Background

Energy exists in different forms but

EEE 2413: POWER SYSTEM I electrical energy is the most refined form

Advantages:
Introduction  It is a convenient form of energy and can
be easily converted into other forms
 Easy to control
 Great flexibility
By  Clean
K Kaberere
 High transmission efficiency

Modern day, life is almost impossible without

electricity

Electricity is a form of energy which can be
(i) and (ii) constitute the electric generator
converted to other forms as well as obtained from
Mechanical energy is necessary to create the
other forms relative motion

The simplest and most common form of energy
Most common sources of mechanical energy
conversion is from mechanical to electrical and vice are; water, coal, oil, diesel, gas, nuclear
versa based on the principle of a dynamo

Other sources include: wind, geothermal, tidal,

The main requirements for the conversion of
mechanical energy to electrical energy are: biomass e.t.c.
i. Conductors
Other energy sources; solar, fuel cells e.t.c.
ii. Magnetic field
iii. Relative motion between the magnetic field and
the conductors

3 4

Power system structure

Generating system (GS)
 An electric power system consists: 21 kV
Generating transformer (GT)
 Generating stations
GS
 Power substations Interconnected transmission and
GS GT transformation GT 11 kV
 Transmission lines (400 kV; 220 kV; 132 kV)
Tie line Tie line
 Distribution system
 Loads (users and all their associated Large customers
Large
equipment) Sub-transmission system (66 kV)
customers

Medium large Small generating unit

customers Primary distribution
33 kV, 25 kV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV Medium large
customers
Small generating unit
Secondary distribution (415 V) Micro-grid

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Small customers (415/240 V) 6

1
 Types of generating plants

 First system – DC with load consisting of At the generating station, energy

incandescent lamps supplied at 110 V in non-electrical form is
converted to electrical form
 Invention of the transformer -the ability to
Main types (conventional):
transmit power at high voltage with
 Thermal - Fossil fuel fired by Renewable (Non-
corresponding lower current and lower line- conventional):
coal, oil, gas
voltage drops- made AC more attractive than DC
 Nuclear Geothermal
 Next development – poly-phase system  Hydro Wind
 The need for interconnection and parallel  Gas Solar
operation led to adoption of common frequency;  Diesel
Small hydro
60 Hz US and Canada, most European countries Tidal
50 Hz, Japan 50 and 60 Hz
Biogas
Fuel cells
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Others:

Co-generation e.g. bagasse based :  Early supply systems generators were built
 Involves capturing waste heat from manufacturing close to the load
industrial process or heating or cooling systems
and using it for power generation  Growth in demand led to the establishment of
 Produce two forms of energy from one fuel; heat unified grid that spread over large geographical
and either electricity or mechanical energy area
Topping cycle; power generation is primary  Initially, the grid consisted of a number of
Bottoming cycle; power generation is secondary geographical zones that were able to meet their

Combined heat and power (CHP) demand
 Common in cold countries  Inter-zonal transfer was allowed only in
 Produce power and use waste heat for heating exceptional circumstances – grid enhanced
buildings by air or water overall security of supply
9 10

 Plants located either close to the fuel source

(mainly coal) or in remote locations (hydro and  Primary drivers for development of the
nuclear) unified grid were reduction of cost of
generating electricity and enhancement of
 As demand grew and generation technology
improved, centralised generation – few large
supply security
generating plants  Power is generated at a voltage of between
11-33 kV and then stepped up to higher
 Plants moved away from load centres – increased
voltages for transmission to the load
transmission distances
centres.
 Economies gained by building large stations
However, increasing power demand and
outweighed the additional transmission cost
the search for environmentally friendly
electric power systems are a major concern

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2
 Distributed generation

Liberalisation of the power industry has led to re-
All these factors have led to the growth of distributed
examination of the trend to develop ever larger generation (DG) or embedded generation
power stations

