MODULE

ENGLISH PHONOLOGY

Compiled By: Dwi Andriani,M.Pd

NURUL HUDA UNIVERSITY

2023/2024
Preface

First of all, the writer wants to express his thanks to Allah SWT, because of His bless and
grace, the book of phonology can be finished on time.
We endeavor to prepare the book as much as possible and are supported by the assistance of
various parties, so as to facilitate the preparation. For that we do not forget to thank all parties
and sources who have helped us in completing this book. However, apart from all of that, we are
fully aware that there are still shortcomings, both in terms of language preparation and other
aspects.
Therefore, we gladly open the door wide for readers who want to give suggestions or criticism
to improve this book. Finally, the authors really hope that the benefits of this book can be taken
and we wish to inspire readers to raise other relevant issues in subsequent books.

2
Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................ 2
Organ Of Speech ....................................................................................................................... 4
Describing Consonant ................................................................................................................ 9
Describing Vowels And Dipthong ........................................................................................... 15
Phonetic Features..................................................................................................................... 24
Minimal Pairs And Distinctive Feature .................................................................................... 35
Phonemes, Phone, And Allophone ........................................................................................... 39
Phonotactic Rules Of English .................................................................................................. 43
Prosodic And Suprasegmental ................................................................................................. 53
Phonological Rules .................................................................................................................. 61
Morphophonemic..................................................................................................................... 65
Referenceses ........................................................................................................................... 72

3
 CHAPTER 1
ORGAN OF SPEECH & AIRSTREAM MECHANISM

 Organ Of Speech
Phonology is a branch Of linguistics that studies the sound patterns Of languages. It focuses on the systematic
organization Of sounds, also known as phonemes, within a particular language Or languages. Phonology
examines how sounds function within a language’s phonological System, including their distribution,
patterns, and rules. It investigates various aspects such as phonemes, phonological features, phonotactics,
phonological processes, and the interaction between sounds in different linguistic contexts. phonology is an
important field Of study for understanding the Structure and organization of languages and how they are used
in communication.

Teachers of articulation must have a COMPLETE understanding of the anatomy and function
of the organs involved in vocal utterance. There are men who adeptly use crowbars without
having the foggiest concept of the rules of the lever, thus it is true that instructors without
that expertise occasionally succeed in teaching deaf-mutes to speak. The teacher of
articulation, however, must be able to carry out his duties intelligently, therefore he must be
well-versed on the anatomy and physiology of the organs he is tasked with instillingin
his stude.

It is a unique reality that writers on deaf-mute education have regretfully overlooked the topic
at hand while giving attention to issues of lesser relevance. As a result, the student teacher is
required to cite texts on voice physiology and anatomical literature. The former go into
greater detail than is required for our needs, whilst the later typically contain insufficient
information. Therefore, gathering the information that is valuable to and interesting to us
takes a lot of time and effort. The following synopsis may be helpful as not every teacher has
the time or resources available to conduct such detailed research.

4
One method of communication that makes use of the human voice organ is speaking.
Speaking is the systematic production of sounds using both sensory and motor components.
Hearing, sight, and touch are examples of sensory elements that help us grasp what we hear
and feel. The motor component controls the larynx, the articulation devices, and the larynx,
which is in charge of producing sound (Damayanti.M, 2007). The respiratory, phonation,
resonance, and articulation processes that involve the respiratory organs (nose, larynx,
trachea, and lungs), vocal organs (ring cartilage, cartilage shields, both goblet, vocal cords,
trachea), and articulation organs (lips, tongue, maxilla, mandible, soft palate, hard palate,
teeth, pharynx, oral cavity) are what cause speech to be elicited. Speech provided by
Kathiresan.C.
Actually thera some of organ of speech that will we explaine those are :

1. Dental Cavity
The lips define the mouth cavity from the front.posteriorly by the palatoglossus
muscle's arch-shaped entrance.Laterally by the teeth and related bone structure in the
jaws, inferiorly by the tongue, superiorly by the roof of the mouth. An important factor
in establishing the phonetic characteristics of speech sounds is the oral cavity.The
location and shape of the tongue, as well as the movement of the lips, jaw, and soft palate,
determine the shape and volume of the oral cavity.

2. Larynx
It's about 11 cm in length and 2.5 cm in diameter. o He has a skeletal frame made up
of a series of cartilages, and is The windpipe, or Trachea, attaches to the lungs. o More
protruded in case of males and is felt as the Adam's Apple'. In order to help produce
speech and valving actions of the larynx, cartilages inside the larynx move with regard
to each other in a way that facilitates their function.

5
3. Pharynx
It's about 11 cm in length and 2.5 cm in diameter. He has a skeletal frame made up of
a series of cartilages, and is The windpipe, or Trachea, attaches to the lungs. More
protruded in case of males and is felt as the Adam's Apple'. In order to help produce
speech and valving actions of the larynx, cartilages inside the larynx move with regard
to each other in a way that facilitates their function.

4. Soft Pallate/ Velum

The soft palate or velum is the continuation of the palate behind the bony structure of
the hard palate. It consists of a flexible sheet of muscular tissue covered with mucous
membrane and ends in the uvula, a small tip of muscle and flexible tissue. The Velum
can be raised and lowered, making it easier to create a variety of sounds. When the
soft palate is lifted and contacts the back wall of the pharynx (called soft palate
closure), the passage of air into the nasal cavity is blocked and only oral sounds such
as /p/, /k/ are produced. /F/. /t/etc All English sounds are oral sounds except for nasal
sounds. The oral cavity is closed when the velum descends, Air from the lungs escapes
into the nasal cavity, producing nasal sounds such as "m/". /N/. o In normal breathing,
the soft palate is lowered, but enough to keep both the oral and nasal cavities open.
Air therefore flows through both the oral and nasal cavities. Sounds produced at this
soft palate position are called nasal sounds.

5. Tongue
Located in the oral cavity, the tongue consists mostly of muscle, is lined on the outside
by mucous membranes, and is divided longitudinally by fibrous septa. It is anchored
to the anterior hyoid bone by some of the lateral muscles. Of all the language organs
in the oral cavity, the tongue has the greatest influence on changes in the shape and
volume of the oral cavity. For the purposes of phonetic description, the tongue is
usually divided into four regions or parts: tip, layers, anterior, posterior, and root. The
tip of the tongue is the outermost point of the tongue, and the tongue is just behind it.

6
 When the tongue is at rest, the front part of the tongue faces the hard palate. When
the tongue is at rest, the back of the tongue faces the soft palate. The root of the tongue
faces the posterior pharyngeal wall.

6. Lips
The upper and lower lips are two fleshy folds, richly muscled. It is made up of skin
on the outside and mucous membrane on the inside. Thanks to the muscles, the lips
are endowed with considerable plasticity and mobility and thus contribute greatly to
many of the possible configurations of the vocal tract in vocal articulation.

Speech: The lips are the front edge of the oral cavity and the front edge of the entire
vocal tract. Lips can assume a variety of positions, such as raised or lowered, rounded,
or protruding, and the corners of the mouth may move vertically or laterally. For
example, the consonants /p/ and /b/ hold the lips closed. For the vowel /i:
/, the lips are in an open position. The vowel /u/ has rounded, protruding lips. For the
vowel /a/ the lips remain in a neutral position. Etc.

7. Nasal Cavity
The nasopharynx opens into the nasal cavity, which is about 10 cm long from the
pharynx to the nostrils. The nasal cavity has no muscular structure. Therefore, it is
external factors such as mucus content and tissue swelling that affect the size and
shape of the nasal cavity. These involuntary changes in nasal volume and shape affect
the resonant properties of the nasal cavity and its contribution to acoustic and
perceptual properties. speech. Spontaneous changes in the nasal cavity can occur
because muscle tension affects the nature of the connection between the nasopharynx
and the oropharyngeal portion of the vocal tract.

7
 Airstream Mechanism
Airflow mechanism refers to the process by which the vocal tract creates airflow. No
sound is produced without an airflow mechanism. This is because this mechanism is
essential for the initiation of sound generation, the first part of the sound generation
process.

The sequence of positions (paths) that the articulator follows during

movement reveals a great deal about its planning and control processes. This article
presents data demonstrating the path of tongue movement during the production of
velar and alveolar consonants. Soft palate consonants, in particular, are known to
exhibit anterior tongue movements during the closure phase, resulting in elliptical
trajectories in symmetric VCV sequences [Houde, 1968; Perkel, 1969. Kent and Moll,
1972] In other words, the path taken by the tongue meatpoint to move from C to V2.

It doesn't just trace the path taken to go from V to C. In this respect, language
movements seem to contrast with the pathways observed in limb movements. For
example, in tasks involving movement from a starting position to a target and back to
the starting position (i.e., production-like tasks), we observe that hand paths in
grasping and pointing movements are generally fairly straight. target consonant
between two identical vowels)

8
 CHAPTER 2
DESCRIBING CONSONANTS

What is consonants?
(Phonetic Articulation Describing Consonant, n.d.) Consonants are the letters
that stand in for certain speech sounds, particularly those made with the tongue, lips,
or throat that prevent air from leaving the mouth. Except for the vowels (a, e, i, o, and
u), the majority of the letters in the English alphabet are consonants.
Articulatory phonetics:

1. PLACE OF ARTICULATION (POA)

In articulatory phonetics, the point as well as the place of consonant articulation

is the obstruction of the point of contact between the articulatory cues in the vocal
tract, the active articulators usually occur in several parts of the tongue and the
passive articulators. the location is in several parts of the roof of the mouth. (Place of
Articulation: Definition, Chart & Example, 2023)
(Phonetics Course : What Is Linguistics, What Is Phonetics,Why Do We Need It,
What Are the Phonetics Branches, IPA, Consonans, and Vowls, 2018) The narrowing
of the vocal tract occurs determined from the place or point of articulation (POA) of
the consonant, through front to back.

9
A. BILABIAL

In bilabial consonants, the upper and lower lips

touch each other, here are the places where the
bilabials (p), [b], and [m] stop. the picture beside is
the position of the vocal tract [p] or typical. ([m]
then it can be similar but with the position of the
velum down so that air comes out through the nasal
passages). the sound [w] uses two vowel channels
that are pronounced together. including rounding
of the lips, can be interpret(Phonetics Course :
What Is Linguistics, What Is Phonetics,Why Do We
Need It, What Are the Phonetics Branches, IPA,
Consonans, and Vowls, 2018)ed as a bilabial
approach.

B. LABIODENTAL

In the labiodental system, lips touching or

approaching upper teeth. The labiodental fricatives
are [f and v] the figure beside is an example of a
vocal tract in a typical [f or v].

C. (INTER)DENTAL

On the teeth, touching the upper teeth or

approaching the base or between the tongue. Tooth
friction [θ] and [ð]. Basically there are several
other ways to form these sounds. the top of the back
teeth can be in touch by the base of the tongue, with
how not to press hard so that it flows completely
blocked air.
The bottom of the upper teeth can be touched
between the tongue, using the base of the tongue
protruding around the teeth - leaving enough space

10
for the air flow to be pushed out quickly. It appears
in American English with interdental fricatives like
these [θ] and [ð]

D. ALVEOLAR

In the alveolar arrangement, the base of the

tongue (or what is called between the tongue)
approaches and even touches the alveolar palate.
The palate is just behind the upper teeth. [t], [d], [n]
are fully formed blocking the airways in place this
articulation. fricatives [f] and [z] are at this place of
articulation as are approximations [ɹ] and lateral
approximations [1].

