MEMORY AND LEARNING

The material which follows is a chapter entitled, “Memory and Learning”, from the
following document:

Donna J. Habenicht and Victor Korniejczuk, Readings on Educational Psychology: A

Christian Perspective from the Holy Bible and the Writings of Ellen G. White. (Berrien
Springs, MI: Educational and Counseling Psychology Department, School of Education,
Andrews University, 1993, pp. 38-50.)

The full document includes sections on:

Development and Learning
Cognitive Factors in Learning
Development of the Mind
Memory and Learning
Transfer of Learning
Affective Factors in Learning
Emotions
Self-concept
Motivation
Instructional Factors in Learning
Discipline
Personal Qualities of Teachers
External Conditions
Individual Differences
Values and Learning
Theories of Learning

If you are interested in obtaining a copy of the full document, please contact the first
author through the Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, School of
Education, Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI 49104-0100.
 MEMORY AND LEARNING

This chapter analyzes the Christian perspective of human memory and its place in the
learning process. As God’s creature, the person is expected to develop all mental
capabilities, including the memory, to the highest possible level. Of course, like other
mental faculties, memory should be developed to render a faithful tribute of worship
toward its Creator.

Some consideration is given to attention and sensory reception because they are
prerequisite conditions of the memory process. The Bible and E. G. White’s writings
emphasize the importance of the attending process, because the knowledge to be learned
has to be perceived, before it is stored in memory. Nothing will be recalled which had
not been previously passed through the sensory register. These prerequisites imply, to a
certain degree, the need to use value judgments and exercise the will, since attention is a
process of selecting some of many possible inputs.

Additionally, activities of selection and decision, which require the operation of the will,
are needed as control processes when information is stored in memory. For example,
rehearsal improves the recall. For this reason the Bible probably insists on repeating
information and monitoring it as a means to affirm learning.

According to the Christian conception of the memory process, God assigns to the learner
the responsibility for encoding and recalling the knowledge. Forgetting is not excusable
because a memory deficit indicates that the process was superficial. Therefore, the
learner should generate the greatest effort in order to produce the best retention.
However, mechanical memory efforts are not recommended for this purpose. Thinking
and reasoning skills should organize, elaborate, and attribute meaning to the material
being stored for future retrieval.

The Christian approach to learning recommends a conscientious study of Biblical truths

in addition to following healthy practices pointed out in this chapter and avoiding
practices that are harmful to memory.

As for other cognitive processes, Christian students should take advantage of the special
assistance that the Holy Spirit offers in order to improve their memory skills.

There is advantage in exercising memory skills from childhood. If the revealed truth can
be stored during these impressible years, all meaningful knowledge will be integrated in
a network, where each new unit of information will be associated with the old one, which
is Scripture based, establishing firmly in memory the knowledge to be learned.

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 MEMORY AND LEARNING

I. Attention and sensory reception

II. Memory

A. Importance of Memory

B. Memory Processes
1. Memory Store
2. Encoding
3. Forgetting
4. Recalling

C. Development of Memory
1. Development During Childhood
2. Factors Beneficial for Development of Memory
a. Study of the Scriptures
b. The Assistance of the Holy Spirit
c. Music
d. Association and Illustration
e. Regular Sleep
f. Physical Activity
3. Factors Harmful for Development of Memory
a. Overeating
b. Injurious Reading
c. Moral Impurity
d. Alcohol Consumption

D. Appropriate Use of Memory

1. Advancement of God’s Kingdom
2. Memorization of Scriptures

E. Wrong Use of Memory in the Learning Process

ATTENTION AND SENSORY RECEPTION

From an information processing perspective, human learning requires attention,

perception, encoding, storage, and retrieval. Attention is a necessary prerequisite of
learning. Students are more likely to recall important text elements than less
important ones. The importance of text material affects subsequent recall through
differential attention.

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Perception, or pattern recognition, refers to the meaning attached to environmental
inputs received through the senses.

The Scriptures assigns manifest importance to the processes of attention and

perception, especially when they are addressed toward divine truths.

Listen, children, to a father’s instruction, and be attentive, that you may gain insight.
Proverbs 4:1, NRSV.

Sons, listen to what your father teaches you. Pay attention, and you will have
understanding. What I am teaching you is good, so remember it all. Proverbs 4:1, 2 TEV.