DG refers to small scale generation units (1 kW – 50

Privatised and new entrants recognised MW) that produce electricity at a site close to
opportunities in generation e.g. modular Combined customers or that are connected to the distribution
Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) network

Other developments include:
1. Renewed interest in cogeneration and CHP
2. Renewed interest in renewable generation – in
some countries with financial incentives

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Applications of DG Applications of DG cont’d

 To generate a customer’s entire electricity supply  For back-up during frequency variation and voltage
 For peak shaving – reduce customer’s demand drops – quality hedge. Power quality sensitive
during peak price period customers can be grouped into three areas as follows:

 For stand-by or emergency generation in case of  Digital Economy – Firms that rely heavily on data
utility company’s supply failure – for increased storage and retrieval, data processing, or research
reliability and development:
 As a green energy source using renewable energy  Mission Critical Computer Systems
(RE) technology e.g. solar or wind
 Communications Facilities
 Off-grid application in remote locations –
eliminates need for extension of transmission  Continuous Manufacturing Process
and/or distribution network
 Fabrication and Essential Services
15 16

Benefits of DG systems Benefits of DG systems cont’d

 Lower capital cost since they are small in size  Has potential to reduce overall costs to the
– but cost/kW of installed capacity can be consumer – more efficient electricity system
much higher than for a large plant that generates and delivers power close to POU
– loss reduction and can be sized to match
 Reduces the need for construction of large demand thus increase efficiency
infrastructure because of their proximity to
 Some of the technologies are pollution free or
the load
produce near zero pollutant emissions
 If the DG provides power for local use, there is
 Some of the technologies use RE resources
reduced stress on the distribution and
transmission system relieved congestion  Increase power reliability/security of supply
 Offer customers a choice in meeting their
 Improve power quality by supporting voltage energy needs
and reducing voltage dips
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3
Homework Transmission
1. Discuss the factors that should be  The transmission lines are either underground
considered in choosing the location of cables or overhead conductors with the latter
being more commonly used where the
the following power plants:
transmission distances are long.
i. Coal
ii. Nuclear  Transmission voltages are normally classified as
iii. Hydro follows:
 HV levels- 115-230kV
2. Discuss the advantages and
 EHV levels- 345-765 kV
disadvantages of each of the power
plants listed in (1) above.  UHV levels- 1000-1500kV

 HVDC has been used for bulk power transmission

over relatively long distances and under sea
transmission.
19 20

Diversity in sources of power – including

green energy
 Distribution systems are at a much lower
It is possible to take advantage of the most
voltage and they deliver power to the
economical sources of power
consumer from the distribution sub-stations
Large capacity generators which are cheaper
 Their voltage ranges between 6.6 - 66kV and more efficient than small ones, may be
 They are also either underground or overhead used
lines with the former being favoured for Pooled generation reserves – to handle peak
densely populated areas. loads and forced outages
 It is common practice to have many generation The interconnected system is synchronized
stations interconnected to form a national/area and a common frequency exists
grid. Smaller frequency deviations for higher load
changes
 There are several advantages of power system
interconnection some of which are:-
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East African Power Pool (EAPP) member countries

 Income generation for areas with excess supply

 Improved security of supply

Disadvantages
 Increased fault current thus require CB with
higher interrupting capability.
 Disturbance caused by a short circuit on one
system may spread to interconnected systems.
 Synchronization difficulties of all generators in
the interconnected systems.

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4
SOME EAPP OBJECTIVES Southern Africa Power Pool (SAPP) member countries

Secure power supply for the Region’s countries

Facilitate the development of electricity market in
the region

Optimize energy resources usage through
socially, economically and environmentally
acceptable investment schemes in generation,
transmission and distribution Aim: To optimise the

Increase power supply to raise regional access to use of available
electricity energy resources in

Reduce regional electricity cost using the region and
interconnection and increased power exchanges support one
among countries another during
emergencies.
25 26

Southern Africa Power Pool (SAPP) SAPP Objectives

Provide a forum for the development of a world class,
robust, safe, efficient, reliable and stable
interconnected electrical system in the southern
African region.