E. POST ALVEOLAR

In the postalveolar arrangement, the reduced

air circulation is positioned just behind the alveolar
palate. reduction of air circulation can be done
using the base or sidelines of the tongue. fricatives
[ʃ] and [Ʒ] are presented in this POA, as are the
corresponding africates [tʃ] and [dƷ]. the figure
below is the position of the vocal tract during the
initial mid (half- stop), or fricatives [tʃ] and [dƷ].

F. VELAR
In a velar arrangement, the soft palate is
touched or approached by the base of the tongue,
or the velum, [k], [ɡ], [ɳ], is terminated at the POA.
The figure beside is a typical [k] or [ɡ] velum part
of the tongue which varies in regarding where it
should be depending on the surrounding vowels.
The voiceless frictive created in velar POA is the

11
 sound [x] at the end of a German name, Bach or a
Scottish word loch. as we already know, the two
narrowings that make up the [w] one of them is the
bilabial approach. the other one is the velar
approach of the soft palate near the tongue.

G. PALATAL

In the palatal arrangement, the hard palate is

approached and touched by the tongue. [j] palatal
approach hard palate near the (dorsum), creating
turbulence in the airflow close enough.

H. GLOTAL
Glottis is the open part of the vocal cords. in
[h]. It is only minimal to create turbulence in the
airflow flowing to the vocal cords. therefore, [h] is
usually classified as a global fricative. glottal
terminated [ʔ] is the type of sound in the structure
that is used in most spoken languages, by blocking
the airflow in the vocal tract or more precisely the
glottis produces many types of structures. glottal
stops for example using hyphens in uh-oh is the
opinion of most English speakers. the glottal stop
functions as an allophone /t/ between the vowel and
the syllable 'n, as well as the buttom and mountain
except when speaking slowly.

2. Manner Of Articulation

12
 i. Stop
(English Consonant, n.d.) The mouth's ability to breathe is completely
stopped by consonants. The consonants /d/, /t/, and /n/ are formed when the
tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge and blocks the airflow there. This means that
throughout the time of the pause in /d/ and /t/, there is practically no airflow. Even
when there is no airflow by the lips as /n/, there is still the passage of air through
the nose. We distinguish between.
ii. Nasal
The vocal cavity is completely closed off in one area, but air still escapes
through the nose. According to the location of the obstruction, there are three
nasal consonants in English: bilabial /m/ (mother), alveolar /n/ (nose), and velar
/ŋ/ (sing), which is a little trickier to pronounce correctly.
iii. Fricatives
Tongue tip contacts alveolar ridge during the stop /t/, which stops the airflow.
The tongue tip in [s] comes close to but doesn't quite contact the alveolar ridge.
The gap is still large enough for air to flow through, but it is so small that the
exiting air becomes turbulent, giving the sound of the /s/ its hissing quality. The
articulators engaged in the constriction method come together in a fricative
consonant to create a turbulent airstream. English has the following fricatives: /f/,
/v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/,
/ʃ/, and /ʒ/.

iv. Affricates
Affricates are single sounds made up of both stop and fricative parts. The
airflow is first stopped in English /tʃ/ by a stop that is quite similar to /t/. But the
tongue slowly draws away from the stop rather than instantly articulating the next
sound, which results in a brief window of time where the constriction is just small
enough to generate a turbulent airstream. The duration of turbulent airstream that
follows the stop portion in /t/ is identical to that of the fricative /ʃ/. Similar to /t/,
the voiced affricate /dʒ/ is used in English.
v. Approximant

13
 As sound sets out the body, approximate consonant sounds are produced by
pulling two articulators nearly in contact but without touching. A smooth, vowel-
like sound is the end product. In English, there are three approximate phonemes.
/w/: went once, quite.
/r/: road
/j/: few, yawn, fuel
vi. Lateral
By blocking in the centre and letting air past the sides of the tongue, lateral
approximant consonant sounds occur. There is only one lateral approximate
phoneme in English pronunciation:
Standard pronunciation also includes /ɫ/, a relatively frequent allophone
variation of the letter /l/. Although the tongue also cultivated in the back of the
mouth, it is formed in the same manner at the front.
b. Voicing
(Sastra, n.d.) It is possible to apply precisely the proper amount of pressure to
the vocal folds such that the air going through them from the lungs causes them to
vibrate against one another. Vocalizing describes this procedure. When vocal folds
vibrate, noises are produced that have a voice. Noises made without vocal fold
vibration are voiceless.

14
 CHAPTER 3
DESCRIBING VOWEL AND DIPTHONG ARTICULATION

A. Definition of vowels
Given the many different ways to pronounce vowels, they are among the most
challenging words in the English language. When air moves continuously and
smoothly through the pharynx, larynx, and oral cavity, speech sounds are created. The
airflow comes out of their mouth, so their member is not blocked. Different vowel
sounds can be produced by rearranging and altering the shape of the articulators in
the throat and mouth regions. Each vowel's sound is influenced by its placement in
the syllable and the letters that come before or after it. The limit of vowel articulation
is determined by the vowel gap, f the tongue is higher than the palate, the vowel space
dictates the vowels' articulation limit. (Demirezen, 2020)
There is a range of possible vowel lengths. Discuss the English vowels
represented by the letters a, i, e, u, and o. A single vowel lengthens to become a long
vowel when it is uttered. In phonology, vowel length refers to how long a vowel is
perceived to be. Some dictionaries refer to diacritics as macrons ( ¯ ), which are used
to denote long vowels. The phonemic vowel chart for the English language is shown
below. It lists the position, point, and manner of articulation for each of the 12 vowel
phonemes: In NAE, the long vowel sounds are /I/, /i:/, /ӕ/, /ɑ:/, /υ/, /u:/, /ә/, /e/, /Λ/,
/ɜ:/, /ɔ:/ and /

(Yoshida, 2014) mention that if we describe the vowels of english, vowels can be
classified 3 part.
There are Tongue position, Lip position, and Lax and Tense Vowels.

1. Tongue position
Each vowels sound is largely
influenced by how we move and shape
our tongues. Even a slight shift in the
location of your tongue during vowel
articulation can have a significant
impact on how the vowel sounds. We

15
initially list the height of the tongue
while designing vowels: high, medium,
or low. In other words, is the jaw
lowered more, or is the tongue raised
above the mouth? The placement is then
designated as front, center, or back.
Below is a description of how to position
your tongue for vowels:

a. High
High vowels are articulated with the tongue high in the mouth, but not
so high until touch the palate. Example :

/I/ (big) /υ/ (good) /Λ /

(cup)

b. Low
Low vowels are those that are generated with the tongue at a level that
is lower than mid vowels and toward the bottom of the oral cavity. E.g :

/e/ (kept) /Ͻ:/ (Tought) /D/ (Fox)

16
c. Front
The production of front vowels involves moving the tongue tip from the
higher incisors, or the front cutting teeth, to the lower ones. It is
pronounced: [i:], [i], [e], [ӕ]
d. Central
When the tongue is in the oral cavity in a neutral posture, the Central vowel is
produced. Try to pronounce : [ә], [з:]
e. Back
When the back of the tongue is moved up or down in the velar region,
back vowels are produced. Ex : [Λ], [α:], [D], [Ͻ:], [u:]

17
 A chart known as a vowel quadrant can be used to illustrate where different vowels are
located in a
language. A different vertical and horizontal position of the tongue is represented in
each of the nine portions of this diagram. Two variations of the vowel quarter are
depicted in the pictures below. The latter illustrates how specific regions of the vowel
quadrant link to specific regions of the voice, while the former merely displays the
vowel quadrant.

(Illustrate Placement Tongue Position)

2. Lip rounding/lip position

The shape of the lips, whether they are very rounded, slightly rounded,
relaxed, or stretched out a little, influences vowel sounds as well.

a. Unrounded
 Open
Open vowels are produced by placing the tongue low and the mandible
depressed. Like a pronounce : [α:],[ӕ],[ D]
 Open-mid
The tongue is placed halfway between the palatal region and the floor
of the mouth while producing open-mid vowels, which involve a
somewhat depressed position of the mandible.. Ex : [e], [Λ], [Ͻ:], [з:]
 Mid

18
 A mid vowel is produced by placing the mandible in the middle and the
tongue in the middle of the palatal region and the floor of the mouth..
Ex : [ә]
b. Rounded
 Close, Close vowels are produced by holding the tongue high and
closing the jaw. The alveolar ridge is where the tongue is actually
resting. as if to pronounce: [i:], [Ӏ], [u:]
 Close-mid, Close-mid vowels are produced by closing the jaw and
placing the tongue halfway between the palatal region and the floor of
the mouth. Try to pronounce : [υ]

3. Lax and Tense vowel

Traditionally, we have thought of this as the difference in tension or
contraction of the muscles of the tongue or lips when making sounds, but
again, this is an oversimplification. Sometimes there isn't much difference
in the natural loudness of tense and relaxed vowels. (Ladefoged, 2006)
The placement of vowels in words is another distinction between tense
and relaxed vowels. Both closed syllable those that finish in a c onsonant,
like meeting or purpose and open syllables those that do not have a
consonant following a vowel. Closed syllables can have relaxed vowels,
whereas stressed open syllables cannot. Frequently finish in a tense vowel.
But we never come across a word with a loosened vowel at the end.
(Durand, 2005) There are characteristics that can be used to distinguish
between lax vowels and tense vowels, namely their duration or the length
and shortness of how to read a phonemes. If lax vowel is more relaxed
tongue and lips (Lax vowels can be short vowel) Such as : [Ӏ], [υ], [e], [ә],
[Λ], [D], [ӕ]. And when tense vowel is more tightness in tongue and lips
(Tense vowels can be long vowels) Such as : [i:], [u:], [ з:], [Ͻ:], [α:].

Example of Lax Vowels and Tense Vowels :

Lax Vowel Tense Vowel

19
Phonem Example Phonem Example
[Ӏ] Will, Hit, Sick, Fish, Give [i:] Event, Easy, Cheat, Bee
[υ] Foot, Good, Push, Book [u:] Group, Food, Move, Soon
[e] Dress, Pen, Met, Red, Leg [з:] Burn, Bird, First, Learn
[ә] Ago, Along, Allow, Away [Ͻ:] Author, Autumn, Oral
[Λ] Does, Cut, Leg, Luck, Bug [α:] Hard, Last, Car, Shark
[ D] Job, Wash, Not, Stop, Hot
[ӕ] Bad, Back, Champ, Family

The English vowels lip placements

NO Phonem Lip position Tongue Lax/tense Pictures
position vowels
1 /α:/ Open Back/low Tense

2 /ӕ/ Open Front/low Lax

3 /D / Open Back/low Lax

4 /e/ Open-Mid Front/low Lax

5 /Λ/ Open-Mid Back/low Lax
6 /Ͻ: / Open-Mid Back/low Tense
7 /з:/ Open-Mid Central/high Tense
8 /ә/ Mid Central/high Lax
9 /i:/ Close Front/high Tense
10 /Ӏ/ Close Front/high Lax
11 /u:/ Close Back/high Tense
12 /υ/ Close-Mid Back/high Lax

B. Definition of Dipthongs
A Diphthongs are vowels that shift during speech as opposed to long vowels. One
vowel appears at the beginning and another at the conclusion. Diphthongs are
represented by two different symbols in the International Phonetics Alphabet, but
monophthongs, the short form of diphthongs, are represented by just one symbol.