Listen, son of mine, to what I say. Listen carefully. Proverbs 4:20, LB.

Son, pay attention and listen to my wisdom and insight. Then you will know how to
behave properly, and your words will show that you have knowledge. Proverbs 5:1, 2,
TEV.

Who hath ears to hear, let him hear. Matthew 13:43, KJV.

A wise man will hear, and will increase learning. Proverbs 1:5, KJV.

Consequently, faith comes from hearing the message, and the message is heard through
the word of Christ. Romans 10:17, NIV

And they have turned to Me the back, and not the face; though I taught them, rising up
early and teaching them, yet they have not listened to receive instructions. Jeremiah
32:33, NKJV.

We must pay more careful attention, therefore, to what we have heard, so that we do not
drift away. Hebrews 2:1, NIV

All the powers of the mind should be exercised, all the faculties cultivated. Perception,
judgment, memory, and all the reasoning powers should have equal strength in order that
minds may be well balanced. MCP 441:2; 3T 33:0.

MEMORY

Importance of Memory

Memory is an important mental faculty and as such it needs to be disciplined and

exercised.

God does not want us to be content with lazy, undisciplined minds, dull thoughts, and
loose memories. He wants every teacher to be efficient, not to feel satisfied with some

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measure of success, but to feel his need perpetual diligence in acquiring knowledge. CT
506:1; CEd 52:1; FE 119:2; RH 06-21-87:13.

Those who embrace the truth should seek a clear understanding of the Scriptures and an
experimental knowledge of a living Savior. The intellect should be cultivated, the
memory taxed. All intellectual laziness is sin, and spiritual lethargy is death. 4T 399:1.

Memory Processes

Memory Store

Control (executive) processes direct the processing of information in working

memory, as well as the movement of knowledge into and out of working memory.
Control processes include rehearsal, predicting, checking, and monitoring. Control
processes are goal directed. Rehearsal, or repeating information to oneself, can
maintain information in working memory indefinitely. Biblical examples and direct
inspired instructions recommend its regular practice.

Only be careful, and watch yourselves closely so that you do not forget the things your
eyes have seen or let them slip from your heart as long as you live. Teach them to your
children and to their children after them. Deuteronomy 4:9, NIV.

Keep these thoughts ever in mind; let them penetrate deep within your heart. Proverbs
4:21, LB.

Wise people store up knowledge, but the mouth of the foolish is near destruction.
Proverbs 10:14. NKJV.

In listening to the sermon, let parents and children note the text and the scripture quoted
and as much as possible of the line of thought, to repeat to one another at home. This
will go far toward relieving the weariness with which children so often listen to a
sermon, and it will cultivate in all a habit of attention and of connected thought. Ed
252:1.

The people were directed to commit to memory this poetic history [the blessing and the
curses], and to teach it to their children and children’s children. It was to be chanted by
the congregation when they assembled for worship, and to be repeated by the people as
they went about their daily labors. It was the duty of parents to so impress these words
upon the susceptible minds of their children that they might never be forgotten. PP
468:0.

Encoding

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Encoding is the process of putting new (incoming) information into the information
processing system and preparing it for storage in long-term memory. Encoding
usually is accomplished by making new information meaningful and integrating it
with known information in long-term memory.

These commandments that I give you today are to be your hearts. Impress them on your
children. Deuteronomy 6:6, 7, NIV.

Let your loyalty and good faith never fail; bind them about your neck, and inscribe them
on the tablet of your memory. Proverbs 3:3, REB.

These commandments which I give you this day are to be remembered and taken to heart;
repeat them to your children, and speak of them both indoors and out of doors, when you
lie down and when you get up. Bind them as sign on your hand and wear them as a sign
on your hand and wear them as a pendant on your forehead; write them on the doorposts
of your houses and on your gates. Deuteronomy 6:6-9, REB.

Forgetting

People must process information in some direct way. According to this theory,
when a process requires more effort it will produce better retention. The memory
deficits reveal shallow processing. From a Biblical perspective, each person is
responsible for forgetting and recalling, particularly when divine truth is the
subject.

Be careful that you do not forget the Lord, who brought you out of Egypt, pit of the land
of slavery. Deuteronomy 6:12, NIV.

