Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.

UNIT ONE
Introduction
1.1 The History of Computing
The historical foundation of computing goes a long way toward explaining why computing systems today
are designed as they are. Think of this section as a story whose characters and events have led to the
place we are now and form the foundation of the exciting future to come. We examine the history of
computing hardware and software separately because they each have their own impact on how computing
systems evolved into the layered model.

1.1.1 A Brief History of Computing Hardware and software

The devices that assist humans in various forms of computation have their roots in the ancient past and
have continued to evolve throughout the present day. Let's take a brief tour through the history of
computing hardware and software.
A computer is an electronic device that accepts, processes, stores and outputs data under the
control of sets of instructions
The acronym for computer is ―Common Oriented Machine Particularly Used for Trade, Education
and Research‖.

Hardware
The physical components of the computer that can be seen and touched are called as hardware. The
Term hardware is used to refer to all the components inside or outside the computer. In addition to
this, components used to interconnect two or more components.
Hardware. We have several hardware devices that are used at various phases of data processing
cycle. The hardware that are used to supply input to computer are called as input devices. The
hardware that are used to process the data, are called as processing devices and the devices that are
used to present output of computer are called as output devices. Each of these categories has a broad
variety of devices of various brands and qualities.

Software
The sets of instructions that instruct the computer to do different tasks are called as software is life
that moves inside these organs. Both of them cannot perform their function without the presence of
each other.

GENERATION OF COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that accepts, processes, stores and outputs data under the control
of sets of instructions.

First Generation Computers (1940–1956)

The U.S. census Bureau developed the first business computer in the year 1951. This computer was
called Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC). It used vacuum tube circuits for processing. The
computers that used vacuum tube circuits were called the First Generation Computers. The vacuum
tube circuits contained a filament that was heated to emit electrons.

The main features of the first generation computers were as follows:

1. They used vacuum tubes.
2. They had a very big size.
3. They consumed huge electricity.

Introduction to information technology Page 1

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

4. They were prone to failures.

5. They generated a lot of heat.
6. They only supported machine language.

Second Generation Computers (1956–1964)

Bell Labs of U.S.A. invented transistors that were used instead of vacuum tubes. Transistors are
electronic circuits that are small in size. They do not emit electrons and do not require any heating.
The computers that used transistors were called the Second Generation Computers.

The main features of the second generation computers were as follows:

1. They used transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
2. They were smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.
3. They generated lesser heat.
4. They were more reliable and faster than the first generation computers.
5. They used core memories, magnetic tapes and disks.
6. They used lesser electricity.
7. They could be programmed by using machine as well as assembly language.

Third Generation Computers (1964–1971)

The Third Generation Computers used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits for processing. The LSI
circuits were invented in mid 1960s. LSI circuits integrate several circuit components into a single
chip.

The main features of the third generation computers were as follows:

1. They used integrated circuits
2. They had a small size as compared to the second generation computers.
3. They consumed less electricity.
4. They were faster and reliable than the second generation computers.
5. They supported high level language.

Fourth Generation Computers (1971–Present)

Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) chips were invented in the year 1969. The computers that used
VLSI chips were called the Fourth Generation Computers

The main features of the fourth generation computers are:

1. They contain high-speed microprocessors.
2. They contain huge storage volumes in the form of magnetic and optical storage.
3. They contain main memories up to GBs (Gigabytes).
4. They are companied by great developments in the fields of networks.

Fifth Generation Computers (Future)

Recent research has focused on developing ―thinking computers‖. These Computers are called the
Fifth Generation Computers.
Fifth generation computers will have the power to learn and apply knowledge to solve a problem.
They would be able to work like humans do. You can watch a movie named ―AI‖ by Steven
Spielberg to have an idea of such computers.

Introduction to information technology Page 2

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

1.2. Type and Characteristics of computers

1.2.1. Types of computers
There are different types of computers. Their differences depend on different categories of their
characteristics.

 Based on type of data they process computers can be divided as:

Computers may process analog data or digital data. Hence, computers can be either digital, analog or
hybrid. Virtually all modern computers are digital.

1. Digital computer
Digital refers to the processes in computers that manipulate binary numbers (0s or 1s), which represent
switches that are turned on or off by electrical current. A bit can have the value 0 or the value 1, but
nothing in between 0 and 1. Analog refers to circuits or numerical values that have a continuous range.
Both 0 and 1 can be represented by analog computers, but so can 0.5, 1.5, or a number like p
(approximately 3.14).
A desk lamp can serve as an example of the difference between analog and digital. If the lamp has a
simple on/off switch, then the lamp system is digital, because the lamp either produces light at a given
moment or it does not. If a dimmer replaces the on/off switch, then the lamp is analog, because the
amount of light can vary continuously from on to off and all intensities in between.
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring. They
operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples: Abacus, Desk & pocket computers, the general purpose computers.

2. Analog computer
Analog computer systems were the first type to be produced. A popular analog computer used in the 20th
century was the slide rule. To perform calculations with a slide rule, the user slides a narrow, gauged
wooden strip inside a ruler like holder. Because the sliding is continuous and there is no mechanism to
stop at any exact values, the slide rule is analog. New interest has been shown recently in analog
computers, particularly in areas such as neural networks. These are specialized computer designs that
attempt to mimic neurons of the brain. They can be built to respond to continuous electrical signals. Most
modern computers, however, are digital machines whose components have a finite number of states—for
example, the 0 or 1, or on or off bits. These bits can be combined to denote information such as numbers,
letters, graphics, sound, and program instructions.
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables, they don’t computer
directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure,
temperature, voltage, current etc. Examples: Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer.

3. Hybrid computer
Hybrid Computers are the type of computer that can act as digital and analog. They can also serve as both
digital and analog. They can measure continuous flow of data (act as analog) and manipulate discrete
values (0s and 1s).
In summary, analog computers measure things. Digital computers, in contrast, count things. A digital
computer is one that operates on discrete data. Analog computer in contrast is one that operates on
continuous data. Hybrid Computers act as both analog and digital.

 Based on purposes of application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes and can be grouped as: special purpose and
general purpose computers.

Introduction to information technology Page 3

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

1) Special purpose computers

They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and their functions are
uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific application. Example: The public telephone
box, Traffic control system, Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.), Pocket-calculators etc.,
Counters. Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
2) General purpose computers

They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of ―store program concept‖. A program or
set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and then executed by
the computer one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using
different program. General computers are more flexible and versatile. Examples: Micro computers, Mini
computers, Mainframe computers, Super computers etc.
 Based on Size and Capacity computers can be divided as:
Based on their size, speed, storage capacity and price computers can be categorized into four major
groups.
1) Supercomputers
2) Mainframes
3) Minicomputers
4) Microcomputers

1) Super computer
The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely powerful computer
designed for high-speed processing. A supercomputer is generally characterized as being the fastest, most
powerful, and most expensive computer.
Generally, Super computer is:
 The largest and the most efficient computers
 Very expensive and very fast
 Supports hundreds of users at different locations

2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and minis and
usually have processors with faster instruction processing speeds. For example, they may be able to
process from 10 to 200 million instructions per second (MIPS). Mainframe computer Supports multiple
users and is expensive.

3) Minicomputer
Minicomputers are midrange computers that are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but
are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer systems. Minicomputers are being used for a
large number of business and scientific applications. They are popularly used in scientific laboratories,
research centers, universities and colleges, engineering firms, industrial process monitoring and control,
etc.

4) Microcomputers
Microcomputer, desktop or notebook size computing is a device that uses a microprocessor as its central
processing unit, or CPU. Microcomputers are also called personal computers (PCs), home computers,
small-business computers, and micros. The smallest, most compact are palm tops. Laptops are also small
in size (size of brief case). When they first appeared, they were considered single-user devices, and they
were capable of handling only four, eight, or 16 bits of information at one time. More recently the
Introduction to information technology Page 4
 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

distinction between microcomputers and large, mainframe computers (as well as the smaller mainframe-
type systems called minicomputers) has become blurred, as newer microcomputer models have increased
the speed and data-handling capabilities of their CPUs into the 32-bit, multi-user range.
Computer Circuit Board Integrated circuits (ICs) make the microcomputer possible; without them,
individual circuits and their components would take up far too much space for a compact computer
design. Also called a chip, the typical IC consists of elements such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors
packed on a single piece of silicon. In smaller, more densely packed ICs, circuit elements may be only a
few atoms in size, which makes it possible to create sophisticated computers the size of notebooks. A
typical computer circuit board features many integrated circuits connected together.
• The smallest computers ever produced
• Relatively small
• Supports a single user Examples of microcomputers are: Desktop, Laptop, Palmtop

