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Programme title BTEC Higher National Diploma in Computing

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Unit 18 : Discrete Mathematics
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Discrete mathematics in software engineering concepts
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Higher Nationals - Summative Assignment Feedback Form
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Unit Title Unit 18 : Discrete Mathematics

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 Assessor Feedback:

LO1 Examine set theory and functions applicable to software engineering.

Pass, Merit & Distinction P1 P2 M1 D1

Descripts

LO2 Analyse mathematical structures of objects using graph theory.

Pass, Merit & Distinction P3 P4 M2 D2

Descripts

LO3 Investigate solutions to problem situations using the application of Boolean algebra.
Pass, Merit & Distinction P5 P6 M3 D3
Descripts

LO4 Explore applicable concepts within abstract algebra.

Pass, Merit & Distinction P7 P8 M4 D4
Descripts

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Pearson
Higher Nationals in
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 Computing
Unit 18 : Discrete Mathematics

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Unit Number and Title Unit 18 :Discrete Mathematics

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Unit Tutor

Assignment Title Discrete mathematics in Computing

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Unit Learning Outcomes:

LO1 Examine set theory and functions applicable to software engineering.

LO2 Analyse mathematical structures of objects using graph theory.

LO3 Investigate solutions to problem situations using the application of Boolean algebra.

LO4 Explore applicable concepts within abstract algebra.

Assignment Brief and Guidance:

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 Table of Contents
Acknowledgement.....................................................................................................................................................13
Activity 01.................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Part 1.............................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Part 2.............................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Part 3.............................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Part 4.............................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Activity 02.................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Part 1.............................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Part 2.............................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Part 3.............................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Part 4.............................................................................................................................................................................. 34
Activity 03.................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Part 1.............................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Part 2.............................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Part 3.............................................................................................................................................................................. 38
Part 4.............................................................................................................................................................................. 39
Activity 04.................................................................................................................................................................43
Part 1.............................................................................................................................................................................. 43
Part 2.............................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Part 3.............................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Part 4.............................................................................................................................................................................. 50
References.......................................................................................................................................................................... 54

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Table of Figures
Figure 1 Binary classification tree..........................................................................................................................24
Figure 2 Binary regression tree.............................................................................................................................25
Figure 3.................................................................................................................................................................27
Figure 4.................................................................................................................................................................28
Figure 5.................................................................................................................................................................29
Figure 6.................................................................................................................................................................30
Figure 7.................................................................................................................................................................30
Figure 8.................................................................................................................................................................31
Figure 9.................................................................................................................................................................31
Figure 10...............................................................................................................................................................32
Figure 11...............................................................................................................................................................38
Figure 12...............................................................................................................................................................38
Figure 13...............................................................................................................................................................39
Figure 14...............................................................................................................................................................39
Figure 15...............................................................................................................................................................40
Figure 16...............................................................................................................................................................40
Figure 17 Group Theory........................................................................................................................................48
Figure 18 Page 1....................................................................................................................................................48
Figure 19 Page 2....................................................................................................................................................49
Figure 20 Page 3....................................................................................................................................................49
Figure 21 Page 4....................................................................................................................................................50
Figure 22 Page 5....................................................................................................................................................50
Figure 23 Page 6....................................................................................................................................................51

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List of Tables
Table 1................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Table 2................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Table 3................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Table 4................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Table 5................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Table 6................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Table 7................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Table 8................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Table 9..................................................................................................................................................................43
Table 10................................................................................................................................................................43
Table 11................................................................................................................................................................43
Table 12.................................................................................................................................................................43

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Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Esoft for giving me opportunity to apply information. I picked up within the
address sessions to genuine life. With such a superb environment to memorize and make my
assignments. I am blessed that I am provided with addresses with master aptitude and information
within the subjects and their direction, cautious observing throughout the task were incredible. At
last how vitally, I thank my lecture lecture name for his direction and supervision as well as giving
fundamental information and continuous help to complete the assignment successfully.

Thank You.

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Activity 01
Part 1

1. Perform algebraic set operations in the following formulated mathematical problems.

i. Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets. If cardinalities of the sets A, B, and A ∩B are 72, 28 and 13
respectively, find the cardinality of the set A ∪B .

n(A) = 72
n(B) = 28
n(A∩B) = 13

n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A∩B)

n(A∪B) = 72 + 28 - 13
n(A∪B) = 87

ii. If n( A−B )=45, n( A ∪B )=110 and n( A ∩B )=15, then find n(B).

n(A-B) = 45
n(A∪B) = 110
n(A∩B) = 15
n(A-B) = n(A) - n(B)
45= n(A) - n(B)
n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A∩B)
110 = n(A) + n(B) – 15
110 + 15 = n(A) + n(B)
125 = n(A) + n(B)
125 - 45 = n(B) - [n(B)]
80 = n(B) + n(B)
80 = 2n(B)
80÷2 = n(B)
n(B) = 40

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iii. If n(A)=33, n(B)=36 and n(C)=28, find n( A ∪B ∪C ).