Only be careful, and watch yourselves closely so that you do not forget the things your
eyes have seen or let them slip from your heart as long as you live. Teach them to your
children and to their children after them. Deuteronomy 4:9, NIV.

Though all this has befallen us, we do not forget you and have not been false to your
covenant. Psalm 44:17, REB.

Do not forget or turn a deaf ear to what I say. Proverbs 4:5, NEB.

Don’t let the excitement of being young cause you to forget about your Creator.
Ecclesiastes 12:1, LB.

Many feel that no blame should be attached to forgetfulness. This is a great mistake.
Forgetfulness is sin. It leads to many blunders and to much disorder and many wrongs.
Things that should be done ought not to be forgotten. The mind must be tasked; it must
be disciplined until it will remember. 3T12:1.

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 Recalling

According to information processing theories, once associations are learned, they

are never completely forgotten. If there are no interferences, stored elements can be
retrieved. Recalling permanent principles is a goal of Christian learning.

Teach a child how he should live, and he will remember it all his life. Proverbs 22:6,
TEV.

Son, don’t forget what I teach you. Always remember what I tell you to do. Proverbs 3:1,
TEV.

My father would teach me. He would say, “Remember what I say and never forget it. Do
as I tell you, and you will live. Proverbs 4:4, TEV.

Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Exodus 20:8 KJV

Remember this, and be assured; recall it to mind, you transgressors. Remember the
former things long past, for I am God, and there is no other. Isaiah 46: 8,9, NASB.

Recall the wondrous deeds that he has wrought, his portents, and the judgments he has
uttered. 1 Chronicles 16:12, NAB.

He would deal mercifully with our fathers, calling to mind his solemn covenant. Luke 1:
72, NEB.

Then Peter remembered the word Jesus had spoken. Matthew 26:75, NIV.

Remember the word that I said unto you. John 15:20, NKJ.

Remember the theme of my gospel: Jesus Christ, risen from the dead, born of David’s
line. 2 Timothy 2:8, REB.

And I will make every effort so that after my departure you may be able at any time to
recall these things. 2 Peter 1:15, NRSV.

I will remember your great deeds, Lord; I will recall the wonders you did in the past.
Psalm 77:11, TEV.

Development of Memory

Development During Childhood

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It is important that memory work be done during the childhood years because it is
then that the mind is most susceptible. The truths stored at the time will be retained
for life and thus useful for the greatest span of time.

My son, do not forget my teaching, but keep my commands in your heart. Proverbs 3:1,
NIV.

Remember now your Creator in the days of your youth, before the difficult days come,
and the years draw near when you say, “I have no pleasure in them.” Ecclesiastes 12:1,
NKJV.

It is in youth that the affections are most ardent, the memory most retentive, and the heart
most susceptible to divine impressions; and it is during youth that the mental and
physical powers should be set to the task in order that great improvements may be made
in view of the world that now is, and that which is to come.

The amount of valuable knowledge that can be acquired by young men and women can
hardly be estimated. . . The youth may acquire that which gold cannot buy, by cherishing
a pure, strong purpose in endeavoring to be all that God designed they should be. The
mind should be trained to dwell upon right themes of thought. They should study the
Scriptures, and bring into daily life the divine rules which God has laid down for their
guidance. He who had grown old in the service of God may find his mind a blank in
regard to the things that are happening about him, and recent transactions may soon pass
from his memory; but his mind is all awake to the scenes and transactions of his
childhood. SD 78:3, 4; YI 10-25-94:4, 5.

Since He (Christ) gained knowledge as we may do, His intimate acquaintance with the
Scriptures shows how diligently His early years were given to the study of God’s word.

Every child may gain knowledge as Jesus did. As we try to become acquainted with our
heavenly Father through His word, angels will draw near, our minds will be strengthened,
our characters will be elevated and refined. We shall become more like our Savior. DA
70:2, 4.

Evening and morning join with your children in God’s worship, reading His word and
singing His praise. Teach them to repeat God’s law. Concerning the commandments the
Israelites were instructed: “Thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt
talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and
when thou liest down, and when thou risest up.” Accordingly, Moses directed the
Israelites to set the words of the law to music. While the older children played on
instruments, the younger ones marched, singing in concert the song of God’s
commandments. In later years they retained in their minds the words of the law which
they learned during childhood. CG 523:5, RH 09-08-4:11.