1.2.2. Characteristics of computers

Computers are capable of performing highly complex tasks, which human beings cannot perform
efficiently.
The following are the main characteristics of computers, which make them so powerful:
1. Speed
Computers work at an amazing speed without any mistakes. The work, which a normal person would
complete in a few hours can be done within fractions of a second by a computer. Speed of computers
is measured in terms of milliseconds (10–3 seconds), microseconds (10–6 seconds) or nanoseconds
(10–9 seconds).
2. Accuracy
A computer performs its task with great accuracy. It never commits mistakes in processing the data.
It
produces errors when we enter inaccurate input, i.e., Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO).
3. Reliability
Computers are more reliable than human beings as they do not get bored of the repetitive tasks and
never get tired.
4. Storage Capacity
A computer can store large amount of data. It can store various documents, articles, pictures, etc., in
its memory which can be used whenever required. On the other hand, a human being can keep only a
limited information in his/her mind and rest of the things, he/she forgets.
5. Versatility
A computer can perform various types of jobs. On a computer system, we can listen to songs while
typing text or play games while working on any other package, do calculations, make drawings, surf
the net, send e-mail, etc.
6. Reduction in Manpower
Earlier, the work in industries/factories was done by a number of persons. But with computers, it can
be completed by a few persons and that too more accurately and efficiently. The advent of computer
has reduced the need of manpower.
7. Paper Work can be reduced
The use of computer reduces the burden of paper work in any organization. For example, record of
each student of a school can be kept in the computer itself rather than keeping manual files for each
student. Also, information regarding any student can be obtained easily and quickly with the help of
a computer

Introduction to information technology Page 5

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

Limitations of a Computer
Despite having various advantages, computers do have the following limitations that are the strengths
of human beings. These are:
1. No Decision-making Ability
Computers cannot take any decisions. Human beings assist the computer to take the decisions. For
Example, suppose a street hawker is selling flowers. If such kind of flowers are already in our house,
we
Will decide not to purchase them. Taking decision in this way, without the assistance of human
beings,
is not possible by a computer.
2. No Intelligence
Computers do not have intelligence of their own, they work according to the instructions given by
humans.
3. No Emotions and Feelings
Computers are far away from emotions and certainly being machines, they cannot have feelings and
instinctsThese limitations of computers are characteristics of human beings. Thus, computers and
human beings work in collaboration to make a perfect pair.
l

Introduction to information technology Page 6

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

UNIT TWO
2.1 Computing Components
A computer is not a single machine. It is a system and the system contains lot of subcomponents. A
computer system is made up of both hardware and software.
Now we can describe the primary components of a computer, which capitalize on these technologies. These
primary components are like Lego pieces; they can be combined to build a variety of different computers,
just as Legos can form a variety of buildings.
Although these components, such as main memory and the Central Processing Unit, are often thought of as
the most fundamental parts of a computer, we know that they are abstractions of even more fundamental
concepts.
2.1.1 Computer Hardware Components
Hardware is the general term for the physical devices that carry out the activities of capturing, processing,
storing, and communicating data and information. The hardware of a computer system is made up of a
number of electronic devices connected together. There are several criteria by which computer hardware can
be categorized. The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting physical parts
based on the need of the information flow Information flows in the computer hardware.
Based on information processing, we can divide computer hardware into four
1. Input Device 3. Storage Device

2. Output Device 4. Central Processing Unit (CPU

Input/Output Devices
All of the computing power in the world wouldn't be useful if we couldn't input values into the calculations
from outside or report to the outside the results of the calculations. Input and output units are the channels
through which the computer communicates with the outside world.
An input device is a device through which data and programs from the outside world are entered into the
computer. The first input units interpreted holes punched on paper tape or cards. Modern day input devices
include the terminal keyboard, the mouse, Microphone, and scanning devices used at supermarkets
An output device is a device through which results stored in the computer memory are made available to the
outside world. The most common output devices are printers monitor and video display terminals
Storage Device
Computer storage devices are devices used to store data temporarily or permanently. The two
broad categories of storage devices are: Memory or Main memory and Auxiliary or Secondary
storage device.
Memory Unit/Main Memory
Memory also known as primary storage, main memory or internal memory is physically located
close to the CPU (to decrease access time)
RAM and ROM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM is memory in which each cell (usually byte) can
be directly accessed. Inherent in the idea of being able to access each location is the ability to
change the contents of each location. That is, temporary data storage and Instruction could be changed
while a program is executing, it is volatile—the contents are lost when the power goes off or is turned off

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The contents in locations in ROM cannot be changed. Their
contents are permanent and cannot be changed by a stored operation. Placing the bit pattern in
ROM is called burning. The bit pattern is burned either at the time the ROM is manufactured or at

Introduction to information technology Page 7

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

the time the computer parts are assembled.

Auxiliary/Secondary Storage Devices
Hard Disk
Hard disks are thin but rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that allows data to
be held in the form of magnetized spots. Most hard disk drives have at least two platters; the greater the
number of platters, the larger the capacity of the drive. The platters in the drive are separated by spaces and
are clamped to a rotating spindle that turns all the platters in unison. Hard disks are tightly sealed within an
enclosed hard disk drive unit to prevent any foreign matter from getting inside. Data may be recorded on both
sides of the disk platters .In a microcomputer, the hard disk is enclosed within the Because most of main
memory is volatile and limited, it is essential that there be other types of storage devices where programs and data
can be stored when they are no longer being processed or the machine is not turned on. These other types of
storage devices (other than main memory) are called secondary or auxiliary storage devices. Because data must be
read from them and written to
them, each secondary storage device is also an input and an output device. Secondary storage devices can be
installed within the computer box at the factory or added later as needed. Because these storage devices can store
large quantities of data, they are also known as mass storage devices. The following are examples of secondary
storage devices.
Magnetic Tape
We mentioned card readers and card punches as very early input/output devices. Paper tape readers were the next
input/output devices. Although paper tapes, like cards, are permanent, they do not contain much data. The first
truly mass auxiliary storage device was the magnetic tape drive. A magnetic tape drive is like a tape recorder and is
most often used to back up (make a copy of) the data on a disk in case the disk is ever damaged. Tapes come in
several varieties, from small streaming-tape cartridges to large reel-to-reel models.
Tape drives have one serious drawback: In order to access data in the middle of the tape, all the
data before the one you want must be accessed and discarded. Although the modern streaming-tape
Magnetic Disks
A disk drive is a cross between a compact disk player and a tape recorder. A read/write head (similar to
the record/playback head in a tape recorder) travels across a spinning magnetic disk, retrieving or
recording data. Like a compact disk, the heads travel directly to the information desired, and like a tape,
the information is stored magnetically
Compact Disks
CD, of course, stands for Compact Disk that can store up to 700 MB you probably have a collection of
them with recorded music. CD drive uses a laser to read information stored optically on a plastic disk.
Rather than having concentric tracks, there is one track that spirals from the inside out. Like other disks,
the track is broken into sectors. Unlike magnetic disks where the tracks near the center are more densely
packed, a CD has the data evenly packed over the whole disk, thus more information is stored in the track
on the outer edges and read in a single revolution. In order to make the transfer rate consistent throughout
the disk, the rotation speed varies depending on the position of the laser beam.

DVD is a newer technology that can store up to 10 GB. DVD, which stands for Digital Versatile
Disk, can store multi-media presentations that combine audio and video. As you probably know,
movies are now available on DVDs

Central Processor Unit (CPU)

The CPU, also called the processor, as its name suggests, is the unit that does the work of the computer
system i.e. it executes computer programs. The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is a piece
of hardware that carries out the instructions of a computer program. It performs the basic arithmetical,
logical, and input/output operations of a computer system. The CPU is like the brains of the computer -
every instruction, no matter how simple, has to go through the CPU. A computer programs is composed

Introduction to information technology Page 8

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

of instructions, which are executed (obeyed) by the processor. These instructions tell the processor
when and what to read from a keyboard; what to display on a screen, what to store and retrieve from a
disk drive and so on. A computer program is a set of such instructions that carries out a meaningful task.
It is worth remembering at this stage that the processor can only perform a limited range of operations,
logical and arithmetic. It can compare numbers and perform input/output (read information and display
or store it) or perform one of the arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, division or
multiplication. It has no magical powers. It is instructive to bear in mind that all computer programs are
constructed from sequences of instructions based primitive operations The CPU may be a single chip
(microprocessor) or a series of chips that performs Arithmetic and
Logical operations and controls the operations of the other elements of the system.
The processor consists of four functional sections: the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), the
registers, the control unit, and the bus system.
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): - gives the chip its calculating ability and permits arithmetical
& logical operations. The ALU carries out arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction and logical
operations like AND, OR, or NOT.
The Registers: - In addition to the ALU and CU, the processor has a small number (usually less than
100) of storage locations to store information that is currently being processed. These locations are
called registers. They are temporary storage areas that hold data, keep track of instructions, and hold
the location & results of these operations. Depending on the processor type, a register may typically
store 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. The register size of a particular processor allows us to classify the processor.
An n-bit processor is said to have an n-bit word size so a 32- bit processor has a 32-bit word size. The
greater the number of bits the more powerful the processor is, since it will be able to process a larger unit
of information in a single operation.
The CPU consists of different types of registers
 The Program Counter (PC): contains the address of the instruction currently being
executed or the one to be fetched next. More accurately, it is called Instruction Pointer.
 The Instruction Register (IR): holds the instruction currently being executed.
 The Memory Address Register (MAR): holds the part of the program instruction that tells the
ALU the address of the data that is to be processed next.
 The Memory Data Register (MDR): holds instruction and data just fetched and temporarily stores
the result of processing before they are written to main memory. They are also called accumulator.
 Packet Status Register (PSR): contains flags that describe the status of the most recent
operation carried out by the CPU.
 General P u r p o s e R e g i s t e r s ( GPR): may p e r f o r m m a n y f u n c t i o n s s u c h a s
h a n d l i n g constants and/or accumulating arithmetic Results.
The Control Unit (CU): - performs all the control functions of the computer. That is, it times and
regulates the operations of the entire computer system; reads instruction from a designated register and
translates it into an activity; and regulates the amount of CPU time that each operation may
consume.