20
'Two voices' or 'two sounds' is what the word diphthong actually means. (Demirezen,
2020) A diphthong is made up of two vowels that are completely distinct from one
another and occur in the same syllable. The vowel sound of each diphthong is made
up of two different kinds of vowel sounds that occur in syllables.
Dipthongs should be centered. Because the tongue moves in the direction of the
central vowel, the second vowel is more central than the first vowels. the like :
/Ӏә/,/еә/,/υә/. Dipthongs be close. Because the tongue moves from the place of the open
vowel to the closer vowel, the dipthong sounds like the second vowel is closer than
the first vowel. the like : /еӀ/, /аӀ/, /ϽӀ/, /аυ/,/әυ/. Diphthongs are two vowel sounds that
involve a transition or glide from one vowel to another. Diphthongs resemble long
vowels in length. The initial component of most diphthongs is stronger and longer
than the second component. The word "gliding vowel" is another name for the
diphthong since it describes the act of switching from one vowel sound to another. A
diphthong is often referred to as a moving vowel, a complicated vowel, and a
compound vowel. (Nordquist, 2019) The way that diphthongs have changed into
regional accents and dialects from their original languages is one of the most
fascinating aspects of how they connect to spoken language.

21
 English Dipthongs Chart

DIPHTHONGS
centring closing

ending in /ә/ ending in /Ӏ/ ending in /υ/

/Ӏә/ /еә/ /υә/ /еӀ/ /аӀ/ /ϽӀ/ /әυ/

/аυ/

THE PRONUNCIATION OF DIPTHONGS

/aɪ/ (Idea) /aʊ/ (Cloud) /eɪ/ (Male)

/ɔɪ/ (Choice) /әʊ/ (Ghost)

22
 EXAMPLE OF DIPTHONGS

Centering Dipthongs Closing Dipthongs

Phonem Example Phonem Example
/eә/ Heir, Fair, Share, Aware /aɪ/ Five, Eye, Ice, Price
/ɪә/ Near, Clear, Theory, Ear /eɪ/ Break, Male, Date, Face
/ʊә/ Sure, Cure, Hour, Tour /ɔɪ/ Voice, Coin. Joint, Toy
/әʊ/ Goat, Focus, Road, Globe
/aʊ/ About, Proud, Mouth,
Found

23
 CHAPTER 4
PHONETIC FEATURES

A. Phonetic Features
Phonetic features, Phonetic characteristics are the elements of sound that can be
controlled independently by the articulator.We can use a feature matrix to represent
the features of each sound, or we can use a feature matrix to represent a class of sounds
that share features.
Phonetic features are the characteristics of sounds used to differentiate phonemes
in a language. Studying phonetic features is crucial in linguistics as it aids in
understanding and analyzing the sounds present in different languages. These features
include place of articulation, manner of articulation, voiceless sounds, and
suprasegmental features such as intonation and stress. Each feature will be explained
in detail, and examples from various English words will be provided to illustrate their
usage. (pierce darragh n.d.)

B. Part of phonetic Features

As for the types of phonetics, it is divided into several kinds, which will be
explained below, and these types are divided into four parts:
1. Syllable [syllabic] / [syl]
Syllables in phonology refer to sounds or phonemes that function as the core
of a word. Indirectly, the sound in the syllable will form a syllable by itself
without the need for split vowels.
For example: in the word "Button" when the vocabulary, the sound "n" has
formed the entire syllable core without any additional vowels.

24
 2. Vowels [vocalic] / [voc]
An approximant is a sound in which air can flow almost completely freely. examples
are the sounds
/w/, /l/, and /r/.
Vowels (semi-vowels) are considered [+vowel] and all other sounds are [-
vowel]. The purpose of this function is mainly to distinguish slides from other
consonants because they resemble vowels. (A slide is basically just a vowel that
wants to be a consonant).

Approximation [approximant] / [approx]

In phonology, an "approximant" is one of the consonants made by narrowing
but not completely blocking the airflow. An approximant is also often preceded
by the letter "l", which is produced by allowing the airflow to pass through both
sides of the tongue, and while the tongue remains raised in the center of the oral
cavity, this creates a distinct "l" sound, as in the words "lens" and "love".

3. Sonorant [sonorant] / [son]

According to the science of phonetics, pronunciation is divided into two ways,
namely inhibition and sonorant. Sonoran is a sound that is articulated by the rate of
air passing through the nasal and oral cavities.
Where‘s sonorant in phonetics, is any of the nasal, liquid, and glide
consonants characterized by sustained resonant sounds. Sonorants have more
acoustic energy than other consonants. In English, sonorants are y, w, l, r, m, n, and
ng. See also nasal; liquid.(Britannica 2016)

25
C. Manner features
There is also a feature used to describe the way the articulators are used to change
the flow of air as it exits the lungs, which is :
1. Continuous [continuant] / [cont]
The meaning of continuant is a sound that allows air to flow out of the oral
cavity, which means that the sound can be sustained for a long time and
continuously. Continuant is not produced by closing the mouth, for example,
(S). You can also think of continuant as a sound in which air continues to flow
freely out of the mouth.(Animated n.d.)

2. lateral [lateral] / [lat]

Lateral in phonetics is a consonant sound made by raising the tip of the
tongue to the palate, so that the airflow passes through one side of the tongue.
In phonology, "lateral" also refers to a special feature of consonant sounds.
Lateral consonants are pronounced by allowing air to flow on one side of the
tongue while the center of the tongue blocks the air in the middle of the mouth.
This creates the distinctive "L" sound. Some examples of lateral consonant
sounds in English are the "l" sound in the words "lamp" and "lemon".

26
3. Nasal [nasal] / [nas]
In phonology "nasal" refers to a specific consonant sound. nasal consonants
are made by releasing airflow through the nasal cavity, while the mouth is
partially closed. this creates resonation and airflow through the nose. Here's an
example of a nasal consonant in English! the "m" sound in the word "my". The
"n" sound in the word "not".

4. Loud [strident] / [stri]

A [+strident] sound is characterized by being loud or high-pitched. Strident
consonants create a lot of airflow or turbulence. narrowing of organs such as
the palate and tongue.
Examples of strident sounds in English include the voiceless fricative /s/ in
the word "she" and the affricate /tʃ/ as in the word "church".

27
D. Venue Features
There are a total of eleven place features, which describe where in the mouth
the primary articulars are placed to produce a particular sound. The place
features are:
1) Labial
a. Round
2) Coronal
a. Anterior
b. Distributed
3) Dorsal
a. High
b. Low
c. Back
4) Pharynx
a. ATR

The indentation of a particular feature indicates a dependent feature. A dependent

feature, such as
round, can only be specified if its parent feature has a positive specification. Thus, a

28
sound that has the specification [-labial] cannot become [+round] or [-round].

1. [Labial] / [Lab]
[+labial] phone is a phone that uses lip pronunciation to produce sound,
which corresponds to labial and labiodental places of articulation.
In addition, glides and vowels are considered [+labial] because they can
have a [rounded] specification. [labial] has one dependent feature:
[rounded].(british council n.d.)
There were children at school discussing labial consonants, and they were produced
using the lips.
Bilabial consonants are
produced using both
lips. Example:
 /p/ and /b/ are labial consonants, /v/ and /f/ are labiodental consonants.

2. [Round] / [Rnd]

In phonology, roundness refers to the shape of the two lips when creating a
particular sound. It is a distinctive feature that marks vowels and indicates
whether the lips are rounded or split. Rounded vowels are pronounced with
rounded lips, while eight-character vowels are pronounced with unrounded lips.
In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), rounded vowels are
represented by a small bulge or flat rounded diacritic [ʷ] to the right of the vowel
sign. For example, the rounded equivalent of the unrounded vowel [i] is [y], and
the rounded equivalent of [u] is [ʊ].

3. [Coronal] / [Cor]

29
 Coronal is a characteristic sound produced by lifting the tip of the tongue
or (tongue blade) from its initial position, then the tongue is raised towards
the upper teeth, or hard palate.
Therefore to produce a coronal sound requires articulation in the front
position of the tongue. Palatal, retloflex, alveolar, and interdental consonants
(without glide) are [+coronal], and other phones are [- coronal]. [coronal] has
two dependent features: (distributed) and (anterior).

4. [Anterior] / [Ant]

In phonology, "front" means where a consonant is pronounced. It describes

the sound made by the front of the vocal tract (more specifically the front of
the tongue).
The term "front" is the opposite of "rear," which refers to sounds made with
the back of the tongue or more rearward areas in the vocal tract.
Alveolar consonants: These sounds are made when the tip or blade of the
tongue touches the alveolar ridge (the area behind the upper front teeth).
Examples are [t], [d], [s] and [z]

30
5. [Distributed] / [Dist]

We employ [distributed] traits to distinguish how the front of the tongue is

used.. A [+distribution] sound is one in which the tongue is spread widely
(pronounced with the tongue blade), a [-distribution] sound is pronounced
using only the tip of the tongue. The interdental spaces, palatal alveolar and
palate are [+distributed], while other [+coronal] phones are [-distributed].

6. [Dorsal] / [Dor]

Unlike [coronal], [+dorsal] is formed by articulation in the posterior part of

the tongue. Consonants such as palatoalveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, and
pharyngeal, as well as all vowels (including glides), are [+dorsal]
[Dorsal] is comprised of three distinct features: [High], [Low], and
[Posterior], each of which refers to the actual location of the tongue in the mouth.

7. [High] / [Hi]

31
 One of the (height) characteristics is the ability to specify the height of the
tongue in the mouth, where [+high] indicates that the tongue should be elevated
and [-high] indicates that the tongue should not be raised. Some consonants, such
as palatal, alveo-palatal, velar, and sliding consonants, as well as near vowels,
are [+high], while [+dorsal] sounds are [-high].
Remember that a sound cannot be both [+high] and [+low], but only [-high] and [-
low].

8. [Low] / [Lo]

The difference between "high" and "low" is not very significant, in the science
of phonology this "low" pronunciation is a relatively low tongue in the mouth.
In English some vowels are classified as "low", for example: the /a/ sound in a
vocabulary such as "cat".

9. [Back] / [Bk]

32
 In the pronunciation of "back", this sound is performed by positioning the
tongue situated at the back of the mouth during its production. For example, the
/ɑ/ sound in the vocabulary "father" and the word "car" is pronounced by placing
the tongue towards the back of the mouth.

10. [Pharyngeal] / [Phar]

Pharyngeal consonants are consonants that are articulated mainly in the

pharynx and pharyngealization is created when the base of the tongue approaches
the wall, by constricting the airflow through the narrow channel at the place of
articulation.(He et al. 2020).