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It may seem that the teaching of God’s word has but little effect upon many minds and
hearts; but if the teacher’s work has been wrought in God, some lessons of divine truth
will linger in the memory of even the most careless. 6T 159:2.

Their minds [children’s] should be trained to think, their memories taxed to remember
their appointed work; and in the training to habits of usefulness in the home, they are
being educated in doing practical duties appropriate to their age. CG 295:3; CT 149:2;
FE 369:1; MCP 287:4; SpTEd 223:1.

Factors Beneficial for the Development of Memory

The study of the Scriptures is the best aid for improving the memory. The Holy
Spirit prompts the retrieval of truth when we are doing God’s work. Putting words
to music and singing and performing them are very effective memory devices, since
they maintain information in working memory. Other resources, such as the use of
object lessons, associations, and illustrations, activate control processes which direct
the processing and storage of information in memory. Physical welfare promoted
by bodily exercise, habits of temperance, and regularity of rest, aid the functioning
of the memory.

Study of the Scriptures

Remember these commands and cherish them. Tie them on your arms and wear them on
your foreheads as a reminder. Deuteronomy 11:18, TEV.

Teach them [God’s commands] to your children. Talk about them when you are at home
and when you are away, when you are resting and when you are working. Deuteronomy
11:19, TEV.

The Bible is the best book in the world for giving intellectual culture. Its study taxes the
mind, strengthens the memory, and sharpens the intellect more than the study of all the
subject that human philosophy embraces. GW 100:0.

If medical students will study the word of God diligently, they will be far better prepared
to understand their other studies; for enlightenment always comes from an earnest study
of the word of God. Nothing else will so help to give them a retentive memory as a study
of the Scriptures. CT 483:1; MM 69:3. [Advice given to medical students. The principle
can apply to other students.]

Be more desirous of practicing the virtues of Christ’s character than of advancing in lines
of study. Advancement in learning of the great Teacher will make your mind more
fruitful in every good work. Your memory will be strengthened to retain the essential
science of education. Lt 36, 1901.

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The Assistance of the Holy Spirit

But your Advocate, the Holy Spirit whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you
everything, and will call to mind all that I have told you. John 14:26, NEB.

God will flash the knowledge obtained by diligent searching of the Scriptures, into their
[servants of Christ’s] memory at the very time when it is needed. But if they neglect to
fill their minds with the gems of truth, if they do not acquaint themselves with the words
of Christ, if they have never tasted the power of His grace in trial, then they cannot
expect that the Holy Spirit will bring His words to their remembrance. They are to serve
God daily with their undivided affections, and then trust Him. CSW 41:1; TSS 106:3.

The servants of Christ were to prepare no set speech to present when brought to trial.
Their preparation was to be made day by day in treasuring up the precious truths of
God’s Word, and through prayer strengthening their faith. When they were brought into
trial, the Holy Spirit would bring to their remembrance the very truths that would be
needed. . . . DA 335:1; ML 45:3.

A daily, earnest striving to know God, and Jesus Christ whom He has sent, would bring
power and efficiency to the soul. The knowledge obtained by diligent searching of the
Scriptures, would be flashed into the memory at the right time. But if any had neglected
to acquaint themselves with the words of Christ, if they had never tested the power of His
grace in trial, they could not expect that the Holy Spirit would bring His word to their
remembrance. DA 355:2; ML 45:4.

Association and Illustration

The institutions of human society find their best models in the word of God. For
those of instruction, in particular, there is no lack of both precept and example.
Lessons of great profit, even in this age of educational progress, may be found in the
history of God’s ancient people.

By the use of figures and symbols the lessons given were illustrated, and thus firmly
fixed in the memory. FE 95:1, 4; RH 10-30-00:1, 4.

The use of object lessons, blackboards, maps, and pictures, will be an aid in explaining
these lessons, and fixing them in the memory. CG 515:1; Ed 186:1; MCP 194:2.

Fix these words of mine in your heads and minds; tie them as symbols on your hands and
bind them on your foreheads. . . Write them on the doorframes of your houses and on
your gates. Deuteronomy 11:18, 20, NIV.