The Buy System

The most critical connection of any computer system is the system bus. This is a single
computer bus that controls the transfers between the CPU, the main memory, and the
input/output devices (I/O).
The system bus carries three types of information (lines): address, data, and control. The address
information describes where data is located and where it needs to go during a particular
operation. The data are the actual digital pieces of information that need to be transferred. The control

Introduction to information technology Page 9

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

information manages the flow of the address and data information, including the direction of the
transfer and exactly how data needs to be routed through the computer system. Because of these three
different types of information, the system bus actually consists of three buses.
2.2. Computer System Software
In general, computer software has two major categories:
 System software
 Application software
2.2.1. Systems software
Systems software includes computer's basic operating system and language software. The term also
usually covers any software used to manage the computer and the network. Thus, we can say that
systems software includes operating systems, device drivers, programming tools, utilities and more.
2.2.1.1. Operating Systems
An operating system is the most important program that runs on a computer. Every general- purpose
computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks,
such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of
files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic
policeman - it makes sure those different programs and users running at the same time and do not
interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that
unauthorized users do not access the system.
As of 2005, the major operating systems in widespread use have consolidated into two main families:
the Unix-like family and the Microsoft Windows family.
The Unix-like family is commonly used to refer to many operating systems, which resemble an
operating system called UNIX. The Microsoft Windows family contains operating systems such as
Windows 7x, Windows 2000, and Windows XP.
Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other application programs can run. The
application programs must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. Your choice of an
operating system, therefore, determines the applications you can use.
2.2.1.2. Language Software
Language software- is software which is used by programmers to develop application software and
translate programs to machine code. Language software is a generic name consisting of various
programs that serve as editors & translators to develop programs in a number of
Programming languages. Language software includes: - Translators, general purpose routines
and utilities & high level languages1)
Translator:- is a program that converts one or more languages to another language. Three types

Introduction to information technology Page 10

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

of translators are assemblers, compilers & interpreters.

A. Assemblers: - is a program that translates assembly languages into machine code.
B. Compiler: - is a program that translates a high level language into machine code. (Pascal,
FORTRAN COBOL).
C. Interpreter: -is a program that translates each instruction of high-level language &
Executes the instruction before translating the next instruction.
2) The general-purpose routine and utilities include programs which are used to handle file
processing, editing and debugging.
3) High-level language software is software which have their own compilers to detect syntax
errors of the users program code. Exemple: Cobol, Fortran, Pascal, C/C++ etc.
2.2.2. Applications Software

Applications software allows a user to accomplish one or more specific tasks. Typical
applications software includes office suites, business software, educational s
oftware, databases and computer games.
The following are examples of application software
Word processing: WordPerfect, Open Office, AmiPro, and MS-Word.
 Desktop Publishing: MS-Publisher, Quark Press, and Adobe InDesign.
 Spreadsheet: Lotus 1-2-3, MS-Excel, and Corel Quattro Pro.
 Database management: MS-Access, My SQL, and Oracle.
 Presentation: MS-PowerPoint, Freelance Graphics, and Adobe Persuasion

Introduction to information technology Page 11

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

UNIT THREE
3. Numbering system and Data representation
Introduction to Data Representation
A digital computer works with binary number system. The binary number system has only two digits
0 and 1. Inside the computer, binary number is represented by an electrical pulse. 1 means a pulse of
electricity and 0 means no pulse.
Data is divided into three types—alphabetic data, numeric data and alphanumeric data. Alphabetic
data is used to represent the alphabets. It consists of capital letters A–Z, small letters a–z and blank
space etc. Alphabetic data is also called non-numeric data. Numeric data consists of ten digits
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, two signs + and – and decimal point. Alphanumeric data is used to represent
alphabetic data, numeric data, special characters and symbols.
One digit in binary number system is called a bit and combination of eight bits is called a byte. A byte is the
basic unit that is used to represent the alphabetic, numeric and alphanumeric data.
All the data that is entered into a computer is first converted into the binary form and after processing,
Number Systems
There are different types of number systems that are used to represent data. You are already familiar with the
decimal number system. The other useful number systems are binary, octal and hexadecimal. You may regard
each digit as a box that can hold a number. Let us discuss the various number systems:
Binary Number System
In the binary number system, there can only be two choices for representing data—either a "0" or a "1".
Octal Number System
In the octal number system, there can be eight possibilities:
"0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7".
The base or radix of the octal number system is 8.
Hexadecimal Number System
In the hexadecimal number system, we have 16 symbols:
"0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "A", "B", "C", "D", "E", and "F".
The base or radix of the hexadecimal number system is 16.
, there is a direct correspondence between the binary system and the octal system,
with three binary digits corresponding to one octal digit. Likewise, four binary digits translate directly into
one hexadecimal digit. In computer usage, hexadecimal notation is especially common because it easily
replaces the binary notation, which is too long and human mistakes in using the binary numbers are too easily
made.
Decimal Binary Equivalent Octal Equivalent Hexadecimal Equivalent
0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

Conversion of Numbers from One Number System to the Other

Introduction to information technology Page 12
 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

We can convert a number in one system to the other system by following rules specified by the number
systems. Following conversions are generally performed in calculations.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

To convert a decimal number to its equivalent binary number, follow these steps:
1. Divide the number by 2 and store the remainder.
2. Divide the quotient by 2 and store the remainder.
3. Repeat these steps until quotient becomes less than 2.
4. Write the remainders from bottom to top order.
This arrangement of remainder digits will be the binary equivalent of the number. Let us describe this
Conversion process with decimal number 23= ( )2.
2 23 Remainder
2 11 1
2 5 1
2 2 1
2 1 0
1 There for 23=( 10111)2

Converting Decimal to Octal

To convert a decimal number to its equivalent octal number, follow these steps:
1. Divide the number by 8 and store the remainder.
2. Divide the quotient by 8 and store the remainder.
3. Repeat these steps until quotient becomes less than 8.
4. Write the remainders from bottom to top order.
The steps are same as in decimal to binary conversion with only one difference that the number is
divided by 8 because, 8 is the base in octal number system. For example, 837 in decimal will be equal to 1505
in octal.
8 837 Remainder
8 104 5
8 13 0 = 1505
8 1 5
1
Converting Decimal to Hexadecimal
To convert a decimal number to its equivalent hexadecimal number, follow these steps:
1. Divide the number by 16 and store the remainder.
2. Divide the quotient by 16 and store the remainder.
3. Repeat these steps until quotient becomes less than 16.
4. Write the remainders from bottom to top order.
The steps are same as in decimal to binary conversion with only one difference that the number is
divided by 16 because, 16 is the base in hexadecimal number system. For example, 1715 in decimal will be
equal to 6B3 in hexadecimal.
16 1715 Remainder
16 107 3 3
16 6 11 B =11
6 6 therefore 1715= (6B3)16

Converting Binary to Decimal

You can convert a binary number back to decimal number by multiplying each digit from right side with
increasing power of 2 and adding the result. This means, the first digit from right will be multiplied by 20, the
second digit with 21 and so on. For example
(10111)2 = ( )10

Introduction to information technology Page 13

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

= 1 × 20 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 24
= 1 + 2 + 4 + 0 + 16
= 23
Converting Octal to Decimal
We can also convert an octal number to decimal number by multiplying each digit from right side with
increasing power of 8 and adding the result. This means, the first digit from right will be multiplied by 8 0, the
second digit with 81 and so on. For example, (1505)8 = ( )10
= 5 × 80 + 0 × 81 + 5 × 82 + 1 × 83
= 5 + 0 + 320 + 512
= 837 there for (1505) = 837
Converting Hexadecimal to Decimal
We can also convert an hexadecimal number to decimal number by multiplying each digit from right side
with increasing power of 16 and adding the result. This means, the first digit from right will be multiplied by
160, the second digit with 161 and so on. For example, (6B3)16 = ( )10
(6B3)16 = 3 × 160 + 11 × 161 + 6 × 162 (Here, B = 11)
= 3 + 176 + 1536
= 1715 there for( 6B3) = 1715
Converting Binary to Octal
To convert a binary number to its equivalent octal number, follow these steps:
1. Divide the binary number into groups of three bits each beginning from right side.
2. Add 0s to the left, if last group is incomplete.
3. Convert each group into decimals.
For example, consider the following:
(101011)2 = ( )8
= 101 011
= 5 3
As 101 = 1 × 20 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 22
=1+0+4=5
and 011 = 1 × 20 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 22
=1+2+0
=3
Therefore, (101011)2 = (53)8
Converting Octal to Binary
To convert an octal number to its equivalent binary number, follow these steps:
1. Convert each digit octal number to its equivalent three digit binary number.
2. Combine all the binary groups into a single group.
For example, consider (53)8 = ?2
(53)8
as 101 = 5 and 011 = 3 in decimal
Therefore, (53)8 = (101011)2
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
To convert a binary number to its equivalent hexadecimal number, follow these steps:
1. Divide the binary number into groups of four bits each beginning from right side.
2. Add 0s to the left, if last group is incomplete.
3. Convert each group into decimals
For example, consider the following
(110101)2 = ?16
= 0011 0101
=3 5
as 0011 is 3 in decimal and 0101 is 5 in decimal
Therefore, (110101)2 = (35)16

