BOOLEAN LOGIC

DEVELOPMENT OF BOOLEAN LOGIC

• George Boole wrote a revolutionary paper “An investigation of the laws of the thought”, published in 1854,
which led to the development of a new system – algebra of logic, BOOLEAN ALGEBRA or BOOLEAN
LOGIC
• Logic problems are binary decisions and Boolean logic effectively deals with these binary values, it is also
called SWITCHING ALGEBRA

BINARY VALUED QUANTITIES

• Binary Decision – A decision which results in either a Yes (TRUE) or No (FALSE) response
• Binary decision can also be applied to formal logic
• Statements or sentences which can be determined to be either True or False are called truth functions or
logical statements and the results – TRUE and FALSE are called truth values, represented by logical
constants TRUE and FALSE or 1 and 0

Logical Function / Compound Statement

• Algebraic variables combined with mathematical operations form algebraic expressions. e.g.
2a + 3b – 6c = 10z / 2y
• Similarly, logic statements or truth functions combine with Logical Operators (AND, OR, NOT) to form a
Logical Function or Compound Statement.
Logical variables and logical constants combined with logical operators form logical expressions.

Truth Table
• A table representing all possible values of logical variables / statements along with all possible results of the
given combination of values. e.g. consider the logical statements
• Statement 1 = I want to have tea (X)
Statement 2 = Tea is readily available (Y)
Result = I’ll have tea (R)

• Tautology – If the result of any logical statement or expression is always TRUE or 1, for all input
combinations
• Fallacy - If the result of any logical statement or expression is always FALSE or 0, for all input
combinations
LOGICAL OPERATORS

• NOT Operator
◦ Operates on a single variable (singular or unary operation)
◦ Operation performed by the NOT operator is called complementation
◦ Symbol used is ( ¯ ) or ~ (read as negation of ..) or ’ (read as complement of ..)

• OR Operator
◦ Denotes an operation called logical addition
◦ Symbol used is (+) and does not have the normal meaning.
◦ It is read as X OR Y

• AND Operator
◦ Performs a logical multiplication operation
◦ Symbol used is (.) and is read as X AND Y.
Evaluation of Boolean Expressions using Truth Tables
• Logical variables are combined by means of logical operators (AND, OR, NOT) to form a boolean
expression. e.g. X + (Y . Z )' + Z '
• A truth table of n input variables will have 2n combinations (2n rows)
• When evaluating a boolean expression, an order of precedence should always be followed – NOT, AND,
OR.
• If there are parentheses, expression in parenthesis is evaluated first.

BASIC LOGIC GATES

• A logic gate is a basic electronic circuit which operates on one or more signals to produce an output signal
• Gates are digital (two-state) circuits because input and output signals are either low voltage (denotes 0) or
high voltage (denotes 1)
• Gates are often called logic circuits because they can be analyzed with boolean logic
• There are three types of logic gates :
◦ NOT gate
◦ OR gate
◦ AND gate

• NOT Gate (Inverter)

◦ A gate with only one input signal and one output signal
◦ The output state is always the opposite of the input state.
◦ The output is sometimes called the complement (opposite) of the input.
◦ A low input (i.e. 0) produces a high output (i.e. 1) and vice-versa

• OR Gate
◦ A gate which has two or more input signals but only one output signal.
◦ If all inputs are 0, then output is 0. If any of the input signals is high (1), then the output signal is high
(1)
◦ One or more high inputs (1), produce a high output (1)
 • AND Gate
◦ This gate can have two or more input signals and produce an output signal.
◦ Only when all inputs are high (1), the output produced is 1, otherwise the output is 0.

BASIC POSTULATES OF BOOLEAN LOGIC

• Some fundamental laws are used to build a workable, cohesive framework based on the theorems of boolean
algebra
• I. If X ≠ 0 then X = 1 ; and If X ≠ 1 then X = 0
• II. OR Relations (Logical Addition)
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=1
• III. AND Relations (Logical Multiplication)
0.0=0
0.1=0
1.0=0
1.1=1
• IV. Complement Rules
0’ = 1
1’ = 0

PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY
• Starting with a boolean relation, another boolean relation can be derived by :
◦ Changing each OR sign (+) to an AND sign (.)
◦ Changing each AND sign (.) to an OR sign (+)
◦ Replacing each 0 by 1 and each 1 by 0
• The derived relation using duality principle is called dual of original expression
• This duality principle can be applied in the theorems of boolean algebra
• IF AN EXPRESSION HOLDS TRUE, ITS DUAL IS ALSO TRUE, AND VICE-VERSA
BASIC THEOREMS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

• Properties of 0 and 1
◦ 0+X=X

0 X 0+X
0 0 0
0 1 1

◦ 1 + X = 1 (Tautology)

1 X 1+X
1 0 1
1 1 1

◦ 0 . X = 0 (Fallacy)

0 X 0.X
0 0 0
0 1 0

◦ 1.X=X

1 X 1.X
1 0 0
1 1 1

• Idempotence Law
◦ X+X=X

X X X+X
0 0 0
1 1 1

◦ X.X=X

X X X.X
0 0 0
1 1 1

◦ Both statements are duals of each other

• Involution
◦ (X’)’ = X

X X’ (X’)’
0 1 0
1 0 1

• Complementarity Law
◦ X + X’ = 1

X X’ X + X’
0 1 1
1 0 1

◦ X . X’ = 0

X X X . X’
0 1 0
1 0 0

• Commutative Law
◦ X+Y=Y+X

X Y X+Y Y+X
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

◦ X.Y=Y.X

X Y X.Y Y.X
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
• Associative Law
◦ X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z

X Y Z Y + Z X + (Y + Z) X + Y (X + Y) + Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

◦ X . (Y . Z) = (X . Y) . Z

X Y Z Y.Z X . (Y . Z) X.Y (X . Y) . Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

• Absorption Law
◦ X + XY = X

X Y XY X + XY
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
 ◦ X . (X + Y) = X

X Y X + Y X . (X + Y)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

• Distributive Law
◦ X . (Y + Z) = X . Y + X . Z

X Y Z Y + Z X . (Y + Z) X . Y X . Z X . Y + X . Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

◦ X + Y . Z = (X + Y)(X + Z)

X Y Z Y . Z X + (Y . Z) X + Y X + Z (X + Y) . (X + Z)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

◦ X + YZ is a sum of two product-terms (X . 1) and (Y . Z). (X + Y)(X + Z) is a product of sum-terms X +

Y and X + Z. So this law is a useful one to convert a sum-of-product type expression to product-of-sum
type expression and vice-versa.
 • Third Distributive Law
◦ X + X’ . Y = X + Y

X Y X’ X’ . Y X + X’ . Y X+Y
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1

THEOREMS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA / BOOLEAN LOGIC

1. Properties of 0 0+X=X; 0.X=0

2. Properties of 1 1+X=X; 1.X=X
3. Idempotence Law X+X=X; XX = X
4. Involution (X’)’ = X
5. Complementarity Law X + X’ = 1 ; XX’ = 0
6. Commutative Law X+Y=Y+X; XY = YX
7. Associative Law X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z ; X (YZ) = (XY) Z
8. Distributive Law X (Y + Z) = XY + XZ ; X + YZ = (X + Y)(X + Z)
9. Absorption Law X + XY = X ; X (X + Y) = X
10. 3rd Distributive Law X + X’Y = X + Y

DEMORGAN’S THEOREMS
• DeMorgan’s First Theorem
◦ The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is equal to the product of its complements.
◦ (X + Y)’ = X’ Y’

X Y X’ Y’ X + Y (X + Y)’ X’ . Y’
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0

Algebraic Proof :

According to Complementarity Law, P + P’ = 1 and P . P’ = 0

If P = X + Y, where P, X, Y are boolean variables,
(X + Y) + (X + Y)’ = 1 and (X + Y) . (X + Y)’ = 0
If (X + Y) + X’ Y’ can be shown to be equal to 1 and (X + Y) . X’ Y’ can be shown to be equal to 0 then
DeMorgan’s First Theorem can be proved (in which case (X + Y)’ = X’ Y’)
(X + Y) + X’ Y’ = ((X + Y) + X’) . ((X + Y) + Y’) (from Distributive law (X + YZ = (X + Y)(X + Z))
= (X + X’ + Y) . (Y + Y’ + X)
= (1 + Y) . (1 + X) (from Complementarity Law (X + X’ = 1))
=1.1 (from Properties of 0 and 1 (1 + X = 1))
=1