11. [ATR]

Advanced tongue root, also known as extended, involves widening the

pharyngeal cavity by moving the base of the tongue forward and frequently

33
 lowering the larynx to provide breath quality to the vowel.(Wikipedia 2022)
Stopping sounds in [b], [d], [ɡ] can involve tongue advancement which will
occasionally become sound changes related to stop sounds and front vowels.

E. Laryngeal features
Laryngeal Features "Laryngeal" are features that relate to how the laryngeal is used
during vocalization.
The "Laryngeal" larynx is divided into several forms, namely:
1) Voiced
2) Aspirated
3) Vibrating (Glottal)

1. [Voiced] / [Voi]

Voiced are consonants that are voiced, and the letters are : B, D, G, J, L, M,
N, Ng, R, Sz, Th, V, W, Y, and Z. But it is also important to note that, if there are
only single letters, namely Ng, Sz, and Th, then these three letters are the common
sounds that can be produced by combining or combining two consonants
ph.(Wikipedia 2023) Phones with [+aspiration] have a greater outward airflow.
By default, all voiceless fricatives (including the voiced glottal fricative) are
[+aspirated], while all other sounds are [-aspirated].
Letters are not aspirated. Letters are graphic marks that are used in text. When
we speak about aspiration, we speak about sounds. In English, voiceless stops /p/,
/k/ and /t/ are aspirated before a vowel, particularly in a stressed syllable.
However, aspiration doesn't usually take place in consonant clusters. Therefore,
speak doesn't have aspiration while peak does.

34
2. [Glottalized] / [Glot]

Glottal is a method of producing sound and language that makes use of a

portion of the vocal tract known as the glottis. You may not realize it, but you
probably utilize your glottis every day to produce a glottal stop, one of two
glottal consonants in English .(studysmarter 2020)

35
 CHAPTER 5
MINIMAL PAIRS AND DISTINCTIVE

A. Minimal Pairs

Minimal Pairs is two word wits almost the same pronounciation and one sound
that make it different, but it has very different meanings.
The phonetic difference between the two words in the minimum pair is seen from
a segment of sound that serves as a difference point between the two words. The
difference in one sound greatly influences the contrast in meaning in a word. (Barlow,
J. A., & Gierut, 2022)
Look this example!
 Sip / Sip / = Zip / zip /

From the sample above, we can see that the two word are almost identical in their
pronociation and it has very different meanings. From phonemes [sip] consist to /s/,
/i/, /p/, and from phonemes [zip] consist to
/z/. /i/. /p/. If you seen, that the spealing of both word is almost identical, just different
in spealing /s/ and /z/. To understand much more, next we will discuss Distinctive
feature.

B. Distinctive Feature
A distinctive feature are a way that calculates where location a sound can change.
They determine the contrasts which may exist between speech sound, accound for
the ways in which these sound may change, or alternate, and def he the sets of sound
from minimal pairs. (Wiese, 2012)
The thing to consider when identifying a sound in a destictive feature is :
Consonan :
1. Define voice and voiceless
2. Define place articulation
3. Define manner articulation

36
 Vowel :
1. Vowel articulation

Review Material!
A voice consonant is the sound of a phonemes with a vibration in the wind, eg ( /b/, /d/, /j/. /m/,
/n/, /ŋ/, /r/, /Ꝫ /. /ð/, /v/, /w/, /y/, /z/, dꝪ )
A voiceless consonants is the sound of a phonemes with a nothing vibration in the wind, eg (/tʃ/,
/f/, /k/, /p/, /s/, /ʃ/, /θ/, /t/
Place and manner articulation:

 Vowel articulation (open, open-mid, mid, close, close-mid, front, central,

back, high, low, lax, and tense).

For example
Consonan:
Pat [pæt] = Bat [bæt]
They have almost the same pronunciation. Which differes from the two phonems
are /p/ and /b/. How to discern the pronounciation of those two word is from the first
stage is voice and voiceless. Phonems /p/ belongs to voiceless because it doesn‘t have
vibration, for the phonems /b/ belongs to voice because it have a vibration. So we‘ll
write it like the below :

37
 Pat [pæt] = Bat [bæt]
+ Voiceless - Voiceless
-Voice + Voice

The next, it enters the second stage in which place articulation point of the two phonems /p/ and /b/.
Phonems /p/ and /b/ belong same in the place articulation of bilabial. So we‘ll write it like
the below :

Pat [pæt] = Bat [bæt]

+ Voiceless - Voiceless
-Voice + Voice
+ Bilabial + Bilabial

And the last stage in which manner articulation from phonems /p/ and /b/.
phonems /p/ and /b/ belong same in the manner articulation of stop. So we‘ll write
it like the below :

Pat [pæt] = Bat [bæt]

+ Voiceless - Voiceless
-Voice + Voice
+ Bilabial + Bilabial
+ Stop + Stop

So that‘s the difference pronounciation between Pat [pæt] = Bat [bæt] is from
Voice and Voiceless. How pronounciation for Pat [pæt] nothing vibration because it
includes voiceless. Similary for word Bat [bæt] belongs to voice because it have a
vibration.
Vowel :
For phonems of vowel we must remember about vowel articulation. The distribution
of phonems vowel was placed according to place according to vowel articulation.
(Wiese, 2012)
Bin [bin] = Bean [bi:n]

38
 The differences of these two phonems are in /i/ and /i:/. If you remember again,
phonem /i/ on vowel articulation consist to close, front, high, and tense. For the
phonems /i:/ consist to close, front, high, and lax.
Look this chart!

From the chart above, it‘s clear that phonems /i/ and /i:/ make a difference at tense and
lax. So we‘ll
write it like the below :

Bin [bin] = Bean [bi:n]

+ Close + Close
+ Front + Front
+ High + High
+ Lax - Lax
-Tense + Tense

So that‘s the difference pronounciation between Bin [bin] = Bean [bi:n] is from
Lax and Tense. How pronounciation for Bin [bin] said in a very short tone. Similary
for word Bean [bi:n] said in a very long tone.

39
 CHAPTER 6
PHONEMES, PHONE AND ALLOPHONE

Phonemes is the smallest sound unit in a language that is capable of conveying a

distinction in meaning. Phonemes are abstrak mental, representation it is already
staded in our vein but we don‘t pronounce it yet (Port, 2007). Phonemes are written
between slashes (/), eg (/a/, /e/ , /i:/, /b/, /p/, and so on. Different language have
differences phonemes.

The characteristic of phonemes:

1. Articulated differently
2. It occur in the same environment
3. The change effect the meaning
4. Use slash (/) as a symbol

Let us consider several

example:
Keep – Deep = /k/ - /d/
The word ―keep‖ are contain of three phonemes. They are : /ki:p/ = /k/, /i:/, /p/, the
word ―keep‖ has a meaning which is to have or continue to have in our possession.
When we change the /k/ phonemes to /d/ phonemes, it would make the word change
for ―keep‖ to ―deep‖ and it‘s carrying difference meaning.

B. Phone
In every life we hear many of sound. Phone are the realization sound of
phonemes. When you pronounce a phonemes, it become a phone. Phone differences
from phonem because it is not specific in languages and does not have significant
impact in sense of the word (Linguistic, n.d.). Phone are represented with brackets
([]). So essentially phone is any voice we hear.
For example :
[k], [b], [u], [d], [e], [i:]
The word ― cat ― = [kæt]

40
C. Allophone
Allophone is an allos Greek term meaning 'other' and phone meaning 'voice.'
Understanding of allophones is the variation of a phoneme that arises because of a
particular situation, a single phone that may be represented or illustrated, or one that
forms several sounds. A variation of a language or-
a type of phonem that changes its voice based on how a word is spelled or according
to its position in the word. It doesn't change the meaning, but when you recite a word
with a different allophone or a mixed allophone, it doesn't affect the change of a sense,
but it looks a bit strange what you memorize.

Like when there is a phoneme /s/ where the sentences can be read at the end /z, iz, or s/ how
pronunciation
becomes these very forms called allophones.
Example :
Phoneme /k/
If, in the beginning, the sentence is read /kh/ where in the
inscription there is an explosion. In beginning /kh/ = kite
In middle /k/ = sky
In ending /k/ = speak

Kinds of Allophone
a. Free variation
b. Complementary distribution

a. Free variation
It is part of a certain allophone whose transmission overlaps and produces almost
the same sounds but makes a difference. It doesn't change the meaning. This
phenomenon usually occurs when there is a dialogue or conversation. We can't allow
people to have the same pronunciation as us, hence this so-called free variation.
(Nordquist, 2020)
For example:
Pasta [phɑ:sta] or ['phæstǝ]
Economic [,i:kǝ'na:mik] or [,ɛkә'na:mik]

41
 Either [„i:ðәл] or ['aɪðәл]
b. Complementary distribution
The allophone is part of the allophone, but it can appear due to certain conditions
or under certain conditions. We will never find two or more sounds in the same
environment in an allophone.
Two sounds can be called a complementary distribution if the sound /Y/ does not
appear in any of the phonetic parts where the sound /X/ occurs. For example, in
English, the distribution of the dental and alveolar nasal [ŋ] and [n] is such that they
never appear in the same environment. They are mutually exclusive. So this is an
example of a complementary distribution where the two sounds do not appear in the
same environment.
There are examples do not represent a complementary distributionallophones of the same
phoneme.
~[h]-[ ŋ] [h] is found only as an
onset and never as a coda. [ŋ]
occurs only as a coda and never
as an onset.

42
The contexts of the two sounds are mutually exclusive and can be labeled complementary,
but we do not
treat them as allophones of the sounds as the same phoneme.
Example:

tap [thæp] word-initially

followed by a vowel
tep [stɛp]
#_æ
preceded by `S` S_ɛ
bat [ bæt] [bæt`]
word finally æ #

43
 CHAPTER
CHAPTER27
PHONOTACTICAL RULES

What exactly is phonotactic?

Phonotactics is the study of phoneme combinations in a certain language. It is a
branch of phonology. The smallest unit of sound that can communicate meaning is
called a phoneme. This is described as phonotactic.
Over time, a language's phonotactic variation and alteration may take place.
Examples include Daniel Schreier's observation that "Old English phonotactics
admitted a variety of consonantal sequences that are no longer found in contemporary
varieties".

A. Understanding Phonotactic Constraints

In a language, the formation of syllables is governed by a set of restrictions and
rules called phonotactic constraints. As linguist Elizabeth Zsiga put it, languages ―do
not permit random sequences of sounds; rather, the sound sequences a language
allows are a systematic and predictable part of its structure.‖
A set of restrictions and guidelines known as phonotactic constraints govern
how syllables are formed in a language. Languages, in the words of linguist
Elizabeth Zsiga, ―do not permit random sequences of sounds; rather, the sound
sequences a language allows are a systematic and predictable part of its structure.‖
Phonotactic constraints are restrictions on the kinds of sounds that are allowed to
appear next to each
other or in particular positions in the word, according to Zsiga (McMahon, 2002).
Phonotactics is a term believed to have been developed in 1954 by American
linguist Robert P. Stockwell, who used it in an unpublished lecture given at the
Linguistic Institute in Georgetown. It is formed from the Greek terms for ―sound‖ and
―arrange.‖ It is asserted by Archibald A. Hill.

