipment,
oil analysis can perform an additional function too. By
looking at the type, size and shape of the metal particulates
that are suspended in the oil, the health of the equipment it
is lubricating can also be determined.
 Lecture 4 Learning outcomes
• Identify the different types of Condition
Monitoring systems
• Establish the main steps in setting up a Condition
Based Maintenance programme
• Identify the different parts of a condition
monitoring system
• Give concrete examples of the use of Condition
Based Maintenance
• Outline consequences of NOT monitoring
equipment conditions.
Methods used for CBM

Vibration Analysis

Thermography Survey

Oil Analysis
Infrared Thermography
Applications:
Condition monitoring & Predictive maintenance
High, low voltage, controls, distribution equipment
Furnaces, boilers, vessels, fluid flow problems
Testing/evaluating building systems
Air conditioning,
Non-destructive testing
Etc.
Infrared Radiation Basics
 Heat is a form of energy.
 Heat energy is stored in matter (everything around
us) just like electrical energy is stored in a battery.
 An object that contains no heat energy is very cold,
and is said to be at absolute zero (-273.15 °C).
 This is the coldest anything can be, because it
contains absolutely zero heat energy.
 When an object is at absolute zero and contains no
heat energy the molecules and atoms do not move.
Infrared Radiation Basics
 As heat is added to an object, its temperature rises.
 This heat energy is stored within matter through the
movement of molecules and atoms (and subatomic
particles).
 As heat energy is added and the temperature begins
to rise, the atoms and molecules (and sub-atomic
particles) begin to vibrate (and change energy
states).
 As the amount of heat energy stored in the object
increases, the vibration of the atoms and molecules
becomes more vigorous.
Infrared Radiation Basics
 Infrared energy is released by the vibration of these
atoms and molecules - by the collisions when they
bump into each other
 This released energy is the infrared energy that is
measured by an infrared thermometer.
 The higher the temperature the more vigorous is the
atomic and molecular vibration, and the more
infrared energy is emitted.
 There is a very strong correlation between
temperature and emitted infrared energy, and this is
why an infrared thermometer can be a very accurate
temperature measurement device.
Different temperature
Measurement Devices
 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
 Electric Resistance Thermometer
 Radiation Thermometry
 Thermocouple
 Silicon Diode
 Bimetallic Devices
 Bulb and Capillary Sensors
 Constant volume Gas Thermometer
 Sealed Bellows
 Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer
Liquid-in-glass thermometer
Glass thermometer:
 Consists of a small diameter glass tube containing some
liquid, e.g. mercury.
 The empty space may be filled with vacuum or nitrogen.
 The thermal expansion of the liquid in the bulb is directly
proportional to change in temperature. Therefore the
conversion factor is from volume to temperature. It is
highly repeatable & sufficiently accurate for most uses.
 Nowadays, other liquids are used other than mercury,
which is very accurate but also toxic.
 The downside to the glass thermometer is that it cannot
be used in pressurised environments.
Different Tempr. Measurements
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer:
 Easy to use, cheap and commonly available.
 Consists of a small diameter glass tube containing some
liquid, e.g. mercury.
 Nowadays, other liquids are used other than mercury,
which are not as accurate but less toxic.
 The empty space may be filled with vacuum or nitrogen.
 The thermal expansion of the liquid in the bulb is directly
proportional to change in temperature. Therefore, the
conversion factor is from volume to temperature. It is
highly repeatable & sufficiently accurate for most uses.
 They have limited temperature range. & They lose
accuracy when used in pressurised environments.
Electric Resistance Thermometer (RTD)

Change in temperature of a wire causes a change

in resistance.
It is very sensitive so that a small change in the
temperature can be measured.
It can measure temperature to a higher degree of
accuracy than a thermometer.
It is mostly used for calibrations of other
thermometers due to its higher degree of
accuracy and sensitivity.
Electric Resistance Thermometer (RTD)

Examples:
Bimetallic strips:
The temperature change & resistance are almost
linearly related.
Platinum wires used since they are generally
unreactive with air & environment.
Electric Resistance Thermometer (RTD)

