CENTRAL QUESTIONS OF

COMPUTER SCIENCE

Which problems can be solved by algorithmic processes?

How can algorithm discovery be made easier?
How can techniques of representing and communicating
algorithms be improved?
How can characteristics of different algorithms be
analyzed and compared?

0-47
CENTRAL QUESTIONS OF
COMPUTER SCIENCE (CONT’)

How can algorithms be used to manipulate information?

How can algorithms be applied to produce intelligent
behavior?
How does the application of algorithms affect society?

0-48
THE CENTRAL ROLE OF ALGORITHMS
IN COMPUTER SCIENCE

0-49
WHAT IS COMPUTER SCIENCE?
The study of algorithms: TERMINOLOGY
• their formal properties
• correctness, limits • Algorithm: A set of steps
that defines how a task is
• efficiency/cost performed
• their hardware realizations • Program: A representation
of an algorithm
• computer design
• Programming: The process
• their linguistic realizations of developing a program
• programming languages • Software: Programs and
algorithms
• their applications
• Hardware: Equipment
• network design, ocean modeling,
bioinformatics, ...
 WHAT IS AN ALGORITHM?
… a well-defined procedure that allows an agent to solve a problem.

Note: often the agent is a computer or a robot…

Example algorithms:

Cooking a dish
Making a peanut-butter jelly sandwich
Shampooing hair
Making a pie
EXAMPLE

Is this an algorithm?

Step 1: Wet hair

Step 2: Lather
Step 3: Rinse
Step 4: Repeat

Would you manage to wash your hair with this

algorithm? How about a robot? Why (not)?
ALGORITHMS

An algorithm must:

1. Be well-ordered and unambiguous

2. Each operation must be effectively computable
3. Terminate
EXAMPLE

Problem: Find and print the 100th prime number

• A prime number is a whole number not evenly divisible by any other number other
than 1 and itself
TYPES OF OPERATIONS
Basic operations
• Wet hair
• Rinse

Conditional operations
• If batter is too dry, add water

Repeat/looping operations
• Repeat step 1 and 2 three times
• Repeat steps 2,3,4,…10 until batter becomes soft.
EXPRESSING ALGORITHMS
Is natural language good?
• For daily life, yes…but for CS is lacks structure and would be
hard to follow
• Too rich, ambiguous, depends on context

How about a programming language?

• Good, but not when we try to solve a problem
• …we want to think at an abstract level
• It shifts the emphasis from how to solve the problem to
tedious details of syntax and grammar.
PSEUDOCODE

Pseudocode = English but looks like programming

Good compromise
• Simple, readable, no rules, don’t worry about punctuation.

• Let’s you think at an abstract level about the problem.

• Contains only instructions that have a well-defined structure

and resemble programming languages
PSEUDOCODE
Basic (primitive) operations
• Read the input from user
• Print the output to the user
• Cary out basic arithmetical computations

Conditional operations
• Execute an operation if a condition is true

Repeat operations
• Execute a block of operation multiple times until a certain
condition is met
A MODEL FOR VISUALIZING AN
ALGORITHM
Algorithm

Variables

Operations

An algorithm consists of operations that involve variables

VARIABLES
Variable
• A named memory location that can store a value
• Think of it as a box into which you can store a value, and from which
you can retrieve a value

Examples:
i M

Example of operations
Set the value of i to 3
Set the value of M to i*3 + 12
Set the value of i to i+10
PRIMITIVE OPERATIONS
Get input from user
• Get the value of x from user

Assign values to variables using basic arithmetic operations

• Set the value of x to 3

• Set the value of y to x/10
• Set the value of z to x +25

Print output to user

• Print the value of y, z to the user
EXAMPLE 1

Problem: For any three numbers input by the user,

compute their sum and average and output them

Example of algorithm in pseudocode:

EXAMPLE 2

Problem: Given any value of radius from the user, compute and
print the circumference of a circle with that radius

Algorithm in pseudocode:
 START

Display message “How

WHAT IS A FLOWCHART? many hours did you

work?”

Read Hours

Display message “How

A flowchart is a diagram that

much do you get paid
per hour?”

depicts the “flow” of a program.

Read Pay Rate

Multiply Hours by Pay

The figure shown here is a flowchart Rate. Store result in
Gross Pay.
for the pay-calculating program.
Display Gross Pay

END
 Rounded
START Rectangle

Display

BASIC FLOWCHART SYMBOLS message “How

many hours did
you work?”

Read Hours

Display

Notice there are three types of symbols in this message “How

much do you Parallelogram
get paid per
flowchart: hour?”