A →10+ 5+a+ b=33

a+ b=33−15
st
a+ b=18 → 1 equation

B→ 15+5+ a+c=36
a+ c=36−20
nd
a+ c=16 → 2 equation

C → 5+13+b+ c=28
b+ c=28−18
rd
b+ c=10 →3 equation

nd rd
2 equation−3 equation
( a+ 8 )−( b−c ) =16−10
th
a−b=6 → 4 equation

st th
1 equation+ 4 equation
( a+ b ) + ( a−b )=18+6
2 a=24
a=12

1st equation ( a=12 )

12+b=18
b=6

nd
2 equation ( a=12 )
12+c=16
c=4

n ( A ∪ B∪ C )=10+ 5+6+12+15+ 4+13

¿ 65
Part 2

1. Write the multisets (bags) of prime factors of given numbers.

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i.160

2 160
2 80
2 40
2 20
2 10
5 5
1

160=[2 ,2 , 2 ,2 , 2 ,5 ]

ii.120

2 120
2 60
2 30
3 15
5 5
1
120=[2 ,2 , 2 ,3 , 5]

iii. 250

2 250
5 125
5 25
5 5
1

250=[2 ,5 , 5 , 5]

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2. Write the multiplicities of each element of multisets (bags) in Part 2-1(i,ii,iii) separately.

Multiplicity of an element (µ)

Number of occurrences of an element in the multiset

160 = [2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 5]
µ(2) = 5
µ(5) = 1

120 = [2, 2, 2, 3, 5]
µ(2) = 3
µ(3) = 1
µ(5) = 1

250 = [2, 5, 5, 5]
µ(2) = 1
µ(5) = 3

3. Determine the cardinalities of each multiset (bag) in Part 2-1(i,ii,iii).

1. n ( 1 )=μ1 ( 2 ) + μ1 (5 )
¿ 5+1
n(160) ¿ 6

2. n ( 2 )=μ 2 ( 2 ) + μ2 ( 3 ) + μ A ( 5 )
¿ 3+1+1
n(120) ¿ 5

3. n ( 3 ) =μ 3 ( 2 ) + μ3 ( 5 )
1+3
n(250) ¿ 4

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 Part 3

1. Determine whether the following functions are invertible or not and if a function is
 
invertible, then find the rule of the inverse f x using appropriate mathematical
1

technique.


i f:   

 2
f (x)  x

f is invertible if and only if f is one to one correspondence

Between 1R and 1𝑅
(i.e.: f is 1-1 and onto)

Step 1:

Check whether f is 1 to 1
Let’s x1, x2 ∈ 1R (domain) and f(x1), f(x2) ∈ 1R(codomain)
(y1), (y2)

f(x1) = f(x2)
x1 2 = x2 2
(x1 2 - x2 2 ) = 0
(x1 - x2) (x1 + x2) = 0 (x1 - x2) = 0 or (x1 + x2) = 0
i.e. x1 = x2 or x1 = (-x2)
x1 , x2 ∈1R and x2 ≠ (-x2)

Therefore, f ( x )=f (x ¿¿ 2)→ x 1=x 2∨x 1=(−x 2 )¿

Therefore, f is not 1−1→(i)
( 1 )∧ (i ) ,

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 1. f is not one to one correspondence between 1R and 1𝑅 + due to that f is not invertible

1
2. f ( x )=
x
f(x) = 1 𝑥

𝑅 + and 1𝑅 +
between 1

1st Step
ˇ
whether f is1−1
(Domain) x 1 , x 2 ,∈ IR

(Range) f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 ) ∈ IR+¿ ¿
f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 )
1 1
=
x1 x 2
1 1
− =0
x1 x 2
x 2−x 1=0
Therefore x 2=x 1
Therefore f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 ) → x 2=x 1
If f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 ), then x 2=x 1
Therefore, f ( x ) is1−1→ ( i )

2nd Step
ˇ
whether f is onto ,
1
f ( x )=
x
1
y=
x

1
y=
( )
1
y

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 ( Range ) ∀ y ∈ R
+¿ ( Domain ) ∃ ( 1y )∈ R +¿ ¿
¿

Such that f ( 1y )= y
Therefore , f is onto → ( ii )

