Generation of Computer

First Generation (1942-1955): Vacuum Tubes

• Key Technology: Vacuum tubes, large glass tubes that acted as electronic switches
and amplifiers, were the core technology.
• Examples:
o ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer): The first general-
purpose electronic digital computer, built in the 1940s.
o UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer): The first commercially produced
computer in the U.S.
• Programming Language:
o Machine language (binary system: 0s and 1s), which was the only way to
communicate with these computers.
o No compilers, so programming was manual and complex.
• Characteristics:
o Size: Very large, filling entire rooms.
o Power Consumption: Extremely high electricity usage.
o Speed: Slow by modern standards, performing only thousands of calculations
per second.
o Reliability: Prone to frequent breakdowns due to overheating.
• Input/Output:
o Input was given through punch cards, and output was produced as printouts.
• Storage:
o Primary storage was provided by magnetic drums or punch cards, which
were slow and limited in capacity.
• Use Cases: Used mainly for scientific calculations and defense-related tasks.

Second Generation (1955-1964): Transistors

• Key Technology:
o Transistors replaced vacuum tubes. Transistors are smaller, faster, more
reliable, and more energy-efficient.

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 o Invented at Bell Labs in 1947, they revolutionized electronics and computing.
• Examples:
o IBM 7094: A powerful transistor-based computer used for scientific purposes.
o UNIVAC II: An improved version of the first commercial computer.
• Programming Language:
o Assembly language was introduced, which allowed instructions to be written
in symbolic code rather than pure binary.
o High-level languages like COBOL (for business applications) and FORTRAN
(for scientific calculations) were developed.
• Characteristics:
o Size: Smaller compared to the first-generation systems.
o Power Consumption: Transistors used far less power, generating less heat.
o Speed: Capable of processing data thousands of times faster than first-
generation computers.
o Reliability: More reliable and easier to maintain.
• Input/Output:
o Continued use of punch cards for input and printouts for output, but
magnetic tapes became a common storage method.
• Storage:
o Magnetic core memory was introduced, allowing faster access and larger
storage.
o Magnetic tapes and disks provided a more reliable means of data storage.
• Use Cases: Commercial data processing, scientific applications, and business record-
keeping.

Third Generation (1965-1975): Integrated Circuits (ICs)

• Key Technology:
o Integrated Circuits (ICs): ICs combined multiple transistors into a single
silicon chip, greatly improving speed and size.
o These ICs were introduced by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1958-59.
• Examples:

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 o IBM System/360: One of the first computers to use IC technology, providing
compatibility between different systems.
o PDP-8: A small, affordable minicomputer used for a variety of business and
educational purposes.
• Programming Language:
o High-level programming languages like C, BASIC, and Pascal made
programming more accessible.
o Systems could handle multiple programming languages.
• Characteristics:
o Size: Smaller and more compact compared to previous generations.
o Speed: Dramatically faster due to the use of ICs, allowing millions of
instructions per second (MIPS).
o Power Consumption: Lower than second-generation computers.
o Reliability: More reliable and easier to produce in large quantities.
o Multitasking: Capable of running multiple applications simultaneously, with
the introduction of time-sharing systems.
• Input/Output:
o Introduction of keyboards and monitors for easier human-computer
interaction.
o Data storage and retrieval were handled by faster magnetic disks and floppy
disks.
• Storage:
o Magnetic disks became common, replacing punch cards and tapes for faster
data access.
• Use Cases: Widespread in business, education, research, and government.

Fourth Generation (1975-1989): Microprocessors

• Key Technology:
o The microprocessor combined the CPU (Central Processing Unit) on a single
silicon chip.
o This allowed for smaller, cheaper, and faster computers. The first
microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was introduced in 1971.