B. Phonological Sequential Constraints

You are aware of a variety of completely unwritten conventions specific to your

44
language and accent, regardless of the language you speak. Many of these rules
concern grammatical constructions, which need for certain word placement in your
sentences in order for them to make sense. Others deal with word pronunciation, such
as when to voice and when to leave out sounds when pronouncing specific words. In
phonology, ―sequential restrictions‖ refers specifically to the sound groups that can
be combined to form words.
Learning about how sounds occur together and establishing word boundaries
both benefit from developing phonotactic sensitivity. According to Kyra Karmiloff
and Annette Karmiloff-Smith‘s 2001 book Pathways to Language, published by
Harvard University Press,
Think about if you were given the English letters /b/, /l/, /i/, and /k/. These four sounds—/blk/,
/klb/,

/blk/, and /klb/—can be joined in a variety of ways to create English words. Only
―bilk‖ is a real word, but because we‘re talking about word creation from the
perspective of phonetics, it doesn‘t important that they all sound real. Your mental
phonetic constraint is what persuades your brain that English doesn‘t have sounds
like /kbl/ and /lbk/. Words in English cannot start with the /kb/ or /lb/ sound,
according to phonology. Your brain recognizes that a stop consonant cannot be
followed by another stop in a word. When starting words or syllables in English, you
are only allowed to use three-sound consonant clusters:
First Sound Second Sound Third Sound

s p l
t r
k w
j
Cluster Example Word Transcription

Spl Split /splɪt/

Spr Spring /spriŋ/
Spw *
Spy Spew /spju/

45
 Stl *
Str Strength /strɛŋkθ/
Stw *
Sty *
Skl Sclaff /sklæf/
Skr Screed /skrid/
Skw Square /skwɛr/
Sky Skua /'skjuә/
*These clusters are an exception to the rule, and they are not allowed in English
starting forms.

Take the sound cluster /kspl/ for example. It is obviously not a permitted cluster
to begin a word with, but it is perfectly acceptable to have it within other words,
as in the word ―explicit‖ (/ksplst/). Larger clusters are allowed in multisyllabic
words because of the syllable boundaries: /k $ spl $ st/. As shown in our chart
above, the /kspl/ is broken up into a syllable-final /k/ and a syllable-initial /spl/.

We know that ―condstluct‖ /kandstlkt/ is not a valid word in English since it either
includes a /stl/ or /tl/ syllable-initial sound cluster. This is similar to how syllable boundaries make
―explicit‖ an acceptable /kspl/ cluster.
These sequential restrictions are frequently used in English advertising to produce
new, meaningless words in the language. Consider the words Bic, Xerox, and Spam,
which were not part of the English language when they were first used but sound like
true English words because they adhere to the rules for English words. Because it
violates our cluster rules, we are unlikely to ever see a company with the name
Zhpleet (pronounced ―plit‖) launch. See lexical gap for further details on this idea.
The words "ship" and ‖lift‖ both begin with the vowel sound //. Information on IPA
transcription can be found in International Phonetic Alphabet.
The words "ship" and ‖lift‖ both begin with the vowel sound //. Information on IPA
transcription can befound in International Phonetic Alphabet.

C. Syllables and Their Parts

Words‘ fundamental building pieces are syllables. Humans seem to require

46
syllables in order to segment their speech and give it a musical rhythm of strong and
weak beats. Syllables are not necessary for language to have meaning; rather, they
are only there to make it easier for the brain to process speech. Every word has at
least one syllable.
Most English speakers don‘t have any issue separating words into their separate
syllables. Even if a word may be divided differently depending on who you ask, a
division is always straightforward and imaginable. The individual syllables of the
words listed below have been separated (a period is used to denote the end:
1. Comfortable : com.for.table
2. Handsome : hand.some

Syllables can be broken down into components because they have an internal
structure. The components are the onset and rhyme, and the nucleus and coda are
contained within the rhyme. The smallest syllable imaginable contains just a nucleus;
not all syllables contain all parts. There may or may not be an onset and a coda for a
syllable.
Onset describes the initial or pre-nucleus sounds of the syllable. These are consonants
in English alone. The vowels [r], [l], [m], and [n] are the syllable‘s most frequent
nuclei, however the consonants [r], [l], [m], [n], and the velar nasal (the ‗ng‘ sound)
can also function in this capacity. In the following sentence, the first word is bolded,
while the other words are underlined.
1. Slow
2. Fast
3. Big

47
 If a word contains more than one syllable, each syllable will have the usual syllable
parts:
1. Hand.some
2. De.li.cious
3. Ex.pen.sive

The remainder of the syllable following the initial consonant (the words above that
are underlined are examples of rime). The rhyme can also be broken down into: Coda
+ nucleus equals rhyme.
The nucleus, as the name implies, is the central or primary part of a syllable. Only in
the presence of a nucleus can a syllable exist. Syllable nuclei are often loud, very
―sonorant‖ or resonant noises that have a specific pitch level. In languages like English
and the majority of others, vowels make up the majority of the syllable nuclei. The
English liquids [l r], nasals [m n], and the often spelt ―ng‖ velar nasal can also act as
syllable nuclei in specific situations.
The phrases "read," ‖flop,‖ ―strap,‖ and ―window‖ were each broken down into their
individual syllables as follows, using IPA symbols to represent the sounds in each
syllable:
Big : one syllable
Onset :[b]
Rhyme : [ɪ ɡ ] (within the rhyme) Nucleus :[ɪ]
Coda :[g]

Slow : one syllable

Onset :[sl]
Rhyme : [ әʊ ] (within the rhyme) Nucleus :[ә]
(This syllable has no coda)

For syllable structure visualization, linguists frequently utilize tree diagrams. With
IPA symbols instead of English spelling, the word ―big‖ would look somewhat like
this. Syllable (S), onset (O), rhyme ®, nucleus (N), and coda © are the letters that
make up a syllable. The typeface used to display this page on your computer may be
different, thus the tree may not appear to be aligned properly on your screen. The

48
Onset node, which separates into the Rhyme and Onset nodes because it has the
consonants [f] and [l] in two different locations, is the uppermost syllable node. This
syllable has a coda and a nucleus, which causes the Rhyme node to branch.

1. Liquids and Nasals As Syllable Nuclei

It is possible for the English liquids (r l) and nasals (m n) to act as the syllable
nuclei in certain situations. The final syllables of ―mother‖ and ―actor‖ have vowels
in the spelling, but there is no vowel in the pronunciation of ―bird,‖ ―word,‖ ―her,‖
―fur,‖ the first syllables of ―perceive‖ and ―surname,‖ and the final syllables of
―mother.‖ In the final syllable of a Word, the nasals [m n] and [l] become the
syllable nuclei when they follow an alveolar consonant. When a word is employed
in a non-formal, informal manner as opposed to a formal one, this happens. Word
pronunciations informally and professionally are contrasted.

When one of these sounds is a syllable nucleus, this is shown in transcription by

putting a very short vertical line under the IPA symbol
[ r l m n ].
' ' ' '
(If the vertical lines don't line up under the symbols on your screen, it is due to
webpage transfer complications.)

2. The word ―bird‖ has the syllabic [r] as its nucleus:

Let‘s try to define the terminologies used in these regulations as most people
are unfamiliar with them. A syllable is made up of three distinct components: the
onset, the nucleus, and the coda. The rhyme is the combination of the nucleus and
the coda. It‘s vital to remember that only the nucleus of a syllable is necessary;
an onset or a coda are not required.
Let‘s use a straightforward one-syllable term to define each of the three
components. All three components of the word ―bag‖ are present: the onset, the
nucleus, and the coda.
a. The onset of a syllable is its initial consonant. That sounds like a /b/.
b. The syllable‘s vowel sound serves as the nucleus. That is the short a sound,
/ae/.

49
 c. It may also only consist of one consonant, like the /m/ in the word ―rhythm.‖
d. The coda is the syllable‘s final consonant. That sounds like a /g/.

There are also complex onsets and codas, though the former are typically
restricted to two or three sounds; the word ―twelfths‖ is an example of the latter; see
if you can identify each part of the syllable.
If both the onset and the coda are omitted, then you have a vowel-only syllable—
for instance, the word ―a.‖
There are also complex onsets and codas, though the former are typically
restricted to two or three sounds. The word ―twelfths‖ is an example of this; see if
you can find each part of the syllable.

We can now begin going over the guidelines:

1. A nucleus exists in every syllable. This necessitates, as I previously
mentioned, that each syllable make a vowel sound or a consonant sound.
2. No geminates, 2. English does not distinguish between different consonant
lengths, although other languages, including Latin, do. A geminate is
essentially a consonant that has been lengthened.
3. No onset of //. The letter ―ng‖ is typically used to symbolize the // sound,
which may be heard at the conclusion of words like ―song.‖ According
to this rule, that sound cannot occur at the commencement, or start, of
a syllable. This is also the reason why it‘s so difficult for English speakers
to pronounce my last name, Ngai.
4. No /h/ in syllable coda. You can‘t have the /h/ sound at the end of a syllable.
Put simply, don‘t exhale at the end of syllables.

We must now describe the various categories of consonant sounds.

1. Plosive Consonant
a. Produced by a ―explosion‖ of air that occurs when pressure builds and is
abruptly released.
b. Voiceless tones: /p/, /t/, and /k/
c. Voiced sounds include /b/, /d/, and /g/.

50
2. Air is forced through a small tube to produce the fricative consonant
a. Unvoiced noises include: /f/, // (like in think), /s/, and // (like in share).
b. Voiced sounds, including /v/, /z/, and // (such as in vision),
3. Nasal Consonant a. Produced by a
little airflow via the nose. Voiced
sounds (such as those used in
songs): /m/, /n/, and //
4. Approximant Consonant
a. Similar to vowel sounds.
b. Voiced sounds: /w/, /r/, /j/, /l/

5. Glottal consonant
a. Generated in the throat.
b. Unvoiced sound: /h/
6. Affricate consonant
a. A combination of a plosive followed by a fricative.
b. Unvoiced sound: /tʃ/ (such as in chair)
c. Voiced sound: /dʒ/ (such as in judge)

Plosives, fricatives, and affricates are collectively referred to as obstruents.

Conversely, nasals and approximants fall under the category of sonorants.

Let‘s continue with the rules.

1. No Affricates in Complex Onsets
You can‘t put affricates, typically ―ch‖ and ―j,‖ into a complex onset, so
they will always be by themselves in a syllable‘s onset.
2. An obstruent must be the first consonant in a complicated onset.
The first part of a complex onset must always be formed through the
obstruction of air, whether it is a plosive, fricative, or affricate. This rule
applies in words such as ―pragmatic‖ or ―three.‖
3. A voiced obstruent cannot be the second consonant in a complicated onset.
The second consonant of a complex onset in a syllable cannot be the sounds /b/,
/d/, /g/, /v/, //, /z/,

51
 //, or /d/. Congratulations, you‘ve completed half of the rules and half of this
response.
The definition of liquids and glides comes next. Simply explained, in
English, liquids are the l and r sounds, like in ―lean‖ or ―red.‖ They can be
positioned with the most flexibility within a word or syllable.
A glide is a vowel sound that is used in place of a consonant sound; it is also
referred to as a semivowel. It is believed to be a subclass of approximants,
albeit not everyone agrees on this. They contain the letters w and y, which
are found in words like ―we‖ and ―yes.‖
4. The second consonant in a complex onset must be a liquid or a glide if
the first consonant is not a /s/.
When you are familiar with the definitions of the terminology employed,
this rule should be very self-explanatory. This rule may be seen in phrases
like ―grand‖ or ―plate,‖ while the word ―spider‖ (which has a /s/ followed by a
plosive) illustrates the exception with /s/.
This rule is fairly self-explanatory when you know the definitions of the
terms used. This rule can be observed in words such as ―grand‖ or ―plate,‖
and the exception with /s/ can be observed in the word ―spider‖ (an /s/
followed by a plosive).