Converting Hexadecimal to Binary

Introduction to information technology Page 14
 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

To convert a hexadecimal number to its equivalent binary number, follow these steps:
1. Convert every digit i.e., A to F of hexadecimal number (if any) to decimal equivalent.
2. Convert every decimal number to its equivalent four digit binary number.
3. Combine all the binary groups to form a single binary number.
For example,
(35)16 = ?2
3 = (0011)2 5 = (0101)2
Therefore, (35)16 = (110101)2
Arithmetic in Other Bases
Recall the basic idea of arithmetic in decimal. 0 + 1 is 1, 1 + 1 is 2, 2 + 1 is 3, and so on. Things
get interesting when you try to add two numbers whose sum is equal to or larger than the base
value. For example: 1 + 9. Because there isn't a symbol for 10, we reuse the same digits and rely
on position. The rightmost digit reverts to 0, and there is a carry into the next position to the left.
Thus 1 + 9 equals 10 in base 10.
The rules of binary arithmetic are analogous, but we run out of digits much sooner. 0 + 1 is 1, and 1 + 1 is 0
with a carry. Then the same rule is applied to every column in a larger number, and the process continues until
there are no more digits to add. The example below adds the binary values 101110 and 11011. The carry
value is marked above each column in color. 11111 <---carry
101110
+ 11011
1001001
We can convince ourselves that this answer is correct by converting both operands to base 10, adding them,
and comparing the result. 101110 is 46, 11011 is 27, and the sum is 73. 1001001 is 73 in base 10. The
subtraction facts that you learned in grade school were that 9-1 is 8, 8-1 is 7, and so on until you try to
subtract a larger digit from a smaller one, such as 0-1. To accomplish this, you have to "borrow one" from the
next left digit of the number from which you are subtracting. More precisely, you borrow one power of the
base. So in base 10, when you borrow, you borrow 10. The same logic applies with the borrowed values
marked above.

1
022 borrow
111001
- 110
110011

Introduction to information technology Page 15

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

UNI T FO U R
4. Information system
What is System? A system is a set of two or more interrelated components to achieve a common
goal. Interrelated set of components that work together within an identifiable boundary to achieve a common
goal/objective).

A system has the following characteristics

 Components - an irreducible part or an aggregate of parts, also called subsystems or elements

 Interrelationship among the components - function of one is somehow dependent on the function and
existence of the other component. Output from one is input for another, the dependence of a part on one or more
other parts.
 A boundary - line that marks the inside and the outside of a system and which sets of or separates the
system from its environment. It establishes the limits of the system. Components within the boundary can be
changed whereas systems outside the boundary cannot be changed.
 A purpose - objective or overall goal of the system. Purpose is the main reason for the existence of the
system.
 An environment - consists of everything outside of the system and interfaces with the system.
 Interfaces - point of contact where a system meets its environment or where subsystems meet each other.
 Input - consists of whatever the system takes in from the environment in order to fulfill its purpose.
 Output - whatever returns to the environment as a product (goods or services). Output from individual
subsystems may be inputs to other subsystems.
 Constraints - limits or restrictions to what a system can accomplish.

Information systems

Data Are row facts about the organization and its business transaction. Figures, images, or sounds collected
from observation or records about events, objects or people. Most data items have little meaning and use by
themselves. Are a by-product of doing business.

Information is data that has been refined and organized by processing and purposeful intelligence.
Information is a resource created from the data to serve the management and decision making needs of the
business. Information has meaning within a specific context and is useful for making a decision, solving a
problem, performing a task etc

An Information system (IS) is an arrangement of people, data , process, communications, and information
technology that interact to support and improve day-to-day operations in a business as well as support the
problem solving and decision making needs of management and users.

The Information System includes the following

 Hardware - Computers, servers and printers

 Software - System software's and application soft wares

Introduction to information technology Page 16

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

 Documentation and training materials - The materials created by Systems Analyst to help users to use
the software.
 Specific job roles - The roles associated with the overall system, such as the people who run the
computers and the software operating.
 Controls - which are the parts of the software written to prevent fraud and theft
 People - Who uses the software in order to do their job.

Information Technology is a contemporary term that describes the combination of computer technology (hard
ware and software) with telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice networks).

Types (classes) of information systems

1. Transaction processing systems 2. Management information systems

3. Decision support system 4. Expert systems

5. Office automation systems

Transaction processing systems (TPS)

TPS is information system application that captures and process data about business transaction. Transaction
processing systems:- Process business exchanges, Maintain records about the exchanges, Handle routine, yet
critical tasks, Perform simple calculations.

Management Information System

Management Information System is an information system application that provides for management oriented
reporting. These reports are usually generated on a predetermined schedule and appear in a prearranged format.
Produced information based on accepted management or mathematical/statistical models. Examples are:
financial statements, Materials requirements planning MIS is normally produced from a shared database that
stores data from many data including TPS.

MIS can present

 Detailed information : for operations management and regulatory requirements (government)

 Summary information: consolidates raw data to quickly indicate trends and possible problems. Show
totals and trends.
 Exception information: filters data to report exceptions to some rules or criteria. E.g. Low inventory
products.

Decision Support system

 Decision Support system is an information system application that provides its users with decision
oriented information whenever a decision making situation arises. When applied to executive managers
these systems are sometimes called Executive Information system (EIS).
 Decision Support system provides useful information to support decision making process. Usually
designed to support unstructured decisions (those decision making situations that cannot be predicted in
advance).

Introduction to information technology Page 17

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

 Decision Support system has three parts; the first part is composed of a database, extracted from a
TPS or MIS. The second part consists of mathematical or graphical models of business processes. The
third part is made up of a user interface that provides a way for the decision maker to communicate with
the Decision Support system.

Expert System

Expert System is a programmed decision making information system that captures and reproduces the
knowledge and expertise of an expert problem solver or decision maker and then simulates the ―thinking‖ or
―actions‖ of that expert?

Address the critical need to duplicate the knowledge and expertise of experienced problem solver. Experts
possess knowledge that cannot be duplicated. Imitate the logic and reasoning of the expert within their field.

Expert systems are implemented with artificial intelligence technology that captures, stores, and provides access
to the reasoning of the experts. The ES asks questions, and the end user supplies the answers, rules applied on
the answers and the ES provides a recommendation. Like any other information systems, ES require data and
information but ES are unique in their requirement of rules that simulate the reasoning of the experts who use
the data and information. The focus on developing and ES is acquiring the knowledge of the expert in the
particular problem domain. Knowledge engineers perform knowledge acquisition.

Office Automation

Office Automation Support the wide range of business office activities that provide for improved work flow
and communications between workers, regardless of whether or not those workers are located in the same
office. Includes Word-processing, Electronic messages (email), Workgroup computing, Fax (facsimile)
processing etc. Office Automation systems are built using personal computer technology and software.

Introduction to information technology Page 18

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

UNIT FIVE
5. Basics of Computer Troubleshooting and Preventative Maintenance
Basic Safety Issues should mention eyestrain somewhere!!

Maintaining a well-functioning PC requires that you do a lot more than running an occasional Scan Disk or
deleting temporary Internet files. You need to follow some fairly extensive physical maintenance routines, such
as cleaning, managing files, removing dust etc. This chapter goes through the important routines.

Further, although the PC might look like a safe white box connected to a nice monitor and a quiet laser printer,
it can injure an unwary tech sometimes with deadly effect. This chapter examines the most dangerous areas of
the PC and peripherals, teaching you what to avoid and how to avoid damaging you or the PC.

5.1 Preventative Maintenance Procedures

Preventive maintenance is a regular and systematic inspection, cleaning, and replacement of worn parts,
materials, and systems. Preventive maintenance helps to prevent failure of parts, materials, and systems by
ensuring that they are in good working order.

Troubleshooting is a systematic approach to locating the cause of a fault in a computer system. A good
preventive maintenance program helps minimize failures. With fewer failures, there is less troubleshooting to
do, thus saving an organization time and money. Preventive maintenance can also include upgrading certain
hardware or software such as a hard drive that is making noise, upgrading memory that is insufficient, or
installing software updates for security or reliability.

To prolong the life of your PC, you simply must inspect and clean it regularly. Cleaning your PC on a regular
basis can prevent overheating and ESD.

ESD/ Electrostatic discharge/ are a quick electrical charge that occurs when two objects with different electrical
potentials come into contact with each other. During the inspection process, look for damaged or cracked
components, improperly seated components, frayed cables, and loose connections.

Liquid Cleaning Compounds

Before using any liquid cleaning compound make sure that your computer is turned off. If the PC has power
when you use liquid cleaners, you run the risk of damaging or shorting out your components, which is an
expensive risk to take. Also make sun that the component you have cleaned with a liquid cleaner is thoroughly
dry before turning your computer back on!

Clean or Soapy Water and a Damp Cloth

In some cases, you need only a bit of water and a damp cloth for cleaning chores, such as when cleaning the
mouse ball, the outside of the mouse, or the exterior of the monitor or computer case. If water alone cannot do
the job thoroughly, you can use mild soapy water on your damp cloth. Make sure that the cloth is damp and not
wet and that you do not splash or drip water into your components.