• rounded rectangles Read Pay Rate

• parallelograms Multiply
Hours by Pay
Rectangle Rate. Store
• a rectangle result in
Gross Pay.

Each symbol represents a different type of Display Gross

operation. Rounded Pay
Rectangle
END
 START Terminal

Display

BASIC FLOWCHART SYMBOLS

message “How
many hours did
you work?”

Read Hours

Display message “How

Terminals much do you get paid per
hour?”

• represented by rounded rectangles

• indicate a starting or ending point Read Pay Rate

Multiply Hours
by Pay Rate.
START Store result in
Gross Pay.

Display Gross
Pay
END Terminal
END
 START

Display

BASIC FLOWCHART SYMBOLS

message “How
many hours did
you work?”

Read Hours

Display message

Input/Output Operations “How much do you

get paid per
Input/Output
Operation
hour?”

• represented by parallelograms
Read Pay Rate
• indicate an input or output operation
Multiply Hours by
Pay Rate. Store
Display result in Gross
Pay.
message “How
Read Hours
many hours Display Gross
Pay
did you work?”
END
 START

Display

BASIC FLOWCHART SYMBOLS

message “How
many hours did
you work?”

Read Hours

Display message

Processes “How much do

you get paid per
hour?”

• represented by rectangles
Read Pay Rate
• indicates a process such as a
mathematical computation or variable Multiply Hours
by Pay Rate.
assignment Process Store result in
Gross Pay.

Multiply Hours
Display Gross
by Pay Rate. Pay

Store result in
END
Gross Pay.
 START

Stepping Through Display

message “How
Output
Operation

the Flowchart
many hours did
you work?”

Read Hours

Display message
“How much do
How many you get paid per
hour?”
hours did
you work?
Read Pay Rate

Multiply Hours
by Pay Rate.
Store result in
Gross Pay.

Variable Contents:
Hours: ? Display Gross
Pay
Pay Rate: ?
Gross Pay: ? END
 START

Stepping Through Display

message “How
many hours did

the Flowchart you work?”

Input Read Hours

Operation
How many
hours did (User types Display message

you work? 40) “How much do

you get paid per
40 hour?”

Read Pay Rate

Multiply Hours
by Pay Rate.
Store result in
Gross Pay.

Variable Contents: Display Gross

Hours: 40 Pay

Pay Rate: ?
END
Gross Pay: ?
 START

Stepping Through Display

message “How
many hours did

the Flowchart you work?”

Read Hours

How much do
you get paid Display message
“How much do
per hour? Output you get paid per
Operation hour?”

Read Pay Rate

Multiply Hours by
Pay Rate. Store
result in Gross
Variable Contents: Pay.

Hours: 40
Display Gross
Pay Rate: ? Pay
Gross Pay: ?
END
 START

Stepping Through Display

message “How
many hours did

the Flowchart you work?”

Read Hours

How much do
Display
you get paid message “How
per hour? much do you
get paid per
20 hour?”

Input Read Pay Rate

Operation
(User types Multiply Hours by
20) Pay Rate. Store
result in Gross
Pay.
Variable Contents:
Hours: 40 Display Gross
Pay
Pay Rate: 20
Gross Pay: ?
END
 START

Stepping Through Display

message “How
many hours did

the Flowchart you work?”

Read Hours

How much
do you get Display message
“How much do
paid per you get paid per
hour? hour?”

Read Pay Rate

Multiply Hours
Process: The by Pay Rate.
Store result in
product of 40
Gross Pay.
times 20 is
Variable Contents: stored in
Hours: 40 Gross Pay Display Gross
Pay
Pay Rate: 20
Gross Pay: 800 END
 START

Stepping Through Display

message “How
many hours did

the Flowchart you work?”

Read Hours

Your gross Display message

pay is 800 “How much do
you get paid per
hour?”

Read Pay Rate

Multiply Hours
by Pay Rate.
Store result in
Gross Pay.
Variable Contents:
Hours: 40 Output Display Gross
Pay Rate: 20 Operation Pay

Gross Pay: 800

END
FOUR FLOWCHART
STRUCTURES

Sequence
Decision
Repetition
Case
SEQUENCE STRUCTURE

a series of actions are performed

in sequence

The pay-calculating example

was a sequence flowchart.
DECISION STRUCTURE

One of two possible actions is taken,

depending on a condition.
DECISION STRUCTURE

A new symbol, the diamond,

indicates a yes/no question. NO YES
If the answer is yes, the flow
follows one path.
If the answer is no, the flow
follows another path.
DECISION STRUCTURE

In the flowchart segment

below, the question is asked:
“is x < y?” NO YES
x < y?