( 1 ) , (i ) , ( ii ) ,
f is invertible ,

3rd Step
Inverse function.
1 1 1 1 1
f ( x )= y= = x=
x x y x y
−1 1 + ¿¿

f ( x )= : f −1 ( x ) : IR+ ¿→ IR ¿
x

iii. f: 1𝑅 + 1𝑅 +
f(x) = x2
between 1𝑅 + and 1𝑅 +

Step 1:
Check whether f is 1 – 1
Let’s x1, x2 ∈ 1𝑅 + (domain) and f(x1), f(x2) ∈ 1𝑅 +(Codomain)
(y1), (y2)

f(x1) = f(x2)
x1 2 = x2 2
(x1 2 - x2 2 ) = 0
(x1 - x2) (x1 + x2) = 0
(x1 - x2) = 0 or (x1 + x2) = 0
Since x2 ∈ 1𝑅 + and (-x2) ∉ 1𝑅 +
Therefore, (-x2) ∈ codomain
Therefore, f is 1 – 1

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 2nd Step
ˇ
whether f is onto
2
f ( x )=x
2
y¿x
1 1
y =( y )
2 2 2

1
x= y 2

( Range ) ∀ y ∈ R
+¿ ( Domain ) ∃ ( 1y )∈ R +¿ ¿
¿

( )
1
Such that if f y 2 = y

Therefore, f is onto → ( ii )
Therefore, ( 1 ) , (i ) , ( ii )
f is invertible

3rd Step
Inverse the function of f
2
f ( x )=x
2
y=x
1 1
y =( x )
2 2 2

1 /2
x= y
−1
f ¿

iv. f ( x )=sin x

f: ( −π2 , π2 ) → ( 1, 1)
1st Step
Check whether f is 1 – 1
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 (Domain) x1 , x2 ∈
[ −π π
,
2 2 ]
(Range) f (x ¿¿ 1), f ( x 2 ) ∈ [−1 , 1]¿
f (x ¿¿ 1)=f (x ¿¿ 2)¿ ¿
sin x 1=sin x 2
x 1=x 2
Therefore, f (x ¿¿ 1)=f ( x 2 ) → x 1=x 2 ¿
Therefore, f is 1−1 ← (i )

2nd Step
ˇ
whether f is onto ,
f ( x )=sin x
y=sin x
−1
y=sin(¿ sin y )¿
If f ( si n−1 y )= y
So, f is onto → ( ii )
So,( 1 ) , (i ) , ( ii ) ,
f is invertible

3rd Step
Inverse function
f ( x )=sin x
y=sin x
−1
sin ( y)=x
−1
x=sin y
−1
f ( x )=sin−1 x

f −1 ( x )= [−1 , 1 ] →
[ −π π
,
2 2 ]
V. f: [0, π] = [-2, 2]
f(x) = 2 cos x
Between and [0, π] and [-2, 2]

Step 1:

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 Check whether f is 1 – 1
Let’s x1, x2 ∈ [0, π] (domain) and f(x1), f(x2) ∈ [-2, 2] (Codomain)
(y1), (y2)

f(x1) = f(x2)
2cos x1 = 2cos x2
2cos x1 = cos x2
x1 = x2
Therefore, f is 1 – 1
Step 2:
Check whether f is onto
For every y ∈ [-2, 2]

(Codomain), ∋ [cos-1 ( )] ∈ [
y −π π y y
, ] (domain) such that f [cos-1 ( )] = y so y is the image of (cos1 )
2 2 2 2 2
y
i.e. x = (cos-1 )
2
Therefore, f is onto

−π π
Therefore, f is one to one correspondence between [ , ] and [-2, 2] Due to that f is invertible
2 2
Step 3:
Inverse function of f
f(x) = 2cos x
y = 2cos x
y
cos x =
2
y
x = cos-1 ( )
2
y
f1 (x) = cos-1 ( )
2
i.e. Inverse of f:
f -1 :[-2, 2] =¿]
x
f -1 (x):cos-1 (( ) )
2

Part 4

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 1. Formulate corresponding proof principles to prove the following properties about defined sets.

i . A=B ↔ A ⊆B∧B⊇ A
¿
Check whether it is correct for the 3 sets
¿
¿¿
c c c
¿ A ∩B ∩C → De Morgans Law for 2 sets

ii. De Morgan’s Law by mathematical induction

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iii. Distributive Laws for three non-empty finite sets A, B, and C

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Activity 02
Part 1

1. Model two contextualized problems using binary trees both quantitatively and qualitatively.

Qualitative Binary classification tree

A Binary Decision Tree is a structure based on a sequential decision process. Starting from the root, a

feature is evaluated and one of the two branches is selected. This procedure is repeated until a final leaf

is reached, which normally represents the classification target you’re looking for.