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 • Examples:
o IBM PC (1981): The personal computer that brought computing to the
general public.
o Apple Macintosh (1984): A user-friendly personal computer with a graphical
user interface (GUI).
• Characteristics:
o Size: Desktop computers, laptops, and portable devices became possible
thanks to the microprocessor.
o Speed: Exponentially faster, capable of processing billions of instructions per
second (GIPS).
o User Interaction: Introduction of GUIs (graphical user interfaces) made
computers accessible to non-programmers.
o Networking: The rise of computer networks, the internet, and later, Wi-Fi
connectivity.
• Input/Output:
o Input devices like the mouse and touchscreens became common.
o Output was through high-resolution monitors, printers, and other multimedia
devices.
• Storage:
o The shift to hard disk drives (HDDs), optical drives (CDs, DVDs), and more
recently, solid-state drives (SSDs).
o Cloud storage also emerged, enabling users to store data on remote servers.
• Use Cases: Personal and business computing, mobile devices, gaming, multimedia,
internet access, and more.

Fifth Generation (1989-Present and Future): Artificial Intelligence (AI)

• Key Technology:
o Artificial Intelligence (AI): Machines that can simulate human intelligence,
such as learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.
o Quantum computing: Leveraging quantum mechanics to solve complex
problems faster than classical computers.

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 o Advanced Parallel Processing: Many processors working simultaneously to
handle large data sets.
• Examples:
o IBM Watson: A supercomputer capable of understanding and answering
complex questions.
o Google DeepMind’s AlphaGo: A computer that defeated a human Go
champion.
o Quantum Computers: Such as IBM’s Q System One and Google's Sycamore,
which are in their experimental stages.
• Programming Language:
o Languages for AI development, such as Python, Prolog, R, and frameworks
like TensorFlow for machine learning.
• Characteristics:
o AI: Capable of learning from experience (machine learning), recognizing
patterns (deep learning), and interacting naturally with humans (natural
language processing).
o Quantum Computing: Theoretical and early-stage machines capable of
solving certain problems far faster than traditional computers.
o Robotics: Integration of AI with robotics to create autonomous systems.
o Natural User Interfaces: Voice assistants (e.g., Siri, Alexa) and speech
recognition systems allow users to interact with computers using natural
language.
• Storage:
o Cloud storage is widely used, and new innovations in quantum storage are
on the horizon.
• Use Cases: AI-driven applications in healthcare, finance, autonomous vehicles, smart
devices, big data analysis, and more.

Here’s the same information presented in a table format for easy comparison:

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 Time Programmi
Generati Key Characteristic
Perio Examples ng Storage Use Cases
on Technology s
d Language

Large, slow,
power-hungry,
prone to Punch
Scientific
First Machine overheating, cards,
1942- Vacuum ENIAC, calculation
Generati language manual magnet
1955 Tubes UNIVAC s, military
on (binary) programming, ic
purposes
limited to drums
scientific/milit
ary use

Smaller,
faster, more
Assembly reliable, lower Magnet
Business
language, power ic core
Second data
1955- IBM 7094, high-level consumption, memor
Generati Transistors processing
1964 UNIVAC II languages less heat, y,
on , scientific
(COBOL, introduction magnet
research
FORTRAN) of high-level ic tapes
programming
languages

Smaller,
faster, lower
power
Widesprea
consumption,
d use in
Third IBM High-level multitasking,
1965- Integrated Magnet business,
Generati System/36 languages time-sharing,
1975 Circuits (ICs) ic disks governme
on 0, PDP-8 (C, Pascal) introduction
nt, and
of keyboards,
research
monitors, and
early user
interfaces

Personal Hard Personal

High-level computers, drives, computing
Fourth IBM PC, languages, fast optical ,
1975- Microprocess processing,
Generati Apple object- drives, multimedi
1989 ors GUIs, rise of
on Macintosh oriented SSDs, a, gaming,
(C++, Java) networking, cloud internet
portable storage use
devices
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 Time Programmi
Generati Key Characteristic
Perio Examples ng Storage Use Cases
on Technology s
d Language

(laptops),
introduction
of the internet
and wireless
connectivity

AI and
machine
learning
capabilities,
AI-based Cloud
IBM speech
languages storage
1989- Watson, recognition,
AI, Quantum (Python, , SSDs,
Fifth Prese Google robotics,
Computing, Prolog), emergi
Generati nt and AlphaGo, quantum
Parallel framework ng
on (AI) Futur Quantum computing,
Processing s quantu
e Computer natural user
(TensorFlo m
s interfaces
w) storage
(voice
assistants,
virtual reality),
smart devices