The Substring Principle, which states that every sequence included within a series of
consonants must adhere to all applicable phonotactic rules
I… honestly don‘t know. I‘m a high-schooler; give me a break.
5. No Glides in Codas
The w and y sounds can‘t go at the end, or coda, of a syllable.
6. The Second Consonant of a Complex Coda Must Not Be ŋ/, /ʒ/, or /ð/
Again, this should be fairly self-explanatory at this point.
7. If a Complex Coda‟s First Consonant Is Voiced, Then So Is The Second
The vocal chords are used to produce the voiced consonants. The second
consonant in a compleonset can be voiced or unvoiced if the first
consonant is unvoiced. It must be voiced if not. We‘re getting close. Just a
simple explanation of what ―place of articulation‖ refers to.
By blocking airflow to varying degrees and in diverse locations, consonants

52
 are produced. We won‘t go through each of the 18 different designated
points of articulation. I merely want to mention that an alveolar sound, like
the /n/ sound, is produced by blocking airflow directly behind the upper
teeth.
Homorganic refers to the production of two sounds from the same location
by blocking airflow. For instance, even though one is nasal and the other is
plosive, the sounds /m/ and /p/ would be considered homorganic since they
both impede airflow at the lips.
8. The following segment‟s non-alveolar nasals must be homorganic.
Since the non-alveolar nasals in English are /m/ and //, the next component must be
homorganic.
9. The voicing of two obstruents in the same coda must be shared.
A syllable‘s coda has two obstruents, two of which must either have voices
(voicing) or not (devoicing).
Like I stated, explaining the meaning of each of these principles to people
takes a lot of time. Even though we are unable to clearly list them, we all
instinctively understand these laws. Everything that doesn‘t adhere to these
standards sounds distinctly non-English because that is how language
functions.

53
 CHAPTER 8
PROSODIC AND SUPRASGEMENTAL PHONOLOGY

A. Prosodic
a. Definition prosodic
In phonetics, prosody (or suprasegmental phonology) istheuseofpitch,
volume, tempo, andrhythm in speech to convey information about the
structure and meaning ofutterances. Alternatively, in the study of
literature,prosody is the theory and principles of verse,especially as it relates
torhythm, accent and verse. In speech, unlike composition, there are no
periods or capitalletters, grammatical lways of emphasizingemphasis, as in
writing. Instead, speakers use prosody to addinflection and depthto statements
and arguments by varying stress, pitch, volume,andrhythm,which can then be
translated into writing to achievethesam eeffect. Furthermore, prosody, unlike
composition,does not relyonthe sentence as a basic unit, but often uses
fragments and spontaneous interruptions between theemphases ofthoughts
and ideas.This allows the language to be versatile depending on stress and
intonation.
in linguistics, prosody is also known as suprasegmental prosody or
phonology, which is about the way speech sounds are put together. This is
why some people call prosody "musical" language. Prosodic features are a set
of language features (also known as suprasegmental) that are used to convey
meaning and emphasis in spoken language (Cho, 2016)

b. Prosodic features
Prosodic feature are different types of categories (categories that distinguish
one linguistic unit from other linguistic units) which include tone, stress,
and emphasis:
1) Tone
From the perspective of acoustic phonetics, all sound is air vibration,
and the higher the frequency of the vibration (which is usually counted by

54
ticks), the higher the pitch. Headphones most easily pick up the notes of the
tongue, which are formed when a narrow groove forms between the vocal
cords, and the frequency of the air vibrations is determined by the
vibrational frequency of the vocal cords. the term tone is tone. One variation
of pitch that follows an entire sentence or part of a sentence is the intonation
(intonation) or melody of a song. You can easily hear that we don't use the
same tone when speaking; try saying a few phrases on the first notes of a
guitar or piano and you'll quickly hear how strange they sound. So, almost
every word in a sentence (and it's not uncommon for just one word) to be
pronounced in a different tone. It creates a song in a sentence: intonation. To
facilitate the analysis of intonation, phoneticians and phonologists use terms
such as: sound "high" (high), "low" (low), "medium" (attack); or high and
low separated only by numbers,
e.g. the numbers 1-4, as in music (but not the same as the spacing between notes in
music). For
example, the sentence Did you eat? Intonation can be analyzed as follows:
In other words, intonation starts at 4, drops to 1 at the beginning of the word
eat, and rises to 3 at the end of the sentence. Its exact height can only be
determined in a phonetic laboratory. But even without laboratory equipment,
we can obtain satisfactory analyzes, especially if we are musically gifted and
our ear is "sensitive" to low sounds.(Iosad, 2016)
2) Stress and Stress
Stress (stress in English) and accent (accent) are very difficult to
distinguish from one another. its attainment lies in its conditions, and it is also
seen in the facts determined by those conditions. Or in other words, the
difficulties are mostly terminological in nature ("terminology" = terminology)
and for some difficulties are factual, that is, they involve facts. Phoneticians
and phonologists have not solved the terminological problem. The English
term emphasis is often used as the name of an accent, so emphasis and accent
are the same thing. For example, the French rule that any last stressed syllable
of a word can also be expressed with an accent accent. Or, for example, in
English, there is a rule that the last syllable before the -ic or -ical ending must
be stressed, or another word says that the syllable must be stressed. So, for

55
 such symptoms, we decided to use the term accent instead of the term
emphasis in Indonesian: the term "accent" replaces the term "stress". Don't
confuse the meaning of the scientific term "accent" with the everyday
meaning of "accent", where "accent" often means "accent" or the
pronunciation according to a particular language or dialect. We use the term
"pressure" in the natural sciences as "amplitude" (from the Latin word
amplitude "width"). Amplitude is the "width" of the air vibrations. This is
clearly different from the frequency stated in the passport. (14) above. The
zero frequency height is proportional to the amplitude of each vibration. for
example if you move your hand in front of your chest from right to left and
back twice a second you can increase the "frequency" to "2" with an
"amplitude" of ten centimeters or an amplitude of 30 centimeters. Actually
the frequency up to 2 seconds is not audible. But you may hear a sound whose
pitch matches the frequency you're generating. If so, what is the amplitude of
the motion? The sound is louder when the amplitude is 30 inches, softer when
only ten inches. So the amplitude is thirty inches, finer than if it were only ten
inches. So this amplitude determines the loudness of the sound produced. It
is independent of frequency.(Cho, 2016).

B. Suprasegemental
a. The suprasegmental definition
Is something that accompanies the phoneme which can be in the form of
intonation, pitch, and sound vibrations that indicate certain emotions. Verhaar
(2010) explained that these suprasegmental sounds include intonation, tone,
accent and stress."Although the terms 'suprasegmental' and 'prosodic' largely
coincide in their scope and reference, it is nevertheless sometimes useful, and
desirable, to distinguish them. To begin with, the simple 'segmental' vs
'suprasegmental' dichotomy does justice to the richness of phonological structure
'above' the segment;... this structure is complex, involving many different
dimensions, and prosodic features cannot simply be seen as features
superimposed on the segment.More

56
importantly, a distinction can be made between 'suprasegmental' as a mode of description
in one hand
and 'prosodic' as a kind of feature on the other we can use the term
'suprasegmental' to refer to a particular formalization in which phonological
features can be analyzed in this way, whether prosodic or not."
The term 'prosodic, on the other hand, can be applied to certain features of
speech regardless of how they are formalized; In principle, prosodic
characteristics can be analyzed segmentally or suprasegmentally. To give a more
concrete example, in some features of the theoretical framework such as nasality
or sound can be treated suprasegmentally, as it has gone beyond the single
segment boundary. However, in the usage adopted here, the feature is not
prosodic, although it may be amenable to suprasegmental analysis."(Romportl &
Matoušek, 2005)
"Suprasegmental information is marked in speech by variations in duration,
tone, and amplitude (loudness). This kind of information helps listeners divide
signals into words, and can even directly influence lexical retrieval."

"In English, lexical stress serves to distinguish words from each other
another...for example,compare trusty and trustee. Not surprisingly, English
speakers noticing stress patterns during lexical access.'

"Suprasegmental information can also be used to identify the location of word

boundaries. In a language such as English or Dutch, monosyllable words differ
markedly in duration from polysyllabic words. For example, [hæm] in ham has a
longer duration than in hamsters. Investigation by Salverda, Dahan, and
McQueen (2003) demonstrated that this duration information is actively used by
listeners.
Suprasegmentals are elements that "accompany" and influence speech
sounds, and are not true sounds. and it is because it is not a true sound that the
suprasegmental element is named that way.
Suprasegmental elements are also called prosody. The easiest way to
understand suprasegmental elements is through an acoustic phonetic approach.

57
There are two acoustic properties that affect the suprasegmental elements, namely
frequency and amplitude.
These two elements are very influential in the suprasegmental element which
is very related. Verhaar (2010) explained that these suprasegmental sounds
include intonation,tone, accent and stress. In fact, the phonetic description of
suprasegmental sounds is only the basis for the phonemic description. However,
in many cases the phonetic and phonemic aspects are indistinguishable Whereas
Muslich (2010) explains that the sounds of language when spoken are can be
segmented, segmented, or separated, for example all sounds vocoid and kontoid.
Sounds that can be segmented are called segmental sounds.(Iosad, 2016)
But,there are also sounds that cannot be segmented because of the presence of
sound it always accompanies, overlies, or accompanies segmental sounds (both
vocoid and contoid).Because of its nature, the sound is called a suprasegmental
sound, instead of being called nonsegmental sounds. By phonetists, these
suprasegmental sounds are grouped into four types, namely those concerning the
aspects of sound pitch (pitch), loudness and softness (pressure), length and
shortness of sound (tempo), and silence .

 Suprasegmental
Vowels and consonants can be thought of as the segments of which speech is
composed. Together they form the syllables, which go to make up utterances.
Related to the syllables, there are other features known as suprasegmentals. In
other words, suprasegmental features are the aspects of speech that involve more
than single consonants or vowels.
These features are independent of the categories required for describing
segmental features (vowels and consonants), which involve, for examples, air
stream mechanism, states of the glottis, and so on.The components of
suprasegmental features consist of: stress, pitch, intonation, tone, tempo, and
cluster.
1. Stress

Stress is the rhythm of language. In pronunciation, stress can refer to a

word, part of a word, or even a word in a group of words that gets the most

58
 stress.
Stress is one of the suprasegmental features of speech. and This applies
not only to individual vowels and consonants but to all syllables. At the word
level, stressed syllables are pronounced using more energy than unstressed
syllables.(Beckman1993_The Interplay between Prosodic Structure and Co-
Articulation.Pdf, n.d.)
2. Picth

Based on the articulatory aspect, tone is influenced by the tension of the

vocal cords. If the vocal cords are stretched, the pitch of the voice will
increase.
Pitch refers more to the normal melodic height of a person's speech. It's like the
high or low level of someone's speech.
Usually we use tones as part of our signaling system. Although we use
many pitch levels in speaking, we only use four relative pitch levels as
phonemes. that is :
1 >> low
2 >> normal
3 >> height
4 >> ekstra high
In other words, the normal pitch of speech regardless of actual pitch is called
grade 2; and from here, we vary it up and down. The variations in tone that
we make in speaking will affect the intonation of our pronunciation.
3. Intonation

Intonation shows how the 'music' of a language rises and falls in a speech. In
other words, it can also be interpreted as fluctuations in a person's voice,
which are characterized as a downward or upward movement of sound or
sound in speech as a result of variations in pitch. So, sentence intonation is a
pattern of changes in tone that occurs.