‘Go over in front of the Ark of the Lord your God as far as the middle of the Jordan, and
let each of you take up a stone on his shoulder, one for each of the tribes of Israel. These
stones are to stand as a memorial among you: in days to come, when your children ask

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what these stones mean, you will tell them how the waters of the Jordan were cut off
before the Ark of the Covenant of the Lord; when it crossed the Jordan the waters of the
Jordan were cut off. These stones will always be a reminder to the Israelites.’ Joshua
4:5-7, REB.

Kindergarten methods and object lessons from nature will be of great advantage in
interesting the little ones. . . After the morning lesson, on pleasant days, teachers and
children would take a long walk, and during the walk, by the banks of a river or in the
grassy fields, a halt would be called and a short lesson from nature given. In such lessons
as these the children can be taught the parables of Christ. The truth will be fastened in
their minds as a nail in a sure place. 6T 105:1; Ms 74, 1900. [This statement was made
in the context of working with the children and youth at campmeetings.]

. . . The use of figures and symbols caused the lessons given to be more firmly fixed in
the memory. The great truths of God’s providence and of the future life were impressed
on the young mind. CEd 60:2; PP 592:2.

Teachers should copy the example of the Great Teacher, who from the familiar scenes of
nature drew illustrations that simplified his teachings, and impressed them more deeply
upon the minds of his hearers. The birds caroling in the leafy branches, the flowers of
the valley, the lofty trees, the fruitful lands, the springing grain, the barren soil, the
setting sun gilding the heavens with its golden beams, --all served as means of
instruction. He connected the visible works of the Creator with the words of life which
he spoke, that whenever these objects should be presented to the eyes of his hearers, their
thoughts might revert to the lessons of truth he had linked with them. CEd 66:3, PP
599:3.

Regular Sleep

Some youth are much opposed to order and discipline. They do not respect the rules of
the home by rising at a regular hour. . .

Our God is a God of order, and he desires that His children shall will to bring themselves
into order and under His discipline. Would it not be better, therefore, to break up this
habit of turning night into day, and the fresh hours of the morning into night? If the
youth would form habits of regularity and order, they would improve in health, in spirits,
in memory, and in disposition. CG 111:5; YI 01-28-97:5, 6. [Parts of the above
statement are also found in ML 143:5 and Ev 652:1.]

Physical Activity

If the physical powers are not taxed equally with the mental, too much strain is brought
upon the latter. Unless every part of the human machinery performs its allotted tasks, the
mental powers cannot be used to their highest capability for any length of time. MCP
364:1; CEd 211:1; 5T 522:1.

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The physical training will, if properly conducted, prepare for mental taxation. But the
one alone always makes a deficient man. MCP 362:2; TM 241:2; Lt 47a, 1895.

Factors Harmful for Development of Memory

There are practices and habits which are harmful and/or impede the functioning of
the memory. Overeating robs the brain of the vital force which it needs in
processing information. The unnatural stimulation of injurious, fictitious literature
injures the memory. Moral impurity lessens the mental powers. Alcoholic drinks
destroy the capacity of the mind to retrieve information and weaken its ability to
effectively store it.

Overeating

You are intemperate in your eating. Frequently you place in your stomach double the
quantity of food your system requires. . . your stomach is overworked; and life and
energy are called from the brain to work the mill which grinds the material you have
placed in your stomach.

This is one great cause of your forgetfulness and loss of memory. CD 137:2, 138:1, Lt
17, 1895.

Injurious Reading

The memory is greatly injured by ill-chosen reading, which has a tendency to unbalance
the reasoning powers and to create nervousness, weariness of the brain, and prostration of
the entire system. If the imagination is constantly overfed and stimulated by fictitious
literature, it soon becomes a tyrant, controlling all the other faculties of the mind and
causing the taste to become fitful and the tendencies perverse. 4T 497:2.

Moral Impurity

Defiling habits not only abase the soul, but debase the intellect. Memory suffers, laid on
the alter of base, hurtful practices. . . The giving of the faculties to lustful practices
disorders the brain and nerve power, and though professing religion, they are not now
and never will be agents whom God can use; for He despises the practices of impurity,
which destroy the vital nerve energies. This sin of impurity is lessening physical vigor
and mental capabilities, so that everything like mental taxation will after a short time
become irksome. Memory is fitful; and, O what a loathsome offering is thus presented to
God! FE 227:1; SpTEd 189:1.