What is Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that is designed to perform calculations, process data,
and execute tasks according to a set of instructions known as programs or software. It can
take input, process the data through its central processing unit (CPU), store the information,
and produce output. Computers are used for a wide variety of applications, from simple
tasks like writing and browsing the internet to complex operations like scientific research,
artificial intelligence, and big data processing.
Key Functions of a Computer:
1. Input: Accepts data or instructions from input devices like keyboards, mice, or
sensors.
2. Processing: Performs calculations or manipulations on the input data using the CPU.
3. Storage: Saves data temporarily in RAM or permanently in hard drives, SSDs, or
cloud storage.

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 4. Output: Produces results or information, displayed through monitors, printers, or
other output devices.

What is a Block Diagram of a Computer?

Input
All the data received by the computer goes through the input unit. The input unit comprises
different devices like a mouse, keyboard, scanner, etc. In other words, each of these devices
acts as a mediator between the users and the computer.
The data that is to be processed is put through the input unit. The computer accepts the raw
data in binary form. It then processes the data and produces the desired output.
Major Functions of the Input Unit
The 3 major functions of the input unit are-
• Take the data to be processed by the user.
• Convert the given data into machine-readable form.
• And then, transmit the converted data into the main memory of the computer. The
sole purpose is to connect the user and the computer. In addition, this creates easy
communication between them.

CPU – Central Processing Unit

Central Processing Unit or the CPU, is the brain of the computer. It works the same way a
human brain works. As the brain controls all human activities, similarly the CPU controls all
the tasks.

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Moreover, the CPU conducts all the arithmetical and logical operations in the computer.
Now the CPU comprises of two units, namely – ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU (Control
Unit). Both of these units work in sync. The CPU processes the data as a whole.
Let us see what particular tasks are assigned to both units.

ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit

The Arithmetic Logic Unit is made of two terms, arithmetic and logic. There are two primary
functions that this unit performs.
1. Data is inserted through the input unit into the primary memory. Performs the basic
arithmetical operations on it, like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It
performs all sorts of calculations required on the data. Then, it sends back data to the
storage.
2. The unit is also responsible for performing logical operations like AND, OR, Equal to,
Less than, etc. In addition to this, it conducts merging, sorting, and selection of the
given data.

CU – Control Unit
The control unit as the name suggests is the controller of all the activities/tasks and
operations. All this is performed inside the computer.
The memory unit sends a set of instructions to the control unit. Then the control unit in turn
converts those instructions. After that these instructions are converted to control signals.

These control signals help in prioritizing and scheduling activities. Thus, the control unit
coordinates the tasks inside the computer in sync with the input and output units.

Memory Unit
All the data that has to be processed or has been processed is stored in the memory unit. The
memory unit acts as a hub of all the data. It transmits it to the required part of the computer
whenever necessary.
The memory unit works in sync with the CPU. This helps in faster accessing and processing
of the data. Thus, making tasks easier and quicker.

Types of Computer Memory

There are two types of computer memory-
Primary Memory

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This type of memory cannot store a vast amount of data. Therefore, it is only used to store
recent data. The data stored in this is temporary. It can get erased once the power is switched
off. Therefore, is also called temporary memory or main memory.

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is an example of primary memory. This memory
is directly accessible by the CPU. It is used for reading and writing purposes. For data to be
processed, it has to be first transferred to the RAM and then to the CPU.
Secondary Memory
As explained above, the primary memory stores temporary data. Thus it cannot be accessed
in the future. For permanent storage purposes, secondary memory is used. It is also called
permanent memory or auxiliary memory. The hard disk is an example of secondary memory.
Even in a power failure data does not get erased easily.