If the answer is no, then

process A is performed. Process Process
A B

If the answer is yes, then

process B is performed.
DECISION STRUCTURE
C++ Code

if (x < y)
The flowchart segment a = x * 2;
below shows how a Flowchart
else
decision structure is
a = x + y;
expressed in C++ as an
NO YES
if/else statement. x < y?

Calculate a Calculate a
as x plus y. as x times 2.
DECISION STRUCTURE
C++ Code

if (x < y)
The flowchart segment Flowchart
a = x * 2;
below shows a decision
structure with only one
NO YES
action to perform. x < y?

It is expressed as an if Calculate a
statement in C++ code. as x times 2.
REPETITION STRUCTURE

A repetition structure represents part of the

program that repeats. This type of structure is
commonly known as a loop.
REPETITION STRUCTURE

Notice the use of the diamond

symbol. A loop tests a condition,
and if the condition exists, it
performs an action. Then it tests
the condition again.
If the condition still exists, the
action is repeated.
This continues until the condition
no longer exists.
REPETITION STRUCTURE

In the flowchart segment, the question

“is x < y?” is asked.
YES
If the answer is yes, then Process A is x < y? Process A
performed.
The question “is x < y?” is asked again.
Process A is repeated as long as x is less
than y.

When x is no longer less than y, the

repetition stops and the structure is
exited.
REPETITION STRUCTURE

In the flowchart segment, the question

“is x < y?” is asked.
YES
If the answer is yes, then Process A is x < y? Process A
performed.
The question “is x < y?” is asked again.
Process A is repeated as long as x is less
than y.

When x is no longer less than y, the

repetition stops and the structure is
exited.
REPETITION STRUCTURE

The flowchart segment below shows a repetition

structure expressed in C++ as a while loop.

Flowchart C++ Code

while (x < y)

YES x++;
x < y? Add 1 to x
 CONTROLLING A REPETITION
STRUCTURE

The action performed by a repetition structure

must eventually cause the loop to terminate.
Otherwise, an infinite loop is created.
In this flowchart segment, x is never changed.
Once the loop starts, it will never end. YES
x < y? Display x

QUESTION: How can this flowchart be

modified so it is no longer an infinite loop?
A PRE-TEST REPETITION
STRUCTURE

This type of structure is known as a pre-test

repetition structure. The condition is tested
BEFORE any actions are performed.

YES
x < y? Display x Add 1 to x
A PRE-TEST REPETITION
STRUCTURE

In a pre-test repetition structure, if the condition

does not exist, the loop will never begin.

YES
x < y? Display x Add 1 to x
A POST-TEST REPETITION
STRUCTURE

Display x
This flowchart segment shows a post-test
repetition structure.
The condition is tested AFTER the actions Add 1 to
are performed. x

A post-test repetition structure always YES

performs its actions at least once. x < y?
A POST-TEST REPETITION
STRUCTURE

The
flowchart
segment C++ Code
Display x
below shows do
a post-test {
repetition Flowchart cout << x << endl;
Add 1 to x++;
structure x } while (x < y);
expressed in
C++ as a do- YES
x < y?
while loop.
CASE STRUCTURE

One of several possible

actions is taken,
depending on the
contents of a variable.
CASE STRUCTURE

The structure below

indicates actions to perform
depending on the value in CASE
years_employed
years_employed.
1 2 3 Other

bonus = bonus = bonus = bonus =

100 200 400 800
CASE STRUCTURE

If years_employed = If years_employed =
2, bonus is set to 200 3, bonus is set to 400
If years_employed = If years_employed is
CASE
1, bonus is set to 100 years_employed any other value,
bonus is set to 800

1 2 3 Other

bonus = bonus = bonus = bonus =

100 200 400 800
COMBINING STRUCTURES

Structures are commonly combined to create more

complex algorithms.
The flowchart segment below combines a decision
structure with a sequence structure.

YES
x < y? Display x Add 1 to x
COMBINING STRUCTURES

This flowchart segment

NO YES
shows two decision x > min?
structures combined.

Display “x is NO YES
outside the limits.”
x < max?

Display “x is Display “x is
outside the limits.” within limits.”
 SUMMARY

1) Flowchart 2) Pseudocode
Start/End Begin/End (not necessary)
Input/Output Read/Print : read x,y
Process [An equation] : x=y+6
Comput: compute x as y+6
Decision If/ if-else / While
Predefined process [function_name()]: average(x,y)
Line Not Applicable
Connector Not Applicable
HOMEWORK

Problem: Given two positive integers, compute their

greatest common divisor