Introduction to information technology Page 19

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

If the keys on your keyboard start to stick or you have spilled a cup of coffee into your keyboard, or, for that
matter, you just know that there is a lot of dirt under the keys, you can clean the keyboard with distilled water.
Some techs will use a light silicone spray lubricant, but I find that water does nearly as good a job. Keep in
mind that if you want your keyboard to work again, you need to make sure that it is unplugged before you clean
it and that it is thoroughly dry before you plug it in again. As a general rule, wait at least 48 hours before re-
attaching the keyboard to your system.

Denatured Alcohol

The best thing to use for cleaning floppy drive heads is denatured alcohol (mentholated spirits). But how do you
get it in there? You can't just pour it in! You need to use a lint free swab dipped in the alcohol to clean the
floppy drive heads, or you can purchase a floppy drive cleaning kit, which almost always comes complete with
denatured alcohol. Don't clean the mechanical mechanism with alcohol because the parts are lubricated and the
alcohol will dissolve the lubricant.

When cleaning your mouse, you can use a damp cloth to clean the cover and ball, as mentioned earlier, but what
about the rollers? Some people pick at the rollers with their fingernails to get all of the dirt off them, but if you
want to keep your fingernails clean you can use a cotton swab dipped in denatured alcohol to help loosen and
remove the dirt.

You should regularly inspect your contacts and clean them with denatured alcohol. Denatured alcohol is the
best solution for cleaning the oily residue caused by human oil secretions, and it evaporates, leaving no residue
behind.

Glass Cleaner

You need to turn your monitor off before cleaning to avoid damage to the screen. Many technicians clean the
monitor screen with regular glass cleaner. Under most circumstances, however, water and a damp cloth will do
the job just fine. Water is the safest cleaning liquid you can use on a monitor. When cleaning the LCD display
screen of a laptop, do not use glass cleaner at all. You will melt the screen!

Fabric Softener

Some technicians like to use a mixture of 1 part fabric softener to 10 parts water to clean the plastic casing of
their computer components. As a cleaning solution it's not as good as mild soap and water, but as an anti-static
solution it's excellent! Use it after the cleaning process to help protect your computer from the harmful effects
of static electricity.

Cleaning Contacts and Connectors

To protect your contacts and connectors from becoming dirty, avoid touching them with your hands. Your skin
contains natural oils that can leave a residue on contacts and connectors, and that residue needs to be cleaned
off. Leaving the contacts untouched will reduce the amount of residue and make them easier for you to clean.

Erasers

Some technicians use an eraser to rub residue off contacts, but this leaves a residue of its own and may actually
rub the contacts right off. If you absolutely must use erasers, make sure you use the white ones, and

Introduction to information technology Page 20

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

immediately clean any rubber residue off of the contacts. Never, ever use pink erasers to clean contacts as these
contain acids that have the potential to destroy your contacts.

Non-Static Vacuums

Common household dust kills PCs. Throw in some dog and cat hair and you might as well call a priest right
now. A dust buildup can cause dreaded static and can cause your components to overheat and become useless.
When removing dust buildup from your keyboard, inside your computer's case, and from your components, use
a non-static vacuum . Many hand-held vacuums are designed specifically for use on PCs. Note that you should
definitely not use a common household vacuum cleaner. These create static electricity and can damage your
PC!

Compressed Air

Compressed air works well for getting the dust out of power supply fans, expansion slots, and keyboards but
you need to exercise care in using it for blowing the dust off components and the inside of the case. It is not
uncommon to blow the dust off one component right onto another component.

You also need to exercise extreme care when using compressed air, because the liquid that compresses the air
sits in the bottom of the can and is usually not released unless you turn the can upside down or sideways. This
liquid can damage or destroy your components.

Lint-Free Cloths

Lint-free cloths are excellent for removing dust from your computer. The cloths used for cleaning eyeglasses
work the best, because they will not scratch surfaces or leave lint behind.

Make sure you never use "dry dusting" lint-free cloths and the like for cleaning anything in or on your
computer. Cloths such as the Swifter Sweeper do wonders for dusting those hard-to-reach places in your house,
but they use static electricity to collect the dust. As you probably know by now, static electricity is computer
enemy number one!

5.2 Component Protection and Storage

You need to protect your computing environment from any kind of power surge, or power sags, as either of
these events can cause severe damage to your system. Many things outside the control of normal folks cause
sags and surges, such as electrical brownouts and blackouts, spikes on the electrical grid, lightning, and
electromagnetic interference.

Power surges

A power surge is a short duration increase in household current. Power surges may be caused internally when
you switch on an appliance such as an air conditioner, or an electric dryer, demands an unusually high amount
of current from the grid. The sudden jump in electricity spreads throughout the home instantaneously, briefly
exposing electrical components to increased voltage. Computers and other sensitive devices that aren’t plugged
into surge protectors may be affected. A power surge can occur for several reasons. For example, high power
electrical devices can create a spike in the electrical current when they are switched on or when their motors

Introduction to information technology Page 21

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

kick on. Refrigerators, air conditioners and even space heaters can cause a power surge strong enough to
damage electrical systems.

Lightning strikes are another common cause of power surges. A lightning strike doesn't have to occur near you
to cause a spike in your electrical current. In fact, striking close to a power line can cause a spike. A single
strike can cause a spike strong enough to burn out a computer monitor, router and even your television.

Power sags

Sags are intermittent drops in voltage. When they last more than a short duration, they’re generally known as
brown-outs. A brown-out may be a planned event by an electrical utility that’s reaching maximum capacity,
such as during a summer heat wave. Or it may be an in-home phenomenon that results from a number of high-
drain appliances simultaneously demanding more electricity than an outdated main power panel and/or wiring
can deliver.

Brownouts

Power sags are usually caused by brownouts, where your lights may flicker or grow dimmer. In other words,
power sag occurs when the supply of electricity drops dramatically but does not go out completely. When the
power or electricity returns to its original level, your computer cannot handle the quick and drastic change and
damage may occur.

Blackouts

Power surges are caused when the power or electricity goes out completely and comes back on suddenly. In the
event of a power surge, any files that you have not saved will most likely become corrupted or lost forever.

Power Spikes

A power spike is a lot more powerful than a power surge and will almost definitely result in the damage of
computer components. The damage caused by a power spike can irreparably affect one or several components.

Lightning Storms

Any time you use your computer, or even leave it plugged in, during a lightning storm you are asking for
damage to occur. No commonly available PC accessory can protect your PC from the damage caused by
electrical storms. You need to unplug your PC and peripherals with power cords until the storm ceases. Leave
no stones unturned: make sure you unplug even your modem, because lightning can travel through the phone
lines and cause damage to computers and their components through the modem.

EMI, or electromagnetic interference, is caused not by storms, but by noise created by high voltage between
two cables or excessively long cables. When EMI occurs, your PC may experience sags and surges in the
amount of electricity that is provided to it. The threat of EMI can be combated through the use of cables with a
Mylar coating and through a noise filter, which will control the amount of electricity that reaches your PC and
remove the EMI. Noise filters can be purchased as stand-alone products or can be incorporated into an
uninterruptible power supply (more on those in the next section). Electromagnetic interference occurs when two
signals are close enough to each other to interfere with each other.

Introduction to information technology Page 22

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

5.3 Saving Your PC from Electrical Problems

Any kind of power failure, sag, surge, or spike can cause irreversible damage to your PC and its components.
So you simply must protect your PC from these events! Fortunately, many products on the market can help you
prevent these events from damaging your PC. These products are called uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
and surge suppressors.

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

A UPS helps in blackout situations, during which the electricity cuts off completely for a period of time, and
brownouts, during which the electrical supply sags well below the level needed to run your PC. Every UPS has
batteries that provide backup power, thus enabling you to save your work and shut down your PC properly. A
UPS is thus sometimes called a battery backup. Note that a UPS does not provide unlimited Power so you can
keep working while the city lights are out. What it does provide you is a short window of a couple of minutes to
save and shut down.

UPSs come in two main varieties, standby power systems (SPS) and online UPS. Both of these will protect your
system in the event of a power outage or sag, but they work differently and provide different levels of
protection.

Standby Power Systems

An SPS has a battery that begins generating power as soon as the unit detects a sag in the supply of electricity.
It takes a split second for the SPS to come online, however, and there lies the main disadvantage to using an
SPS. The brief lapse of time could result in your files being damaged before the UPS has kicked in.

Online UPSs

An online UPS, in contrast to an SPS, provides electricity to the PC all the time, using the electricity from the
AC outlet simply to recharge its batteries. If you have an electrical brownout or blackout, your PC does not
even flinch, and you'll have plenty of time to save and shut down properly. As an added bonus, most online
UPS boxes act as power conditioners that help your PC run better. Electricity coming from the power company
does not come in a single stream of electrons at constant pressure, but rather in gentle fluctuations. Because the
online UPS runs the PC from its batteries, the UPS can provide a much smoother flow of electricity than the
typical wall socket. An online UPS costs more than an SPS, but in the long run its benefits justify the expense.

Surge Suppressors

Surge suppressors help to absorb power surges so that your computer does not feel their effects. They come as
either separate modules or incorporated with a UPS. The best suppressors to purchase are the ones with the
lifetime or 10-year guarantee. When purchasing a stand-alone surge suppressor, avoid the cheapest ones. They
are usually little more than power strips and provide minimal protection against power spikes.