One of the first formulations of Decision Trees is called Iterative Dichotomizer 3 (ID3), and it required

categorical features. This condition restricted its use and led to the development of C4.5, which could

also manage continuous (but binned and discretized) values. Moreover, C4.5 was also known because of

its ability to transform a tree into a sequence of conditional expressions (if <condition> then <…> else

<…>).

Considering other algorithms, Decision Trees seem to be simpler in their dynamics. However, if the

dataset is split table while keeping an internal balance, the overall process is intuitive and rather fast in

its predictions. Moreover, Decision Trees can work efficiently with un-normalized datasets because their

internal structure is not influenced by the values assumed by each feature. (medium.com, 2022)

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 Figure 1 Binary classification tree

Quantitative Binary regression tree

Decision tree learning is one of the predictive modelling approaches used in statistics, data
mining and machine learning. It uses a decision tree (as a predictive model) to go from observations
about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in
the leaves). Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are
called classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels and branches
represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target
variable can take continuous values (typically real numbers) are called regression trees. Decision trees
are among the most popular machine learning algorithms given their intelligibility and simplicity.

In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions
and decision making. In data mining, a decision tree describes data (but the resulting classification tree
can be an input for decision making). (en.wikipedia.org, 2023)

Figure 2 Binary regression tree

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 Part 2

1. State the Dijkstra’s algorithm for a directed weighted graph with all non-negative edge
weights.

The Algorithm
Initially, a is the only vertex in V. At each step, we add to V another vertex for which the
shortest path from a has been determined. The array L is initialized by setting L(i) to the ∞. To
determine which vertex is to be added to V at each step, we apply criteria of choosing the vertex
j with the smallest distance recorded in L, such that j is not a visited one. When we add j to V (V
is set of visited vertices), we must update that entry of L by checking, for every vertex k not in
∪(∪ is set of unvisited vertices), whether a path through j and directly yo k is shortest than the
previously recorded one. IF the letter quantity is lesser, we replace L(k) by [L(j) +w (j,k) is the
weight of the edge between j and k, when the shortest distance, L(k), is updated, we must update
shortest path P(k). P(k) is updated by the path of j followed by k. In brief

if L(k > [L(j) + w(j,k)]

Then
L(k) = L(j) +w(j,k)
And
P(k) = P(j) ∪ {k}.
This procedure is repeated by successively adding vertices to V until z is added. Here z is
destination vertex.

Dijkstra’s Algorithm
G = (A, B) A is a set of vertices and B is set of edges. ∪ is set of unvisited vertices and V is set
of visited vertices. w(i, j) represent weight of edge (i, j) where w(i, j) = ∞ if (i, j) ∉ B. Let |A| =
n. L(i) is the shortest distance between the source of the vertex i. P(i) is a set of vertices
representing the short

path
Step 1: for I = 1 to n do
L(i) = ∞, L(a) = 0.
P(i) = ø

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 Step 2: V ø and U = A.

Step 3: Let a be source vertex and z be the destination vertex.

Step 4: While z ∈ V
k = a vertex in U with L(x) minimal.
V = v ∪ {k}
For every j ∈ U
If (L(j) > (L(k)) + w(k, j) then
Begain
L(j) = L(k) + w(k, j)
P(j) = P(k) ∪ {j}
end
Stop 5: stop

2. Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the shortest path spanning tree for the following weighted
directed graph with vertices A, B, C, D, and E given. Consider the starting vertex as E.

Figure 3

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Vertices B C D E

A 5 (A, B) 3 (A, C) ∞ (A, D) ∞ (A, E)

B __ __ 7 (A, C, D) 9 (A, C, E)

C 5 (C, B) __ 7 (A, C, D) 9 (A, C, E)

D __ __ __ 9 (A, C, E)

Table 1

Figure 4

Shortest paths
A – B weight = 5
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 A – C weight = 3
A – C -D weight = 7
A – C – E weight = 9

Part 3
1. Assess whether the following undirected graphs have an Eulerian and/or a Hamiltonian
cycle. i.

Eulerian cycle

An Euler path, in a graph or multigraph, is a walk through the graph which uses every edge exactly once.
An Euler circuit is an Euler path which starts and stops at the same vertex. Our goal is to find a quick way
to check whether a graph (or multigraph) has an Euler path or circuit. (discrete.openmathbooks.org, 2016)

Figure 5

Hamilton cycle

A cycle that uses every vertex in a graph exactly once is called a Hamilton cycle, and a path that uses
every vertex in a graph exactly once is called a Hamilton path.