59
4. Tone

Variations in tone that can affect the meaning of a tone. The meaning of
a word depends on the tone.
Tone shown or heard in how something is said. It's more like a stance than it
is a sound pattern. Emotions also have a lot of influence on a person's tone of
voice. By using different tones, the words in a sentence can have different
meanings.
5. Tempo

Speech tempo is the relative speed or slowness of utterances as measured

by the rate of change of syllables, number and pauses in a sentence.
In English, speakers try to make the amount of time to say something the same
between stressed syllables. If there are three or four unstressed syllables
among the stressed syllables, for example, the unstressed syllables will be
pronounced more quickly, allowing the speaker to keep up the rhythm. For
this reason, English is said to be a "language of stressed time".(Iosad, 2016)
6. Clusters

Cluster is when two consonants from different places of articulation are

then produced together in the same syllable.
Note: clusters are defined by
sounds, not letters of words.
Clusters can appear in early,
middle/medial, or late positions
words:
Initial clusters are usually formed by combining
various consonants with phonemes /s/, /r/, or /l/.
Example:
sleep ['sli:p], green ['gri:n], blue ['blu:]
The medial/middle group usually appears at the beginning of the second or
third syllable in polysyllabic words.(Cole & Shattuck-Hufnagel, 2011)
Example:
regret [ri'gret], apply [ә'plar], approve [e'pru:v]

60
The final cluster usually consists of various phonemes including /sk/,
/mp/, /ns/, /st/, and /nk/. Example:
desk ['desk], camp ['kæmp], mince ['mins], fast ['fa:st], bank ['bæŋk]. pause).(Fuchs
et al., 2016)

61
 CHAPTER 9
PHONOLOGICAL RULES

A. Definition Of Phonological Rules

According to (Obied, 2015) Phonological rules are a step in linguistic
communication, both in text and spoken form, and is a science that understands what
phonological rules are and why they exist. Phonological rules are considered as the
most important aspect of learning English. Besides that, phonological rules are a
formal way of expressing systematic phonological and morphological processes or
sound changes in a language. Phonological rules are used as notations to capture the
operations and sound calculations of the human brain when understanding and
producing spoken language.
To understand the rules of speech, we need to understand what phonemes are.
Phonological rules are the rules that govern how the voice changes during spoken
communication (whether written or spoken).

B. The Idea Behind of Phonological Rules

According to (Aissen, 1987) generative phonologis who study phonological rules
extensively start from the fundamental assumption that each speaker has in his head
a phychic filled with entries abstract in form phonological. The entries of these
abstract stores are the imagine underlies and are used intake to speech array. This
basic form then experiencing changes determined by the phonetic rule. The result of
this process is the phonetic imagine of the pronunciation. In the phonological rules
of the English language, there are many deletions, one of which is assimilation where
the phoneme can change one or two features.

C. Characteristic of Phonological Rules

A linguist mentions a few characteristics of phonological rules, including the following:
1. Language specificity : in every language, of course, it has its own phonological
rules that are not owned by other languages, even in dialects of other
languages.

62
2. Productivity : phonological rules apply to every word, even new words. for
example, when someone is asked to pronounce the plural form of "bag", then
that person pronounces "s" as [z] not [s].
3. Untaught and unconscious : one applies this rule without being aware of it,
then derives the rule without clear instruction.
4. Intuitive : The presence of phonological rules gives someone intuition about
how words are properly formed and acceptable. if someone who has
understood phonological rules, then hears a word that is not appropriate then
that word will sound foreign to him.
Types of Phonological Rules
5. Methathesis
A form of change in pronunciation of a word (lungustic phenomena and
transposition of sounds). this usually occurs in words or in syllables.
for example in the change of Old English and contemporary English

Old English Contemporary

English
Comfterble Comfortable
Asterix Asterisk
Reletor Realtor

6. Co-Articulation
Is how the order of vowels and consonants is regulated by the brain which
connects individual movements to become a unified whole. generally recognized
as a situation where sound pronunciation is conceptually isolated. co-articulation
has two types:
1) Anticipatory co-articulation, when sound characteristics are anticipated
(assumed) during sound production.
2) Carryover/perseverative co-articulation, the visible effect of sound on the
sound production(s) that follows.
In phonetic co-articulation refers to different phenomena, the assimilation of the
place of articulation in one sound and the production of the articulated

63
consonants.
7. Assimilation
That is, where one word has its features changed, that word will change to be
more similar to adjacent sounds. According to an excerpt from (Obied, 2015)
Hyman (1952:221-3), assimilation racing focuses on adaptive modified
fragments in adjacent chain fragments. Regarding the types of assimilation, a
scientist named Hyman suggested that other scientists clarify assimilation more
differently.
 Kinds of Assimilation
There are three kinds of assimilation, as follows :
a. Speech context assimilation. The effects that particular fragment by
choesing a specific type of that fragment.
b. phonemic assimilation is commonly referred to as "neutralization". It is
more systematic, there are free changes will not affect it. Produced by
phonemic assimilation i.e. the neutralization of the two phonemes.
According to an excerpt from (Obied, 2015) Dirven (2004:119), lemo allamasa
aes al massa emo

o loaoomlo rd eo aesaso ass et os as astemmas ass mosasos a ias

ems redssamaolo al as s looacasr l osol memo kemmen.
c. Morphology or morphophoneme assimilation affects the whole
morpheme. It usually determines allomorphs according to morpheme
rules. Instead, it's phonetic.
8. Segment of Deleting Rule
Delete or remove one or more phonemes from a word either vowels,
consonants or syllables. In another explanation, deletion is also known as elision.
where elision itself is a combination of several phonemes. In the sense that the
result of this elision process is articulation in one phoneme. As one example, that
is, in the word "handbag" in American English the pronunciation [d] is omitted.
According to an excerpt from (KE, 2016) Deletion, also called elision, is the
merger of a phoneme with another (Lass, 1998).
9. Dissimilation
Two words that have similar pronunciations, so that pronunciation is done

64
 that is able to distinguish the two words. This rule can be very easily understood
when someone who is still learning English says two words with similar
pronunciations, then it will seem difficult for him. For example in the words
"annual" and "annular", the two words have similar pronunciations. So it will be
difficult to tell the difference for people who don't understand this rule.

D. The function of phonological rules

Phonological rules have several functions, including:
1. Change the eigenvalues
2. Provide new features in English
3. Shorten the word
4. Give additional sentences, for example in the English plural form the basic
word will be added with "s/es"
5. Rearrange a word
6. Phonological rules give changes to all words, not individually
7. Describe what happens to a sound in a word

E. Conclusion
Phonological rules are considered as the most important aspect of learning
English. Besides that, phonological rules are a formal way of expressing systematic
phonological and morphological processes or sound changes in a language.
Phonological rules are used as notations to capture the operations and sound
calculations of the human brain when understanding and producing spoken language.
These rules are written in special symbols that encode how a phoneme or group of
phonemes is modified in appearance in a particular locale. In essence, phonetic rules
is the study of changes in a phoneme.

65
 CHAPTER 10
MORPHOPHONEMIC

A. Definition Morphophonrmic
Two of the key elements of a language system are word structure (morphology)
and sound structure (phonology). But frequently, these systems interact and have
intriguing effects on one another, giving rise to a phenomenon known as
"morphophonemics." Sometimes, as a result of this interaction, a morpheme's
pronunciation may shift slightly or entirely. These modifications may be frequent or
sporadic and are often context-sensitive. Within "morphophonemics" (Khan, 2019).
Morphophonemics is the investigation of the various components of phonology and
morphology that affect the way morphemes are pronounced and conversely, the
appearance of phonemes. Investigate the way that morphological and linguistic
processes interact and the effect of these processes on one another. Typically, the
morpheme boundaries are the locations of morphophonemic transience, which
involves sounds that are connected to different phonemes. (Khan, 2019).
The use of infinitives in English is a very obvious example of morphophoneme. The
indefinite article in English has two forms: a and an. The indefinite article appears as
"a" (mango or cat) when the word occurs after an initial consonant, but as "an" (apple
or idiot) if the consonant appears. (Khan, 2019).
The study of phonological variations within morphemes, which typically denote
different grammatical functions, is known as morphophonemics. Examples of these
variations include the vowel changes between "sleep" and "slept," "bind" and
"bound," "vain" and "vanity," and the consonant alternations between "knife" and
"knives," "loaf" and "loaves‖ (Khan, 2019).

 Phoneme: A Phoneme is the smallest component of speech that is capable of

meaning and is distinguished by its sound. Typically, phonemes are located
within slanted brackets. The English alphabet has 26 letters. However, 44 of the
26 letters represent phonemes. For example, the phoneme "_k" can be found in
words like "cut," "kite," " school," and "skin."

66
 Phone: A phone is a means of expressing oneself or the exterior form of
phonology. Square brackets [ ] are typically employed to write phone numbers.
In phrases like spat and spoon, the phoneme /p/ is demonstrated (pronounced) as
[p], whereas words like pin, pick, and poll are [ph].
 Morpheme: A minimum, or singular, unit of description is called a morpheme.
Because of their composition (free and bound), their content (zero and null), and
their functions (derivational and inflexional), morphemes can be categorized
into different classes.
 A morph is the external representation or shape of a morpheme in its
phonological environment. For example, various linguistic settings have plural
morphemes that are implemented as [s] (cats and bats),
[z] (dogs and calls), and [z] (judges and church).
Rules about morphophonemic constructs: A morphophonemic construction is
confined to a specific environmental area and is written as a rule of phonology.
Morphophonemic rules, unlike phonological rules, are dependent on the surrounding
environment. The rule is said to be morphophonemic when additional details are needed
to accurately describe the context of a linguistic rule.

B. Morphophonemic Rules
When morphemes interact, their influence on one another's sound structure (as
analyzed at a phonetic or phonemic level) is observed, and this results in different
pronunciations for the same morpheme. For example, Cats, dogs, and horses in
English are derived from the plural morpheme, which is "-s" or "-es." A purely
linguistic analysis would probably assign these three ending types the linguistic
representation. S, z, and tz.
(Definite, n.d.) A morphophonemic is considered to be one of the phonemic from
{s.z,tz }, the different varieties of this morphome are contingent on the last
segment of the morphome. The behavior of the English past tense ending "ed"
is similar. Example: Bonned, bobbed, and added.
The Fact About the Last Unit:
1. The suffix /-d/, which is present in English, has the qualities listed below:
2. Pronounce it as "-ed", even if not as written.
3. I it attaches to (most) verbs.
4. I it's at the top of its game.