Power surges and sags can wreak havoc on an unprotected PC, and not just in the obvious ways. Common
surges and sags can damage power supplies and components, and they can even cause file corruption. The cost
of a good UPS and surge suppressor is nothing compared to the cost in time and money caused by lost

Introduction to information technology Page 23

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

components or corrupted files that you may have to endure if you don't use either one. APC (American Power
Conversion) make good suppressors and UPS.

Storing Components for Future Use

When storing your computer components for future use, you still need to protect them from the hazards of ESD,
corrosion, and other damage. You should store your computer components in cool, dry places. Heat or warmth
can cause premature aging of your components in much the same way that the sun can cause fading of paper.
Moreover, heat can also destroy data that has been stored magnetically and dampness can cause corrosion to
your components.

It is important that you store your components away from high-voltage devices, and never store batteries of any
kind for long periods of time. Old batteries can leak or corrode.

The safest place to store your components for future use and to protect them from ESD is in an anti-static bag,
and for the ultimate in component safety, stores the components in their manufacturers' original boxes and
packaging.

5.4 Potential Hazards and Proper Safety Procedures

While power issues can cause damage to your PC, many hazards can injure the technician, such as high-voltage
shocks or electrical fires. You need to make yourself aware of these hazards and of ways to prevent them from
occurring.

High-Voltage Equipment

The capacitors in PC power supplies, monitors, and laser printers carry very high voltages that can easily cause
severe bodily injuries. Fortunately, in most cases you will not have to worry about identifying high-voltage
equipment because it is usually marked by a bright yellow warning sticker that will leave no question about the
voltage levels of the components.

Whenever you work with a piece of high-voltage equipment, always make sure the device is unplugged and that
you have removed your anti-static wrist strap.

Power Supplies

Whenever you work on your computer, you need to make sure it is unplugged. In the old days, you could leave
the PC plugged in and thus ensure excellent electrical grounding, but modern PC motherboards always have a
small voltage running when the PC is plugged in. Unplug the PC or you will be likely to damage something.

When it comes to power supplies, though, even unplugging them do not make them safe to fix. The safest
method of repairing power supplies is not to repair them at all. Better to throw them into the recycling bin and
install a brand new Power supply. It is extremely risky even to open the case of a Power supply, because the
capacitors can hold a serious charge even when the power supply is unplugged.

Introduction to information technology Page 24

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

If you must work on a power supply, make sure you remove your anti-static wrist strap and discharge the
capacitors on the power supply. A little static electricity won't bother a power supply at all, but the metal
resistor in the strap can attract voltage (or, more importantly, current (amperage)) and lead to bad things-
massive jolts through your body can kill, so be careful!

Monitors

Never open a monitor unless you know exactly what you are trying to accomplish. The voltages inside can kill
you. The capacitors in a typical PC monitor also carry extremely high voltages even when unplugged. In
addition to the line voltage and capacitors, the fly back transformer is a dangerous part of the monitor. You
don't know what that is? Then that is a good reason to keep out!

Most adjustments are accomplished through controls on the front of the monitor. Internal adjustments are rare
and require plastic tools and schematic layouts. A technician who hasn't been trained in monitor repair should
not open one.

CRT Cathode ray tubes are used in monitors and television screens and move a beam of light across the back of
the screen to produce the image on the screen. Most techs use the terms CRT and monitor interchangeably.

5.5. Disposal Procedures and Environmental Guidelines

Many computer components, such as batteries, CRTs, chemical solvents, and toner kits (for printers), contain
harmful ingredients. Don't throw these items in the garbage! Many of these items can be recycled, and a
hazardous waste program can remove most.

Batteries

Batteries for the computer often contain lithium, mercury, or nickel-cadmium, which means that if they were to
be thrown in the garbage and carried off to a landfill site, they could contaminate the water and soil. You can
take batteries to a recycling depot or, in some cases, send them back to the manufacturer.

CRTs

Many CRTs contain lead. If you dump them in the trash (and ultimately in a landfill), you may contaminate the
soil and water in your area and poison people. Don't do it! For this reason, CRTs must be recycled or turned
over to a hazardous waste program.

Toner Kits and Cartridges

The main concern about the disposal of toner kits and cartridges is that there are to many of them. Most people
go through several a years, and if they were all thrown in the garbage, they would fill a landfill site. There are
many ways of dealing with toner kits and cartridges.

You can now refill these cartridges, which save on environmental wear but wreak havoc on your printer. The
printing quality from refilled cartridges is often less than that of new cartridges and the refilled ink can cause
the bubble jets on ink-jet printers to clog.

Many manufacturers of these cartridges will buy back the used cartridges, refill them, and then resell them,
which is probably the best solution.

Introduction to information technology Page 25

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

Chemical Solvents and Cans

Chemical solvents or cans for PC use (or for any other use, for that matter) contain many harmful chemicals that
should not be placed in the ground. For this reason, you simply cannot throw these in the garbage or they may
damage the soil and water supply. Instead, chemical solvents and cans must be picked up through a hazardous
waste program.

Material Safety Data Sheet

Most compounds, chemicals, and components come with a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) that contains
information about the product as well as any warnings, safe disposal requirements, and safe methods of
transportation. If an item comes without an MSDS, you can obtain one from the manufacturer or locate one on
the Internet.

5.6. Electrostatic Discharge Precautions and Procedures

This chapter has mentioned numerous times about the dangers of ESD, but now it's time for some details. Dust
and ESD are the two main enemies of your computer. To maintain your computer and to prolong the life of
components, you need to learn about the effects of ESD and how to protect your computer from those effects.

How ESD Is Apparent or Hidden

A prime example of ESD, or electrostatic discharge, is the small shock you receive when you walk across a
carpeted floor and then touch an object or a person. Zap! The electrical discharge doesn't do you any lasting
damage, but such a seemingly harmless shock will destroy computer components. In fact, even discharges well
below the level that you can feel will still damage or destroy PC components and you won't even know!

Hidden ESD

A real concern and another good reason to clean your computer regularly is that the dust buildup on PC
components can cause an electrical charge that you probably will not be aware of at the time. In most cases, you
will not even be aware that a problem exists until a component begins to behave erratically, and by that point it
will be extremely difficult or impossible to pinpoint the original source of the problem.

Catastrophic ESD

Catastrophic ESD causes a computer component to fail immediately. When catastrophic ESD occurs, it will be
obvious, you can remove the component and replace it with a new one, and it most likely will not affect any
other components.

Degradation

Degradation occurs when the effects of ESD are not immediately apparent in their full force, and the effects
gradually get worse and worse. Degradation will cause your components to work erratically and can make the
original problem hard to recognize. This condition can affect your other system components and cause their
failures also.

Introduction to information technology Page 26

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

5.6.1Common ESD Protection Devices

Many devices are available that can help to protect your system from the effects of ESD to ensure a longer life
for your components. These devices include anti-static wrist and ankle straps, anti-static mats, anti-static floor
mats, anti-static bags, and anti-static sprays.

You can help prevent the effects of ESD by grounding yourself by touching the exterior of the PC power supply
before touching any of your system's components. Remember, though, that you are only at the potential of the
system as long as you hold on to the chassis. When you let go, you can build up potential and cause an ESD
event.

Anti-Static Mats

Anti-static mats are conductive mats that dissipate ESD They look much like place mats, except they have a
small clip attached to them that you can attach to a wrist strap to provide a conductive surface for grounding out
ESD. These mats make an excellent place to place your tools and your components when you work on a system.

Anti-Static Floor Mats

Anti-static floor mats look similar to anti-static mats, and they also have the clip that you can attach to a metal
object for the purposes of grounding. The main difference is that you need to stand on the floor mats to ground
yourself and protect against ESD.

Anti-Static Bags

Placing components in anti-static bags, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, will greatly help your efforts to
prevent ESD. Anti-static bags have a special coating or contain small filaments that help dissipate any static
charge present when you pick up a component wrapped in such a bag. Better bags resist moisture as well.
Always put PC cards and components (drives, RAM, and so on) in anti-static bags. Note that regular plastic or
paper bags will not protect your components. In fact, if you put a PC component in a plastic bag, you will
almost invariably damage that component.

Anti-Static Spray

Anti-static spray is normally used to avoid static charges in your clothing. Although many people use these
sprays to help protect their work areas from the effects of ESD, it is not recommended. If any of the spray
touches your components, it could cause damage.

Fabric Softener

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, a mixture of 1 part fabric softener to 10 parts water is an excellent solution
to use on a damp cloth to wipe down the plastic surfaces of your PC and monitor. This can protect them from
the harmful effects of static.

Potential Dangerous or Hazardous Situations

Temperature and the level of humidity outside can dramatically affect the risk of ESD inside. If it's cold and dry
outside, like an Alaskan winter, and the heater's blowing inside, you are basically a PC-smoking ZAP! Waiting
to happen. You need to take precautions.

Introduction to information technology Page 27

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

You can protect your system against the effects of ESD by wearing natural fiber clothes (cotton, linen, wool,
horsehair) when working on computers. Synthetic fabrics have a tendency to produce static electricity, and you
should avoid wearing them. Slinky polyester might be back in style, but save it for the clubs, not the
workbench!