Unfortunately, this problem is much more difficult than the corresponding Euler circuit and walk
problems; there is no good characterization of graphs with Hamilton paths and cycles. Note that if a
graph has a Hamilton cycle then it also has a Hamilton path.

There are some useful conditions that imply the existence of a Hamilton cycle or path, which typically
say in some form that there are many edges in the graph. An extreme example is the complete
graph KnKn: it has as many edges as any simple graph on nn vertices can have, and it has many
Hamilton cycles. The problem for a characterization is that there are graphs with Hamilton cycles that

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 do not have very many edges. The simplest is a cycle, CnCn: this has only nn edges but has a Hamilton
cycle. (www.whitman.edu, 2017)

Figure 6

Figure 7

Check Eulerian or not

Eulerian
The number of vertices that have an odd degree should be 0 to 2
Only d (D) = 3
D (E) = 1
That, so this is not eulerian circuit
Check it in Hamilton
Hamilton
All vertex * cannot take the same vertex twice

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Reason: From this graph, we can’t go to every vertex without going back to already gone vertices

ii.
Figure 8

Eulerian
The number of vertices that have an odd degree should 0 or 2
Here:
d (A) = 3
d(C) = 3
d (D) = 3
d (E) = 3
So that is not Eulerian
Hamilton
From this graph, we can go to every vertex without going back to already gone vertices
example: {A, B, C, D, E}
The path → { A , B , C , D , E , A }

iii

Figure 9

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 Vertices with odd degrees → d ( A )=3 , d (C )=3 ,d ( D )=3 , d ( E ) =3
We can't visit every vertex through this graph without going back to its own vertex-gone location, and
this is not a Hamilton circuit. There are two odd-degree vertices,
so the diagram is not eulerian circuit.

Part 4

1. Construct a proof of the five color theorem for every planar graph.

Figure 10

Suppose that in GG there is a path from v1 to v3, and that the vertices along this path are alternately
colored red and green; call such a path a red-green alternating path. Then together with v, this path
makes a cycle with v2 on the inside and v4 on the outside, or vice versa. This means there cannot be a
purple-blue alternating path from v2 to v4. Supposing that v2 is inside the cycle, we change the colors of
all vertices inside the cycle colored purple to blue, and all blue vertices are recolored purple. This is still
a proper coloring of all vertices of G except v, and now no neighbor of v is purple, so by
coloring v purple we obtain a proper coloring of G.

If there is no red-green alternating path from v1 to v3, then we recolor vertices as follows: Change the
color of v1 to green. Change all green neighbors of v1 to red. Continue to change the colors of vertices
from red to green or green to red until there are no conflicts, that is, until a new proper coloring is
obtained. Because there is no red-green alternating path from v1 to v3, the color of v3 will not change.
Now no neighbor of v is colored red, so by coloring v red we obtain a proper coloring of G.
(www.whitman.edu, 2018)

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Activity 03
Part 1
1. Diagram two real world binary problems in two different fields using applications of Boolean
algebra.

Engineers use switching algebra to describe circuits based on networks of switches constants are0 and 1
operators are ., +, and Philosophers use sentential or propositional calculus for describing combinations
of propositions (sentences) constants are T and F operators are , , and ¬ (or ')) We use switching algebra
conventions mostly But often add T and F into the notation We use switching algebra conventions
mostly But often add T and F into the notation Start with sentential forms proposition A The lights are
on proposition B There are empty seats Both statements may be true or false We can combine these
assertions: The lights are on and there are empty seats The combination can be abbreviated to A.B Four
possible combinations F . F = F
F.T=F
T.F=F
T.T=T
Computer circuits are built from simple elements called “gates,” made from either mechanical or
electronic switches. They operate according to Boolean algebra to determine the value of an output
signal (one or zero), or to save a value in a “flip-flop,” a storage unit built from several gates. Three
basic gate types are AND, OR, and NOT. But others, such as NAND (NOT AND), can by themselves
form any computer circuit, including those for arithmetic, memory, and executing instructions. Modern
computers have the equivalent of hundreds of millions of NAND gates.

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Part 2
1. Produce truth tables and its corresponding Boolean equation for the following scenarios.
i. If the driver is present and the driver has not buckled up and the ignition switch is on,
then the warning light should turn on.
A=The driver is present
B=The driver has bulked up
C=Ignition swithis on
X =Warninglight is on
Boolean expression → A . B .C= X
A B C B A BC= X
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0

Table 2

2 n(p) = 23
=8

ii. If it rains and you don't open your umbrella, then you will get wet.