(X + Y) . X’ Y’ = X’Y’ . (X + Y) (from Associative law (X(YZ) = (XY)Z)

= X’Y’X + X’Y’Y (from Distributive law (X(Y+ Z) = XY + XZ)
= XX’Y’ + X’YY’
= 0 . Y’ + X’ . 0 (from Complementarity Law (X . X’ = 0))
=0+0 (from Properties of 0 and 1 (0 . X = 0))
=0
Hence, (X + Y)’ = X’Y’

• DeMorgan’s Second Theorem

◦ The complement of the product of two inputs is equal to the sum of its complements.
◦ (X . Y)’ = X’ + Y’

X Y X’ Y’ X.Y (X . Y)’ X’ + Y’
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0

Algebraic Proof :

According to Complementarity Law, P + P’ = 1 and P . P’ = 0

If P = X . Y, where P, X, Y are boolean variables,
(X . Y) + (X . Y)’ = 1 and (X . Y) . (X . Y)’ = 0
If XY + (X’ + Y’) can be shown to be equal to 1 and XY . (X’ + Y’) can be shown to be equal to 0 then DeMorgan’s
Second Theorem can be proved (in which case (X . Y)’ = X’ + Y’)

XY + (X’ + Y’) = (X’ + Y’) + XY (from Commutative law (X + Y) = (Y + X)

= (X’ + Y’ + X) . (X’ + Y’ + Y) (from Distributive law (X + YZ = (X + Y)(X + Z))
= (X + X’ + Y’) . (X’ + Y + Y’)
= (1 + Y’) . (X’ + 1) (from Complementarity Law (X + X’ = 1))
=1.1 (from Properties of 0 and 1 (1 + X = 1))
=1
XY . (X’ + Y’) = XYX’ + XYY’ (from Distributive law (X(Y+ Z) = XY + XZ)
= XX’Y + XYY’
=0.Y+X.0 (from Complementarity Law (X . X’ = 0))
 =0+0 (from Properties of 0 and 1 (0 . X = 0))
=0
Hence, (X . Y)’ = X’ + Y’

• Although the above identities represent DeMorgan’s Theorem, the transformation is more easily performed
following these steps
◦ Complement entire function
◦ Change all AND (.) to OR (+) and vice-versa
◦ Complement each of the individual variables
• This process is called demorganization

SOME ADDITIONAL GATES

• NOR Gate
◦ Has two or more input signals but only one output signal.
◦ It is basically an inverted OR gate
◦ If all inputs are 0 (low) then output signal is 1
(high) and if any of the inputs is 1 (high), the
output will be 0 (low).

• NAND Gate
◦ Has two or more input signals but only one output signal.
◦ It is an inverted AND gate
◦ If all inputs are 1 (high) then output signal is
0 (low) and if any of the inputs is 0 (low), the
output will be 1 (high).
 • XOR Gate (Exclusive OR)
◦ Can also have two or more input signals but
only one output signal.
◦ XOR gate produces output 1 only for those
input combinations with odd number of 1’ s
◦ Symbol used is ⊕ and is read as A XOR B

• XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR)

◦ Logically equivalent to an inverted XOR gate
◦ Produces 1 (high) output when the input
combination has an even number of 1’ s.
◦ Symbol used is ⊙

LOGIC CIRCUITS
• A logic circuit is a circuit that carries out a set of logic actions based on an expression
• To execute a Boolean expression, a logic circuit and input values for variables of the Boolean expression are
required
• A Boolean expression can be represented in the form of a logic circuit, using a combination of logic gates,
so that the output of the Boolean expression can be determined for various combination of input values

• Rules to create a logic circuit :

◦ Break Boolean expression into smaller sub-expressions.
e.g. for AB + BC’D, there are two sub expressions AB and BC’D
◦ For each sub-expression, determine the logic gates that can implement them.
e.g. AB requires AND gate ; BC’D requires NOT and AND gates
◦ Implement the sub-expression using the gates determined in previous steps
◦ Determine the Logic gate for the symbol joining the sub-expressions.
e.g. (+) joins (AB and BC’D)
◦ Using the logic gate for the joining symbol (from step 4), connect sub-expressions’ gate implementation
(from step 3)