Long hair is another concern when working around computers. If you wear your hair long, you should tie it
back before working on a machine so that it does not accidentally get caught or stuck in any components. You
should also try to use anti-static smoothing lotions that are now available to reduce the amount of static in your
hair. If you don't like the anti-static smoothing lotions, hairspray can help to prevent this problem to a certain
extent.

If you wear rings and other jewelry, you need to remember to remove them before working on a PC, as these
can cause electrical current problems. Another risk of wearing jewelry while working inside machines is that a
ring may become stuck on pins or components, which can cause cuts and scratches to your fingers or break off
the pins of components.

Introduction to information technology Page 28

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

Unit six
Networking and the Internet
Introduction
Network is the ability to connect people and equipment no matter where they are in the world. People use
networks without ever thinking about how they work or what it would be like if the networks did not exist.
There are many types of networks that provide us with different kinds of services.
Television Network: provides regular and high definition broadcasts over the air, via cable and the satellite
network.
Mobile Phone Network: connects mobile callers to voice, text and internet via the mobile phone systems.
Telephone Network: connects callers and allows modem connections via traditional land lines.
Computer Network: provides connections between computer users via copper, fiber optical and wireless
connections.
A computer network is a collection of computing devices that are connected in various ways in order to
communicate and share resources. E-mail, instant messaging, and Web pages all rely on communication that
occurs across an underlying computer network.
Computer networks contain devices other than computers. Printers, for instance, can be connected directly to a
network so that anyone on the network can print to them. Networks also contain a variety of devices for
handling network traffic. We use the generic term node or host to refer to any device on a network.

Usually, the connections between computers in a network are made using physical wires or cables. However,
some connections are wireless, using radio waves or infrared signals to convey data. Networks are not defined
only by physical connections; they are defined by the ability to communicate.
Types of Networks
A Local-Area Network (LAN) connects a relatively small number of machines in a relatively close
geographical area. For example, the computers on a university campus or those in a manufacturing plant might
be connected by a LAN.
A wide-area network (WAN) connects two or more local-area networks over a potentially large geographic
distance. A WAN links machines over a greater distance - perhaps in neighboring cities or on opposite sides of
the world. A wide-area network permits communication among smaller networks. Often one particular node on
a LAN is set up to serve as a gateway to handle all communication going between that LAN and other
networks. See the figure below.
Metropolitan-Area Network (MAN) has been adopted to refer to the communication infrastructures that have
been developed in and around large cities. A MAN is a network of intermediate size, such as one spanning a
local community. The population and needs of a metropolitan area often require unique attention. These
networks are often implemented using innovative techniques such as running optical fiber cable through subway
tunnels

Introduction to information technology Page 29

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

Local Area Networks connected across a distance to create a wide Area network

Internet Connections
The Internet backbone is a term used to refer to a set of high-speed networks that carry Internet traffic. The
backbone networks all operate using connections that have high data transfer rates, ranging from 1.5 megabits
per second to over 600 megabits per second (using special optical cables).

An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides other companies or individuals with access to
the Internet. ISPs connect directly to the Internet backbone, or they connect to a larger ISP with a connection to
the backbone. America Online and Prodigy are examples of Internet service providers.

There are various technologies available that you can use to connect a home computer to the Internet. The three
most popular techniques for home connections are a phone, modem (RJ 11), and digital subscriber line
(DSL), or a cable modem.

The telephone system had already connected homes throughout the world long before the desire for Internet
connections came along. Therefore, it makes sense that the first technique for home based network
communication was a phone modem. A phone modem converts computer data into an analog audio signal for
transfer over a telephone line, and then a modem at the destination converts it back again into data.

Packet Switching
To improve the efficiency of transferring information over a shared communication line, messages are divided
into fixed-sized, numbered packets. The packets are sent over the network individually to their destination,
where they are collected and reassembled into the original message. This approach is referred to as packet
switching.

Introduction to information technology Page 30

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

The packets of a message may take different routes on their way to the final destination. Therefore, they may
arrive in a different order than the way they were sent. The packets must be put into the proper order once
again, and then combined to form the original message.
A packet may make several intermediate hops between computers on various networks before it reaches its final
destination. Network devices called routers are used to direct packets between networks.

Open Systems and Protocols

Many protocols have been defined to assist in network communication. Some have gained a stronger foothold
than others because of many reasons, often historical. We focus in this section on the protocols used for general
Internet traffic.
Open Systems Early in the development of computer networks, commercial vendors came out with a variety of
technologies that they hoped businesses would adopt.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) established the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model to facilitate the development of network technologies. It defines a series of layers of network
interaction. The seven layers of the OSI Reference Model are shown in the figure belo

7711 Appli
7 Application layer
6 6 Pre
6 sensation layer
5 Se5 Session layer
4 4 4 Transport layer
3 3 Network layer
2 Da2 Data link layer
1 1 Physical layer
The layers of the OSI reference model

Network Protocols: - For a network to function reliably, it is important to establish rules by which
activities are conducted. Such rules are called protocols. By developing and adopting protocol standards,
vendors are able to build products for network applications that are compatible with products from other
vendors.

TCP/IP Communication throughout the Internet is governed by an open collection of standards known as the
TCP/IP protocol suite. Anyone is free to use these standards without paying fees or signing license agreements.

Introduction to information technology Page 31

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

In contrast, a company such as Novell Inc. might develop proprietary systems for which it chooses to maintain
ownership rights, allowing the company to draw income from selling or leasing these products.
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol. The name TCP/IP
(pronounced by saying the letters T-C-P-I-P) refers to a suite of protocols and utility programs that support low-
level network communication. The name TCP/IP is written to reflect the nature of their relationship - which
TCP rests on top of the IP foundation.
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol. It is an alternative to TCP. That is, UDP software basically plays the
same role as TCP software. The main difference is that TCP is highly reliable, at the cost of decreased
performance, while UDP is less reliable, but generally faster. Note that UDP is part of the TCP/IP suite of
protocols. Because of the heavy reliance on TCP, and for historical reasons, the entire suite is referred to as
TCP/IP.
High-Level Protocols Other protocols build on the foundation established by the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Some of the key high-level protocols are:
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - A protocol used to specify the transfer of electronic mail
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - A protocol that allows a user on one computer to transfer files to and
from another computer
 Telnet - A protocol used to log into a computer system from a remote computer. If you have an account
on a particular computer that allows telnet connections, you can run a program that uses the telnet protocol to
connect and log in to that computer as if you were seated in front of it.
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - A protocol defining the exchange of World Wide Web
documents, which are typically written using the Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML).
Network Addresses When you communicate across a computer network, you ultimately communicate with
one particular computer out of all possible computers in the world. There is a fairly sophisticated mechanism for
identifying specific machines to establish that communication.
Domain Name System
A hostname consists of the computer name followed by the domain name. A domain name is separated into two
or more sections that specify the organization, and possibly a subset of an organization, of which the computer
is a part.
The domain names narrow in on a particular set of networks controlled by a particular organization. Note that
two organizations (or even sub organizations) can have a computer named the same thing because the domain
name makes it clear which one is being referred to.

Country Code TLD Country

.au Australia
.br Brazil
.ca Canada
.gr Greece
.in India
.ru Russian Federation
.uk United Kingdom
.et Ethiopia
Some of the top-level domain names based on country codes

Introduction to information technology Page 32

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

UNIT SEVEN
7.1 System Vulnerability and Abuse
As organization become more technologically oriented, they must become more aware of security and
control issues surrounding their information systems and protect the resources more stringently than ever
before. It’s that simple.
Internet Vulnerabilities
If you connect to the Internet with a cable modem or DSL you are much more vulnerable to hackers on
your home PC than if you connect with a dial-up modem. That’s because you are always connected, with
a permanent IP address, which makes it easier for hackers to find you. The only smart thing to do is keep
your software up-to-date and include firewall protection. .
Wireless Security Challenges
It’s a difficult balancing act when it comes to making wireless systems easy to access and yet difficult to
penetrate. Internet cafes, airports, hotels, and other hotspot access points need to make it easy for users to
use the network systems with the 802.11 standard. Yet, because it is so easy, hackers and crackers can
easily access unsuspecting users’ systems and steal data or use the entry point as a way to spread
malicious programs.
Wireless networks are vulnerable in the following ways:
 Radio frequency bands are easy to scan.
 Signals are spread over a wide range of frequencies.
 Service set identifiers (SSID) are broadcast multiple times and are easily picked up.
 Rogue accesses points can be established on different radio channels and divert signals from authentic points.
 Wired equivalent privacy (WEP) isn’t very effective because it relies on user input.
Malicious Software: Viruses, Worms, Trojan Horses, and Spyware
Have you ever picked up a cold or the flu from another human? Probably. You then spread it to two or
three other people through touch or association. Those people spread it to two or three more people each.
Pretty soon it seems that everyone on campus or at work is sick. That is how computer viruses are
spread. You copy a file from an infected source, use the file, and maybe send it to friends or associates.
The virus is now on your computer and spreads to files other than the original.
Hackers and Computer Crime
Hackers and crackers, those who intentionally create havoc or do damage to a computer system, have
been around for a long time. Many companies don’t report hackers’ attempts to enter their systems
because they don’t want people to realize their systems are vulnerable. That makes it hard to gather real
statistics about the extent of hacking attempts and successes. Unauthorized access is a huge problem,
though.
Spoofing and sniffing
These are two other methods hackers and criminals use to gain improper or illegal access to computer
systems. Spoofing is becoming a common way to steal financial information through fake Web sites.
Using a sniffer program is a popular way to ―grab‖ information as it passes over transmission lines
regardless of whether they are hard-wired or wireless.
Computer Crime
Some of the crimes we have just described are the most popular. Computer crime is a growing national
and international threat to the continued development of e-business and e-commerce.
It’s very difficult for our society and our governments to keep up with the rapid changes in the types of
computer crime being committed.
Identity theft
The fastest growing crime off or on the Internet is identity theft. Even though identity theft is most likely
to occur in an offline environment, once your personal information has been stolen it's easy to use it in an
online environment.
There are many precautions people can take to help prevent identity theft. One way is to scrutinize emails
or phone calls that ask for your personal information or financial account information. No legitimate