1.
Output
There is nothing to be amazed by what the output unit is used for. All the information sent to
the computer once processed is received by the user through the output unit. Devices like
printers, monitors, projectors, etc. all come under the output unit.
The output unit displays the data either in the form of a soft copy or a hard copy. The printer
is for the hard copy. The monitor is for the display. The output unit accepts the data in binary
form from the computer. It then converts it into a readable form for the user.

Characteristics of Computers
Computers have several distinctive characteristics that make them essential tools for
various tasks:
1. Speed:
o Computers can process large volumes of data and execute millions of
instructions per second. They outperform humans in speed, especially for
repetitive tasks.
2. Accuracy:
o Computers perform operations with high precision, provided that the data
and instructions are correct. They can execute complex calculations with
minimal errors.
3. Automation:
o Once programmed, computers can automatically carry out tasks without
human intervention. They follow the instructions provided in software.

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 4. Storage Capacity:
o Computers can store vast amounts of data, both temporarily (RAM) and
permanently (hard drives, SSDs, cloud storage). Data can be retrieved,
modified, and reused efficiently.
5. Versatility:
o Computers are versatile machines that can be used for a wide range of
applications, such as word processing, gaming, data analysis, communication,
etc.
6. Diligence:
o Unlike humans, computers do not tire or lose concentration. They can
perform repetitive tasks without making mistakes or requiring rest.
7. Connectivity:
o Modern computers can connect to other computers and devices through
networks like the internet, facilitating communication, data sharing, and
collaboration.
8. Multitasking:
o Computers can handle multiple tasks simultaneously, such as running several
applications at once without affecting their performance significantly.
Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified based on different factors such as size, purpose, functionality,
and data handling capabilities. Below are the main classifications of computers:

1. Classification Based on Size:

a) Microcomputers (Personal Computers)
• These are small, general-purpose computers designed for individual use.
• Examples: Desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
• Characteristics: Affordable, portable (in some cases), and widely used for tasks like
word processing, browsing the internet, gaming, and running various applications.
b) Minicomputers
• Mid-sized computers that were more powerful than microcomputers but less
powerful than mainframes.
• Once used in industries and laboratories for specific tasks such as database
management and process control.

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 • Characteristics: Multi-user capability, handling of moderate workloads.
• Example: PDP-11 (largely obsolete today).
c) Mainframe Computers
• Large and powerful systems that can handle and process large volumes of data and
support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
• Used in large organizations such as banks, government institutions, and enterprises.
• Characteristics: High processing power, multi-user support, and excellent for bulk
data processing.
• Examples: IBM zSeries, HP Mainframe.
d) Supercomputers
• The most powerful computers, used for highly complex and calculation-intensive
tasks such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear research.
• Characteristics: Extremely fast processing speeds, capable of performing trillions of
calculations per second.
• Examples: Summit, Fugaku, Cray Titan.
e) Embedded Computers
• Special-purpose computers integrated into other devices, designed to perform
specific tasks.
• Found in everyday items such as household appliances, medical equipment, and
cars.
• Characteristics: Limited to specific functions, highly reliable, small in size.
• Examples: Microcontrollers in washing machines, anti-lock braking systems (ABS) in
cars.

2. Classification Based on Functionality:

a) Analog Computers
• These computers process continuous data, such as temperature, speed, and voltage,
to simulate physical systems.
• Analog computers were once used in engineering and scientific applications where
real-world quantities are measured.
• Characteristics: Less accurate than digital computers, used in simulations.
• Examples: Flight simulators, analog voltmeters.

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b) Digital Computers
• Digital computers process discrete data using binary numbers (0s and 1s). Most
modern computers are digital.
• Characteristics: High precision and reliability, capable of performing complex
calculations quickly.
• Examples: Personal computers, servers, and calculators.
c) Hybrid Computers
• Hybrid computers combine the features of both analog and digital computers. They
use analog components to process continuous data and digital components to
process discrete data.
• Commonly used in specialized applications such as medical and industrial control
systems.
• Characteristics: Combines the speed of analog with the precision of digital.
• Examples: Medical equipment like electrocardiogram (ECG) machines, automotive
diagnostic systems.

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