A- It is raining
B- You open your umbrella
C- C- You get wet

Boolean equations:
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 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅𝐵 = 𝑥
𝐴. 𝐵̅ = 𝑥
𝐴𝐵̅ = x

A B B A B=X

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

Table 3

n(p)
2 = 22
=4

2. Produce truth tables for given Boolean expressions.

i. A ̄ B ̄ C + A B ̄ C ̄ + A B C+ A ̄ B C ̄

A B C A B C A BC A BC ABC A BC A BC +
A BC +
ABC+
A BC
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Table 4

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 ii. ( A+ B ̄ +C)( A +B+ C)( A ̄ + B+C ̄ )

A B C A B C A+ B+C A+B+C A+ B+C X

1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
Table 5

Part 3

1. Simplify the following Boolean expressions using algebraic methods

i. A ( A+ B ) + B ( B+C ) +C ( C + A )
¿ AA+ AB+ BB+ BC +CC + CA
¿ A+ AB+ B+BC +C+CA
¿ ( A+ AB ) + ( B+BC ) + ( C+CA )
¿ A+ B+C

ii. ( A+ B ) ( B+ C ) + ( A+ B )( C+ A )
¿ A ( B+C ) + B ( B +C ) + A ( C + A ) + B ( C+ A )
¿ AB+ AC + B B+ B C+ AC + A A+ BC + B A
¿ AB+ AC + 0+ B C+ AC +0+ BC + B A
¿ ( AB+ B A )+ ( AC + AC )+ ( B C+ BC )
¿ B ( A + A ) + AC +C ( B+ B )
¿ B.1+ AC +C .1
¿ B+ AC +C

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¿ B+ ( AC +C )
¿ B+C

iii. ( A+ B ) ( AC + A C )+ AB+ B
¿ ( A+ B ) A ( C+C ) + ( AB+ B )
¿ ( A+ B ) A .1+ B
¿ AA+ BA+ B
¿ A+ ( BA+ B )
¿ A+ B

iv. A ( A+ B ) + ( B+ A ) ( A+ B )
¿ A A+ A B+ BA+ B B+ AA+ A B
¿ 0+ A B+ BA+0+ A + A B
¿ ( A B+BA ) ( A + A B )
¿ B ( A +A )+ A
¿ B.1+ A
¿ A+ B

Part 4
1. Consider the K-Maps given below. For each K- Map
Write the appropriate standard form (SOP/POS) of Boolean expression.
Design the circuit using AND, NOT and OR gates.
Design the circuit only by using
 NAND gates if the standard form obtained in part (i) is SOP.
 NOR gates if the standard form obtained in pat (i) is POS.

AB/C 0 1
00 0 0
01 0 1
11 0 1
10 1 0
Table 6

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 i. x = 𝐴𝐵̅𝐶̅+ 𝐵C

ii.

Figure 11

iii. NAND

Figure 12

(b)
AB/CD 00 01 11 10
00 1 0 0 1
01 0 1 0 1
11 1 1 1 0
10 1 1 1 1
Table 7

i. POS form → X= ( A+ C+ D ) . ( A + B+ D ) . ( A+ B+C + D ) . ( A + B+C+ D )

40 | P a g e
 ii.

Figure 13

iii. NOR

Figure 14

(c)
AB/C 0 1

00 1 0

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 01 1 1

11 1 0

10 0 1
Table 8

i. X = 𝐴̅ 𝐶̅+ 𝐵𝐶̅+ 𝐴 𝐶̅+ 𝐴̅ 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵̅C

ii.

Figure 15

iii. NAND

Figure 16

42 | P a g e
Activity 04
Part 1
1. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of different binary operations that are performed on
the same set.
Let S be a non- empty set. A binary operation on the set S is a function * from s×s into S
* : s×s = S
Domain = Codomain
Let a, b ∈ S, then a binary operation; * between a and b can be written as
a * b such that a * ∈ S
Characteristics of binary operations that are performed on some set
1. Associative property (Law)
A binary operation * on a set S is said to be “Associative” or satisfy the “Associative property” if,
for any elements a, b, c in S (a,b,c ∈ S),we have (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

2. Commutative property
A binary operation * on a set S is said to be “Commutative” or satisfy the “Commutative property”
if, for any elements a, b in S (a, b ∈ S), we have,

a * b =b * a

a + b = b + a Commutative

a - b ≠ b - a Not commutative

3. Identity Element property

Consider a binary operation * on a set S an element e in S (e ∈ S) is called on “Identity element” of
an element ‘a’ in S (a ∈ S), for * if,
a*e=e*a=a
a×1 = 1 × a = a
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 a+0=0+a=a