Thermistors
The temperature change & resistance are NOT
linearly related.
The wires are wound into a coil and placed in a
ceramic tube.
Different temperature
Measurements
Thermocouple:
Temperature change is directly related to voltage
changes, T α V.
T α V is not necessarily linear.
The thermocouple is placed inside a metal, glass
or ceramic shield to protect the conductive
wires, .
Infrared Thermography
What is it?
The process of using thermal images to detect
radiation from objects
Converting the radiation to temperature
Displaying the temperature distribution as
images
The images displayed are called
thermograms
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals
Emissivity: a material’s ability to emit infrared
energy.
It is expressed as a value between 0 and 1, where
0 is no emissivity, i.e. perfect reflectivity, and 1 is
total emissivity, i.e. a blackbody.
Blackbody: An object capable of absorbing all
colours of light, a perfect emitter of infrared.
Reflectance: the amount of light reflected from the
surface of the material.
Transmittance: the ability of a material to transmit
thermal energy (heat).
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals
Emissivity, ε:
• Emission is the ability of a material to emit IR
radiation. This ability is expressed in the level of
emissivity.
• It depends on, among other things, the material
itself and its surface structure.
• The sun, for example, has an emissivity of 100 %.
However, this value never otherwise occurs.
• Concrete, on the other hand, is close, with an
emissivity of 93 %. This means that 93 % of the IR
radiation is emitted by the concrete itself.
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals
Reflectance, ρ: The other 7% are reflections from
the surroundings of the material / the object which
one wishes to measure, i.e. the temperature which
is reflected from the object. One can enter the
degree of emissivity and the reflected temperature
into a thermal imager in order to obtain as precise
a thermal image as possible.
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals
Transmittance, τ: Transmission is the ability of a
material to allow IR radiation to pass through it
(transmit). A thin plastic sheet, for example, has a
very high transmissivity – meaning that if one
wants to use a thermal imager to record the
temperature of a thin plastic sheet hanging in front
of a house wall, one measures the temperature of
the wall and not that of the sheet. Most materials
do not allow IR radiation to pass through, so that
the degree of transmissivity of a material is as a
rule almost 0, and can thus be neglected.
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals
Measurement objects with high emissivity (ε ≥
0.8):
• have a low reflectivity (ρ): ρ = 1 - ε
• their temperature can be very well measured
with a thermal imager.
Measurement objects with medium emissivity
(0.6 < ε < 0.8):
• have a medium reflectivity (ρ): ρ = 1 - ε
• their temperature can be well measured with a
thermal imager.
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals

Measurement objects with low emissivity (ε ≥

0.6):
• have a high reflectivity (ρ): ρ = 1 - ε
• temperature measurement with a thermal
imager is possible, however you should
critically question the results.
• a correct setting of the reflected temperature
compensation is indispensable, as it makes a
large contribution to the temperature
calculation.
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals

Incident Energy = Absorbed Energy + Transmitted Energy + Reflected Energy

Emitted Energy = Absorbed Energy

Incident Energy = Emitted Energy + Transmitted Energy + Reflected Energy

• Setting the incident energy equal to 100%, the equation 3 becomes:

•
• 100% = %Emitted Energy + %Transmitted Energy + %Reflected Energy
• Because emissivity equals the efficiency with which a material radiates energy,
equation 4 can be restated as follows:
•
• 100% = Emissivity + %Transmitted Energy + %Reflected Energy [5]

• Applying similar terms to %Transmitted Energy and %Reflected Energy,

• 100% = Emissivity + Transmissivity + Reflectivity

Infrared Radiation Fundamentals
• According to equation 6, there is a balance between emissivity, transmissivity, and
reflectivity. Increasing the value of one of these parameters requires a decrease in the
sum of the other two parameters. If the emissivity of an object increases, the sum of
its transmissivity and reflectivity must decrease. Likewise, if the reflectivity of an object
increases, the sum of its emissivity and trasmissivity must decrease.
• Most solid objects exhibit very low transmission of infrared energy - the majority of
incident energy is either absorbed or reflected. By setting transmissivity equal to zero,
equation 6 can be restated as follows:

• 100% = Emissivity + Reflectivity [7]