67
 5. I it's used to describing actions that took place in the past. ―buzz‖ [b2z] ―buzzed‖
[b2zd]

1. “-sigh-” {saj} “-sighed-”

{sajd}
2. “-grab-” {gôæb]}“-
grabbed-” {gôæbd}
3. “-call-” {kAl} “-called-”
{kAld}
4. “fan” [fæn] “fanned”
[fænd]
5. “-save-” {sejv} “-saved-”
{sejvd}
Note: Morphophonemic Rules

As a result, it's obvious that the distribution of plural allomorphs in English is not
random, but is instead contingent on the phonological environment at the
appropriate boundary of the morpheme. Typically, the allomorph with the greatest
amount of Wisemen is considered the most appropriate candidate for underneath

representation. In this instance, /-z/ is eligible to become an allomorphic feature as it

occurs after the majority of voiced consonants and after all vowels. From allomorph/-
z/, other allomorphs/s/ and/әz/ have been derived. This entire procedure can be
understood via (a set of) rules called morphophonemic rules. (Khan, 2019).

You should
Allomorphs are variants with a unique set of grammatical
or lexical features. All allomorphs with the same set of
characteristics form a morpheme. A morpheme is a

C. PLURAL FORMATION
The plural of a word refers to more than one form of a person or thing. The noun

68
means judgment or mass, but the form is calculated by adding structure (neo-
constructivist view). According to (Mathieu, 2013) the addition of plural forms has a
very personal effect. After classifying the masses, the counting function is performed.
Define and assign a number that determines how many people there are in a given
context. In this sense, the complex number acts as a classifier and the two exist in
complementary distributions.

There are three different pronunciations of the usual plural noun endings. It can
also be divided into the following categories:
1. The plural -s ending is definitely /z/ after the articulation sound. That is, when
the noun ending is pronounced—if you can enjoy the perception of your
larynx vibrating at the end of the noun you're saying—it's /z/. Example:
Parent, Mother, Son, Daughter, Room, Dog, School, Day, Year, Life.
2. The plural -s ending must be /s/ after an unspoken sound. This means that
even if every noun ending is voiceless—when you don't like hearing your
throat vibrate at noun endings—say a /s/ sound. Example: book, desk, cat,
mug, group, student, boss, back view.
3. the plural ending -s is pronounced with an extra syllable - like "iz" - after
several different noun endings, both articulated and unvoiced:

1. After the ―s‘‘ sound : Classes ,glasses,

kisses,horses,places,sentences,faces,offices.
2. After the "z" sound: size, exercise, rose, noise, quiz
3. After the "sh" sound: pottery, bushes, wishes
4. After the "ch" sound: matches, sandwiches, clocks

69
D. PRESENT PARTICIPLE
Regarding opinion (Meltzer-Asscher, 2010) how is the state of word segmentation
now? Intuition is a
―verbal adjective‖ which is another name for the ―neutral category‖ it is associated with.
Now Present Participles imply proof that participles exist both in determinations like
(1) where they denote an event,, i.e. the same as a verb, and in sentences like (2)
where they denote a separate property, e.g. Adjectives: (1), usually equated with -ing
and following other verbs, indicate an ongoing activity. It is used to establish power
continuity.
1. The Children watching Television
2. Jen saw John teasing the children.
3. The weather is getting colder and colder.

No Verb 1 Verb
3/Present
Participle
1. Shock Shocking
2. Convince Convincing
3. Confuse Confusing
4. Frighten Frightening
5. Surprise Surprising

Note : present participle

syntactic facts about the present participle, a brief note regarding its morphology is
in order. As you know, in English, present participles are forms that end in -ing. In
Hebrew, the present participle appears with a same morphological form to a verb a
verb in using one of the five non-passive verbal templates in the present tense the
present tense, in one of the five non-passive verbal templates from languages
However it should be noted that regardless of their morphological identity in present
tense verb forms, present participles as in ( are not inflected for tense, as in English.
Contains a word to incorporate morphological operations along with syntactic and
semantic processes like category change and change.

70
With its status as a verb which is always the verb –ing, maybe we will be confused,
what is the difference between the present participle and the gerund in the previous
verb material?
The function of the gerund is as a noun or a nounized verb, while the main function
of the present participle can be either a verb or an adjective. To prove the function of
a verb, the present participle generally appears after "to be", regardless of the tenses.
Examples are "is talking", "is daydreaming", "was chatting", and others. Meanwhile,
to prove the function of an adjective, the present participle generally appears without
"to be", such as "the guy sitting", "the train approaching", and so on. There are several
cases of the present participle as an adjective function that is placed before a noun,
such as "sleeping bag", "drawing pen", and others.
An explanation of the present participle material for example the following sentences:
1. She is talking with her friends now.
Explanation: In this example sentence, "talking" (from the origin of verb 1 "talk")
is done by "she" (he, subject) is a present participle that functions as a verb by having
"to be" before it. "To be" itself is in the form of verb 1, namely "is"
2. The guy sitting at the backseat is my brother.
Explanation: This example sentence has the same noun as its subject, namely "the
guy". Meanwhile, the present participle that functions as an adjective without "to be"
is "sitting" (sit, from the origin of verb 1 "sit").
3. They have slept inside that large-sized sleeping bag.
Explanation: The presence of "sleeping" (sleep, from the origin of the verb 1
"sleep") in the example sentence with the subject "they" (they) illustrates the function
of the present participle as an adjective that is placed before a noun. The noun in this
example sentence is "bag".

E. PAST PARTICIPLE
In standard Italian, the past participle deals with the internal arguments of subject
positions (in the non- accusative, passive, and intermediate clauses), through
reflexive constructions opinions (Scheer, 2019) by advancing the antecedents with
meditation) and prepositions.
A past participle is a word that has the following three properties: Consists of a verb.

71
 Used as an adjective or to form a verb.
 May end with -ed”,-d”,-t”,-en”,-or”,-n”.
As a verb, the past participle always follows the form to have (have, have, or
have). In this way, if the particle is placed before the verb, the tense can be used to
denote the verb. Apart from that, some common verbs are usually used in everyday
conversation.
Example 1: Example 2:

NO Verb1 Verb 2/ past participle

1. Swallow Swallowed
2. Jump Jumped
3. Relax Relaxed
4. Depress Depressed
5. Charm Charmed

NO Verb 1 Verb 2 / Irregular verb

1. Arise Arisen
2. catch Caught
3. Chosen Chosen
4. Know Known

72
 REFERENCES

Aissen, J. L. (1987). Phonological Rules. 275–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-

3741-3_14
Barlow, J. A., & Gierut, J. A. (2022). Minimal pair approaches to phonological
remediation. Seminars in Speech and Language. 23(1) ., 57–67.
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2002-24969
Beckman1993_The Interplay between prosodic structure and co-articulation.pdf. (n.d.).
Cho, T. (2016). Prosodic Boundary Strengthening in the Phonetics-Prosody
Interface. Language and Linguistics Compass, 10(3), 120–141.
https://doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12178
Cole, J., & Shattuck-Hufnagel, S. (2011). The phonology and phonetics of perceived
prosody: What do listeners imitate? Proceedings of the Annual Conference of
the International Speech Communication Association, INTERSPEECH, 969–
972. https://doi.org/10.21437/interspeech.2011-395
Definite, S. (n.d.). The Basics of Morphological Analysis The following readings
have been posted to the Moodle Contemporary Linguistics :
Morphophonemics Appendix.
Demirezen, M. (2020). Long vowels versus diphthongs in North American English:
Which one is easy to recognize and hear? conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution lice. International Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 12(1),
289–309. https://www.google.com.tr/search?q=
Durand, J. (2005). Tense/Lax, the Vowel System of English and Phonological
Theory. January 2005, 77– 97. https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.259.08dur
English Consonant. (n.d.). https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/consonant
Fuchs, S., Pape, D., Perrier, P., & Weirich, M. (2016). Prosodic planning in speech
production. Speech Planning and Dynamics, 157–190.
https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-01438-9/8

Greenbeger American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, JANUARY, 1883, Vol28No.
1(JANUARY1883)pp1-14 Published by: Gallaudet University Press

Iosad, P. (2016). Prosodic structure and suprasegmental features: Short-vowel stød

73
 in Danish. In Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics (Vol. 19, Issue 3).
Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10828-016-9083-8
40. KE, M. (2016). No Title 741 o: ‫ مس قط‬،‫ س لطنة عمان‬،‫ معهد اإلدارة العام ة‬،‫ جلة اإ لداري‬.‫(مقياس مقترح لتقييم جودة‬March),1–
Khan, T. (2019). UGC MHRD ePG
Pathshala. February. Ladefoged, P.
(2006). A Course in Phonetics (5th ed.).
Thomson.
Linguistic, S. (n.d.). Phonology- Phone , phoneme , allophones , Morpho-phonetics.
Mathieu, É. (2013). On the plural of the singulative. McGill Working Papers in
Linguistics, 2005, 1–12. McMahon, A. (2002). An Introduction to English
Phonology. Scottish capital: Edinburgh University Press. Meltzer-Asscher, A.
(2010). Present participles: Categorial classification and derivation. Lingua,
120(9),
2211–2239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2010.03.002
Nordquist, R. (2019). Basic Grammar: What Is a
Diphthong? 2019.
https://www.thoughtco.com/diphthong-phonetics-term-1690456
Nordquist, R. (2020). free variation in phonetics. https://www-thoughtco-
com.translate.goog/free- variation-phonetics-
1690780?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=id&_x_tr_pto=tc

Obied, I. M. (2015). Phonological Rules 1- What are Phonological Rules ?

ResearchGate, December.

https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2516.7448
Phonetic Articulation Describing Consonant. (n.d.).
Phonetics Course : What is Linguistics, What is Phonetics,Why do we need it, What
are the Phonetics Branches, IPA, Consonans, and Vowls. (2018). SlideShare.
https://literaryenglish.com/place-of- articulation-articulatory-gestures/
Place of Articulation: Definition, Chart & Example. (2023). Studysmarter.
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english/phonetics/place-of-
articulation/
Port. (2007). The graphical basis of phones and phonemes. (pp. 349–365).
https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.17.29por

74
Roach, PeterEnglish Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical
Course.CambridgeCambridge University Press2009
Romportl, J., & Matoušek, J. (2005). Formal prosodic structures and their
application in NLP. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries
Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics),
3658 LNAI, 371–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/11551874_48
Sastra. (n.d.). https://ojs.unud.ac.id/index.php/sastra/article/download/34492/20807/
Sethi, J.and P.VDhamijaA Course in Phonetics and Spoken EnglishNew Delhi:Prentice
Hall of India Private Limited2006

Scheer, T. (2019). Remarks and replies. Linguistic

Inquiry, 50(1), 197–218.
https://doi.org/10.1162/ling_a_00303

Tripathi P.C(2005)., "A text book of Research Methodology", educational

publishers` Delhi, 2005.

Wiese, R. (2012). The phonology of /r/*. In Distinctive Feature

Theory. January Issues.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110886672.335
Yoshida, M. (2014). The Vowels of American English. University of California: Irvine, 1–
15.

75