Alcohol

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Don’t let wine tempt you, even though it is rich red, and it sparkles in the cup, and it goes
down smoothly. The next morning you will feel as if you had been bitten by a poisonous
snake. . . “I must have been hit, “ you will say; “I must have been beaten up, but I don’t
remember it.” Proverbs 23:31,32,5, TEV.

Look at our young men. And I write now what causes my heart to ache. They have lost
their will power. Their nerves are enfeebled because their power is exhausted. . . The
wine they have drunk has enfeebled the memory. They are like persons aged in years.
The brain is no longer able to produce its rich treasures when required. Te 36:4; Ms 17,
1898.

Appropriate Use of Memory

Memory is a gift from God which has been given to use for His glory. The truths of
God’s word should be securely stored in our minds that we may share them with the
world. By a knowledge of God’s promises, we have comfort and courage to press
onward in the Christian life and the weapons necessary to successfully meet Satan’s
temptations.

Advancement of God’s Kingdom

Then beware lest thou forget the Lord, which brought thee forth out of the land of Egypt,
from the house of bondage. Deuteronomy 6:12, KJV.

The talents of speech, memory, influence, property, are to accumulate for the glory of
God and the advancement of His kingdom. He will bless the right use of His gifts. CS
116:4; RH 04-09-01:19.

Let your loyalty and good faith never fail; bind them about your neck, and inscribe them
on the tablet of your memory. Proverbs 3:3, REB.

Memorization of Scripture

It is of the greatest importance that you continually search the Scriptures, storing the
mind with the truths of God. You may be separated from the companionship of
Christians and placed where you will not have the privilege of meeting with the children
of God. You need the treasures of God’s Word hidden in your heart. ML 28:1; ST 02-
06-93:5.

Take these commandments of mine to heart and keep them in mind. Deuteronomy 11:18,
REB.

Let those who work for the higher classes bear themselves with true dignity,
remembering that angels are their companions. Let them keep the treasure house of mind

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and heart filled with, “It is written.” Hang in memory’s hall the precious words of Christ.
They are to be valued far about gold or silver. MH 215:3; RH04-06-11:22; 6T 81:3.

Temptations often appear irresistible because, through neglect of prayer and the study of
the Bible, the tempted one cannot readily remember God’s promises and meet Satan with
the Scripture weapons. But angels are round about those who are willing to be taught in
divine things; and in the time of great necessity they will bring to their remembrance the
very truths which are needed. GC 600:0; CSW 39:0; ML 28:4; RH 01-10-07:2.

Only the sense of God’s presence can banish the fear that, for the timid child, would
make life a burden. Let him fix in his memory the promise, “The angel of the Lord
encampeth round about them that fear him, and delivereth them.” Psalm 34:7. CG 42:2;
Ed 255:4; MC 478:2.

Here are the promises, plain and definite, rich and full; but they are all upon conditions.
If you comply with the conditions, can you not trust the Lord to fulfill His word? Let
these blessed promises, set in the framework of faith, be placed in memory’s halls. Not
one of them will fail. All that God hath spoken He will do. 5T 630:2.

Wrong Use of Memory in the Learning Process

Memory should not be used as a substitute for all learning. If this is done, the mind
is not trained to use the reasoning powers in thinking independently and making
decisions. Thus the conscience is left dormant and becomes incapable of judging
right from wrong. Care must also be taken in the amount and suitability of the
material to be stored. The brain can become overloaded by too much material. It
serves no good purpose to crowd the mind with an irrelevant mass of little-us e d
knowledge.

For ages education has had to do chiefly with the memory. This faculty has been taxed to
the utmost, while the other mental powers have not been correspondingly developed.
Students have spent their time in laboriously crowding the mind with knowledge, very
little of which could be utilized. The mind thus burdened with that which it cannot digest
and assimilate is weakened; it becomes incapable of vigorous, self-reliant effort, and is
content to depend on the judgment and perception of others. ED 230:1.

The education that consists in the training of the memory, tending to discourage
independent thought, has a moral bearing which is too little appreciated. As the student
sacrifices the power to reason and judge for himself, he becomes incapable of
discriminating between truth and error, and falls an easy prey to deception. He is easily
led to follow tradition and custom. Ed 230:3; MCP 446:2.

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