• For objects that do not transmit energy, there is a simple balance between emissivity
and reflectivity. If emissivity increases, reflectivity must decrease. If reflectivity
increases, emissivity must decrease. For example, a plastic material with emissivity =
0.92 has reflectivity = 0.08. A polished aluminum surface with emissivity = 0.12 has
reflectivity = 0.88.
•
• The emissive and reflective behavior of most materials is similar in the visible and
infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Polished metals, for example, have
low emissivity and high reflectivity in both the visible and infrared. It is important to
understand, however, that some materials that are good absorbers, transmitters, or
reflectors in the visible, may exhibit completely different characteristics in the infrared.
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals
Heat vs Temperature:
Heat is a measure of total energy of molecular
motion in an object. It is dependent on the size
of the object.
Heat describes how thermal energy is transferred
from one object to another
Heat Transfer: when thermal energy is
transferred from a hotter temperature region to
a cooler temperature region.
Infrared Radiation Fundamentals
Modes of heat transfer:
Conduction,
Convection &
Radiation.
Temperature:
Temperature: the average energy of molecular
motion of an object
Temperature can be measured directly.
Infrared Radiation
Radiation: the transfer of heat through
electromagnetic waves
Most of it is invisible to the naked eye
Infrared Radiation
Radiation: the transfer of heat through
electromagnetic waves
Radiation is transferrable through the wide
spectrum of electromagnetic waves, not just
infrared.
It is also transferrable through the visible
spectrum,
At temperatures around us, the intensity of
radiation is highest in the infrared spectrum
Hence thermographic cameras use this range.
Infrared Radiation
Radiation: the transfer of heat through
electromagnetic waves
Above absolute zero, (-273.15°C), increase in
temperature results in vibration of
molecules/atoms,
As the particles move they collide with each
other resulting in release of energy photons.
As the temperature increases, molecular
collisions also increase, and so does the release
of energy photons, or radiation
Infrared Cameras
Working principle
All objects with a temperature above absolute
zero (-273.15°C) emit thermal infrared energy
Practically all objects have a temperature above -
273.15°C, therefore thermography can be
applied to most objects.
Important: The thermal energy is emitted off the
surface of the object, so the instrument cannot
read internal thermal energy.
Infrared Thermography
Thermographic imaging is Non-destructive.
It is also non-intrusive.
Hence it can be used in areas that are dangerous
to touch, such as high voltage wires, corrosive
environments, etc.
 Thermography
Overheating electrical connection indicating a serious fire hazard
What you see What Thermography sees

Overheating electrical connection indicating a serious fire hazard

What you see What Thermography sees
Thermography Applications
What Thermograph Survey can prevent

Fire-damaged Electrical System Fire-damaged Cruise Ship

Oil Analysis

 Because lubricants are critical to most industrial

equipment, oil analysis has become one of the most
powerful predictive tools for identifying potential
failures.

 Oil Analysis is a non-destructive test used to assess

the condition of lubricants and determine the type &
amount of contamination present.

 3 basic categories of elements affecting the

lubrication effectiveness: wear metals, contaminants,
and additives.
Oil Analysis
 Improves oil sampling methods with emerging
technologies
 Improves machine condition and reliability
 Increases the remaining useful life of the lubricant
 Reduces maintenance costs associated with
unplanned downtime
 Early detection with oil analysis can allow for
corrective action such as repairing an air intake leak
before major damage occurs.
 Makes it possible to anticipate problems and schedule
repair work to avoid downtime during a critical time of
use.
Consequences of Oil Failure
Oil Analysis
Wear Debris Analysis

A sample of debris suspended in lubricating oil (taken

from filters or magnetic chip detectors) is taken from a
carefully chosen site.

A Scanning Electron Microscope is then used to reveal

the elements contained in the sample, their
proportions, size & morphology.

Using this method, the site, the mechanical failure, the

mechanism & the time to eventual failure may be
determined. This is called WDA - Wear Debris Analysis
In conclusion CBM

 Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) is the best

maintenance practice for equipment that we have
today.

 It is a strategy aimed at extending machine life,

increasing productivity, & taking machine health to
the next level for the lifetime of the equipment.

 Unlike preventative maintenance which is based on

servicing a machine at scheduled intervals, CBM is
based on specific equipment conditions including
operating environment & application.