4. Inverse element property

Suppose a binary operation * on a set S has an Identity element ‘e’ The inverse of an element ‘a’ in
S (a ∈ S) is an element ‘b’ in S (b ∈ S) such that

A * b = b * a =e
‘b’ can be denoted as “a-1 (Inverse of ‘a’)
1 1
a ¿ = ∗a=1
a a

a + (-a) = -a + a = 0

Part 2
1. Determine the operation tables for group G with orders 1, 2, 3 and 4 using the elements a, b, c,
and e as the identity element in an appropriate way.

A group is a set (G *), where G is a set and * is a binary operation on G such that the following
properties satisfy
• Closure Property
For all a, b, € G , a*b € G
• Associative Property
For all a, b, c, € G , a * (b*c) = (a*b) * c
• Identity Property
There exists an element e € G,
Such that for all a € G , a*e = e*a = a
• Inverse Property
For every a € G there exists an element b € G, such that a*b = b*a = c
[b = a ̵¹ (inverse of ‘a’)]
Order of a group is,
No. of element in that group

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 Order 1 →e
Order 2 → e , a
Order 3 → e, a, b
Order 4 → e , a , b , c

Operation table for order 1

* e

e e

Table 9

G = {e}

Operation table for order 2

* e a

e a e

a e a
Table 10

G = {e, a}

Operation table for order 3

* e a b

e a b e

a b e a

b e a b
Table 11

G = {e, a, b}

Operation table for order 4

* e a b c

e a b c e

a b c e a

b c e a b

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 c e a b c
Table 12

G = {e, a, b, c}

2.
i. State the relation between the order of a group and the number of binary
operations that can be defined on that set.

The number of possible binary operation is equal to n( n ) , if the order of group is n

2

Example:- n=5
2 2

n(n )=5(5 )=525

ii. How many binary operations can be defined on a set with 4 elements?

Order → n=4
Binary operation → n( n )=4( 4 )=416
4 2

3.
i. State the Lagrange’s theorem of group theory.

Lagrange Theorem of Group Theory “Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. Then the order of H
divides the order of G.

ii. For a subgroup H of a group G, prove the Lagrange’s theorem.

Lagrange’s Theorem
The order of a subgroup of a finite group divisor of the order of the group.

Proof: Let HH be any subgroup of order mm of a finite group GG of order nn. Let us consider the coset
decomposition of GG relative to HH.

We will first show that each coset aHaH consists of mm different elements.

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Let H={h1,h2,…,hm}H={h1,h2,…,hm}, then ah1,ah2,…,ahmah1,ah2,…,ahm are the mm members
of aHaH, all distinct. So let ahi=ahj⇒hi=hjahi=ahj⇒hi=hj be the cancellation law of GG.

Since GG is a finite group, the number of distinct left cosets will also be finite, say kk. Hence the total
number of elements of all cosets is kmkm which is equal to the total number of elements of GG. Hence
n=mkn=mk

This shows that mm, the order of HH, is advisor of nn, the order of the group GG. We also see that the
index kk is also a divisor of the order of the group.

Corollary 1: If GG is of finite order nn, then the order of any a∈Ga∈G divides the order of GG and in
particular an=ean=e.

Proof: Let aa be of order mm is the least positive integer such that am=eam=e.

Then it is easy to verify that the elements a,a2,a3,…,am–1,am=ea,a2,a3,…,am–1,am=e of GG are all

distinct and form a subgroup.
Since this subgroup is of order mm, it follows that mm, the order of aa, is a divisor of the order of the
group.

We may write n=mkn=mk, where kk is a positive integer. Then an=amk=(am)k=ean=amk=(am)k=e.

Corollary 2: A finite group of prime order has no proper subgroups.

Proof: Let the order of the group GG be a prime number pp. Since pp is a prime, its only divisors
are 11 and pp. Therefore the only subgroup of GG are {e}{e} and GG, i.e. the group GG has no proper
subgroup.

Corollary 3: Every group of prime order is cyclic.

Proof: Let GG be a group of prime order of pp and let a≠e∈Ga≠e∈G. Since the order of aa is a divisor
of pp, it is either 11 or pp. But o(a)≠1o(a)≠1, since a≠ea≠e.
Therefore, o(a)=po(a)=p, and the cyclic subgroup of GG generated by aa is also of order pp. It follows
that GG is identical with the cyclic subgroup generated by aa, i.e. GG is cyclic.
47 | P a g e
 Corollary 4: Every finite group of composite order possesses proper subgroups.