Introduction to information technology Page 33

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

financial institution will ever send an email requesting you to supply your account information. That is
the number one indicator that the email is a phishing email. You should ignore and delete the email
immediately.
Global Threats: Cyber terrorism and Cyber warfare
As terrorism continues to increase the possibility of physical attacks anywhere in the world, computer
systems can be targeted as often as buildings, cars, or trains. Governments realize this and are
investigating ways of preventing system attacks or minimizing the damage caused to the vast number of
networks that are vulnerable.
Internal Threats: Employees
It is surprising to learn that most computer crime against companies is committed by current or former
employees. They know the system best, are entrusted with huge amounts of data, and have the easiest
access. Managers and executives need to be aware of potential internal threats to their systems and put
special measures in place to safeguard systems and data. They also need to impress upon all employees
7.2 Business Value of Security and Control
Transactions worth billions and trillions of dollars are carried out on networks every day. Think of the
impact if the networks experience downtime for even a few minutes. And, the problem is far worse than
companies may reveal:
Legal and Regulatory Requirements for Electronic Records Management
Because so much of our personal and financial information is now maintained electronically, the U.S.
government is beginning to pass laws mandating how the data will be protected from unauthorized or
illegal misuse.
All of these laws are in response to computer crimes and abuses that businesses or individuals have
committed or experienced. It’s very difficult to pass the laws and costly for businesses who struggle to
comply with them.
Electronic Evidence and Computer Forensics
Several things are happening in the corporate world that is changing the requirements for how companies
handle their electronic documents:
1) Companies are communicating more and more with email and other forms of electronic transmissions,
2) Courts are allowing all forms of communication to be held as evidence. Therefore businesses must
develop methods of capturing, storing, and presenting any and all electronic communications including
email, instant messaging, and e-commerce transactions .
7.3 Establishing a Framework for Security and Control
How do you help prevent some of the problems we’ve discussed? One of the best ways is to institute
controls into your information system the same way you might in any other system; through methods,
policies, and procedures.
Systems Controls
Think about what a typical company does when it builds a new office building. From the beginning of the
design phase until the building is occupied, the company decides how the physical security of the
building and its occupants will be handled. It builds locks into the doors, maybe even designs a single
entry control point. It builds a special wing for the executive offices that has extra thick bulletproof glass.
There are fences around the perimeter of the building that control the loading docks. .
The two types of information system controls are:
 General controls: Software, physical hardware, computer operations, data security, implementation
process, and administrative.
 Application controls: Input, processing, and output.
Risk Assessment
Companies and government systems constantly use risk assessment to determine weak links in their
physical building security.
System Use risk assessment to set up cost comparisons for developing and maintaining security against t
he loss potential. It’s done all the time in other systems, so use it for your information system

Introduction to information technology Page 34

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

Security Policy
Companies spend a lot of money on physical security such as locks on doors or fences around supply
depots. They need to do the same thing for their information systems. Because of the increasing liability
for security breaches, many companies are now establishing a chief security officer position to help
ensure the firm maximizes the protection of information resources. Some tools available to the CSO are:
 Security policy: Principle document that determines security goals and how they will be achieved.
 Acceptable use policy: Outlines acceptable and unacceptable uses of hardware and telecommunications
equipment; specifies consequences for noncompliance.
 Identity management system: Manages access to each part of the information system.
Identity management is one of the most important principles of a strong, viable security policy. It
includes:
 Business processes and software tools for identifying valid system users.
 Controlling access to system resources.
 Policies for identifying and authorizing different categories of system users.
 Specifying what systems or portions of systems each user is allowed to access.
 Processes and technologies for authenticating users and protecting their identities .
7.4 Technologies and Tools for Protecting Information Resources
Identity Management and Authentication
Continuous headlines telling of hackers’ exploits in the past year should be enough to convince every
company of the need to install firewalls, identity management systems, and other security measures. In
corporate systems, it’s important to ensure authentication methods are in place so that unauthorized
users can’t gain access to the system and its data. Access can be granted in one of three ways:
1. Passwords; 2. Tokens or smart cards; 3. Biometric authentication.
Firewalls, Intrusion Detection Systems, and Antivirus software
The four types of firewalls described in the text are:
 Packet filtering: Data packet header information is examined in isolation.
 Stateful inspection: The actual message comes through the firewall but must be identified by the user as passable .
 Network address translation (NAT): Conceals IP addresses and makes it more difficult to penetrate systems.
 Application proxy filter: Sort of like a fence through which a substitute message passes.
Intrusion Detection Systems
Firewalls can deter, but not completely prevent, network penetration from outsiders and should be
viewed as one element in an overall security plan. In addition to firewalls, digital firms relying on
networks use intrusion detection systems to help them protect their systems.
Antivirus and Antispyware Software
Antivirus software. Is a software checks every incoming file for viruses. Not if, but when, you receive
an infected file, the software alerts you to its presence and usually quarantines it until you decide what to
do with it. You can choose to delete the file or ―clean‖ it. Make sure you update your antivirus software
at least once a week because new viruses are constantly being written and passed around.
Unified Threat Management Systems
Unified threat management technologies help organizations by providing all of them in one
Introduction to comprehensive package. It’s a great way for small- and medium-size organizations to
ensure they cover all the security vulnerabilities in their system.
Securing Wireless Networks
It’s important for wi-fi users to protect their data and electronic transmissions as wireless networks and
their access points proliferate around the country. Security is easily penetrated because of the very nature
of the spectrum transmission used in wi-fi. Stronger encryption and authentications systems for wi-fi than
the original Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) are included in newer computer models. wi-fi Protected
Access (WPA) improves security on wireless networks but individual users still carry the responsibility
to make sure passwords are changed from the original and encryption systems are used to help protect
data.

Introduction to information technology Page 35

 Muday college department of management (introduction to information technology) 2013 e.c

Encryption and Public Key Infrastructure

Most people are reluctant to buy and sell on the Internet because they’re afraid of theft, fraud, and
interception of transactions. To help ease the mind and make transactions secure, many companies are
using very sophisticated methods of protecting data as they travel across the various transmission
mediums through the use of encryption.
The standard methods of making online transactions more secure are Secure Socket
Another way of providing authenticity to network transmissions is by using a digital certificate. Just as
your personal signature is connected to you, a digital certificate provides a way of proving you are who
you say you are. GlobalSign.com has lots of information about its digital certificate product and other
useful information about this technology..
Public key infrastructure (PKI) is another method for providing secure authentication of online identity
and makes users more comfortable transacting business over networks.
Ensuring System Availability
Many companies create fault-tolerant computer systems that are used as back-ups to help keep operations
running if the main system should go out. These back-up systems add to the overall cost of the system—but think
about the losses if the system experiences a significant period of downtime. Add the cost of lost productivity by
employees to lost transactions and unhappy customers; you do the math. Just imagine what would happen if an
airline reservation system (a typical online transaction processing system) went down. Make sure you
understand the difference between fault-tolerant computer systems and high-availability computing:
 Fault-tolerant computer systems promise continuous availability and eliminate recovery time altogether.
 High-availability computer systems help firms recover quickly from a crash.
High-availability computer systems use the following tools to ensure digital firms have continuous
computing capacity available:
 Load balancing
 Redundant servers
 Mirroring
 Clustering
 Storage area networks
As systems become more sophisticated and able to self-diagnose problems, recovery-oriented
computing will go a long way towards helping businesses get back up and running more quickly and
easily.
Controlling Network Traffic: Deep Packet Inspection
Network data traffic takes many different forms, from simple text file transfers to massive audio or video
file transmission.
Deep packet inspection technologies help identify which types of files are being transferred and delay
those that hog the network. It makes sense to a point except when the technology is misused or abused.
Security Outsourcing
If your company lacks the internal resources to adequately plan for disaster, you can use an outside
source such as managed security service providers. They may be better at the necessary planning and
offering appropriate hardware and software resources because they specialize in such things.
Security Issues for Cloud Computing and the Mobile Digital platform
The concept of cloud computing sounds like nirvana to many companies. Someone else takes the
responsibility of building and maintaining very expensive information systems. Someone else spends the
money and time to ensure the systems are up-to-date and use the latest technology.
Security in the Cloud
Regardless of where your company stores its data, performs data processing, or how it transmit data to
and from, your company is ultimately the only one who is responsible for security.
Securing Mobile Platforms
Hackers don’t discriminate when it comes to targeting computing devices. They will go after your
unprotected smart phone just as gladly as they will your desktop or laptop computer. Don’t leave yourself
an easy target.

Introduction to information technology Page 36