Corollary 5: If pp is a prime number which does not divide the integer aa then ap–1≡1(modp)ap–
1≡1(modp). (www.emathzone.com, 2015)

iii. Discuss whether a group H with order 6 can be a subgroup of a group with order 13 or
not. Clearly state the reasons.

Let H be a subgroup of group G. Then by the Lagrange’s Theorem of group theory, order of the
group H divides the order of G Here, the order of group H is 6 and the order of given group is 13 13
is not divisible by 6 Therefore according to the Lagrange Theorem of Group Theory, a group H with
order 6 cannot be a subgroup of a group with order 13

Part 3
1. Validate whether the set S   {1}is a group under the binary operation ‘*’defined as

a * b  a  b  ab for any two elements a,b  S .

a) Closure property
a∗b=a+ b+ab

b) Communicative
a∗b=a+ b+ab
b∗a=b+ a+ba
a∗b=b∗a

c) Identity
a∗e=e∗a=a
e=0 ,
a∗0=a+ 0+a .0
¿a
0∗a=0+a +0. a
¿a

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d) Associative
a∗( b∗c )=a∗( b+c +bc )
¿ a+ ( b+c +bc ) +a ( b+ c+ bc )
¿ a+ b+c +bc +ab+ ac+ abc
( a∗b )∗c= ( a+b+ ab )∗c
¿ ( a+ b+ab )+ c+ ( a+b +ab ) c
¿ a+ b+ab+ c+ ac +bc+ abc

e) Inverse
1 1
a∗a =a ∗a=e
e=0 ; a∗a 1=a1∗a=0
−1 −1
a+ a +a . a =0
−1
a+ a ( 1+a ) =0
−1
−1 a
a =
(1+a)

a ≠ (−1 )

It is given as S    {1}
So, a ≠ (−1 )
Inverse property is satisfied
It is group under ‘*’ binary operation, since ‘*’ satisfied all the properties in S    {1}

49 | P a g e
 Part 4
1. Prepare a presentation for ten minutes to explore an application of group theory
relevant to your course of study. (i.e. in Computer Sciences)

Figure 17 Group Theory

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Figure 18 Page 1

Figure 19 Page 2

Figure 20 Page 3

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 Figure 21 Page 4

Figure 22 Page 5

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Figure 23 Page 6

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References
discrete.openmathbooks.org, 2016. discrete.openmathbooks.org. [Online]
Available at: http://discrete.openmathbooks.org/dmoi2/sec_paths.html
en.wikipedia.org, 2023. en.wikipedia.org. [Online]
Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree_learning
medium.com, 2022. medium.com. [Online]
Available at: https://medium.com/@Packt_Pub/binary-decision-trees-1ec94cfed208
www.emathzone.com, 2015. www.emathzone.com. [Online]
Available at: https://www.emathzone.com/tutorials/group-theory/lagrange-theorem.html
www.whitman.edu, 2017. www.whitman.edu. [Online]
Available at: https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/cgt_online/book/section05.03.html
www.whitman.edu, 2018. www.whitman.edu. [Online]
Available at: https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/cgt_online/book/section05.10.html

54 | P a g e
Grading Rubric

Grading Criteria Achieved Feedback

LO1 : Examine set theory and functions applicable to software

engineering.

P1 Perform algebraic set operations in a formulated mathematical

problem.

P2 Determine the cardinality of a given bag (multiset).

M1 Determine the inverse of a function using appropriate

mathematical technique.

D1 Formulate corresponding proof principles to prove properties

about defined sets.
LO2 : Analyse mathematical structures of objects using graph theory.

P3 Model contextualized problems using trees, both quantitatively and

qualitatively.
P4 Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find a shortest path spanning tree in a
graph.

M2 Assess whether an Eulerian and Hamiltonian circuit exists in an

undirected graph.

D2 Construct a proof of the Five colour theorem.

LO3 : Investigate solutions to problem situations using the

application of Boolean algebra.
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P5 Diagram a binary problem in the application of Boolean Algebra.

P6 Produce a truth table and its corresponding Boolean equation from

an applicable scenario.

M3 Simplify a Boolean equation using algebraic methods.

D3 Design a complex system using logic gates.

LO4 : Explore applicable concepts within abstract algebra.

P7 Describe the distinguishing characteristics of different binary

operations that are performed on the same set.

P8 Determine the order of a group and the order of a subgroup in

given examples.

M4 Validate whether a given set with a binary operation is indeed a

group.

D4 Explore with the aide of a prepared presentation the application of

group theory relevant to your course of study

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