Co-ordinate and enforce common regional standards
of Quality of Supply; measurement and monitoring of
systems performance.

Harmonise relationships between member utilities.

Facilitate the development of regional expertise
through training programmes and research.

Increase power accessibility in rural communities.

Implement strategies in support of sustainable
development priorities.
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Generation mix and country contributions (2009) 2011/12 installed capacity Vs peak demand

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5
2. Reserve Capacity

Demand and supply growth 2011/12

SAPP OPERATING RESERVES FOR 2013

Utility Name Largest Maximum Spinning Quick Reserve Operating

Generator [MW] Demand [MW] Reserve [MW] [MW] Reserve [MW]

e f g=e+f
ESKOM 930 35,136 521.4 521.4 1042.8
ZESA 220 1546 47.5 47.5 95.0
ZESCO 180 1611 42.8 42.8 85.5
BPC 150 578 27.1 27.1 54.1
EdM 38 629 12.3 12.3 24.5

NAMPOWER 80 611 17.8 17.8 35.7

SNEL 62 1048 20.3 20.3 40.5

LEC 24 129 4.7 4.7 9.5
SEC 10 204 3.7 3.7 7.3
TOTAL 1694 41492 698 698 1395

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Power systems in Europe UCTE (Union for the Co-

ENTSO-E (the European Network of Transmission System
ordination of Transmission of Electricity)
Operators for Electricity)

• 41 Transmission
System Operators
(TSOs)from 34
countries

33 34

Power substation functions Types of substations

 Voltage transformation; power transformer 1. Generating substation – step up
 Connection point for local networks 2. Grid substation – located at intermediate
 Switchyard for network configuration; bus points between generation and load
bars, circuit breakers, disconnectors centres.
 Monitoring point for control center; potential 3. Secondary substations – step down
and current transformers voltage to sub-transmission level. Large
consumers connected to these SS
 Fuses and other protection; grounding
4. Distribution substations – Sub-
system, lightning arrestors, protective relays
transmission voltage stepped down to
supply voltage
5. Special purpose e.g. traction, mining

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6
 Substation bus-bar arrangements
Substations may also be classified as:
1. Outdoor – 33 kV and above for cost and safety 1. Single Bus
reasons.
2. Indoor – 400 V to 11 kV – mainly in urban areas
3. Pole mounted – low capacity upto 500 kVA
4. Underground – whenever space is not
available

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Advantages: 2. Sectionalized Bus

 Lowest cost
 Small land area

 Easily expandable

 Simple in concept and operation

 Relatively simple for protective relaying

application Advantages:

Flexible operation
Disadvantages:
Isolation of bus sections for maintenance
 Single bus arrangement has the lowest reliability
Loss of only part of the substation for a breaker
failure or bus fault
 Failure of a circuit breaker or a bus fault causes
Disadvantages:
loss of entire substation
• Additional circuit breakers needed for
 Maintenance switching can complicate and sectionalizing, thus higher cost
disable some of the protection schemes and • Sectionalizing may cause interruption of non-
overall relay coordination faulted circuits
39 40

3. Main and Transfer Bus

Advantages:

Maintain service and protection during circuit breaker
maintenance

Reasonable in cost

Fairly small land area

Easily expandable
Main and Transfer Bus Disadvantages:
• Additional circuit breaker needed for bus tie
• Protection and relaying may become complicated
• Bus fault causes loss of the entire substation

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 4. Ring Bus
Disadvantages:
• During fault, splitting of the ring may leave
undesirable circuit combinations
• Each circuit has to have its own potential source
for relaying
Advantages: • Usually limited to 4 circuit positions, although
• Flexible operation larger sizes up to 10 are in service. 6 is
• High reliability • usually the maximum terminals for a ring bus
• Double feed to each circuit
• No main buses
• Expandable to breaker-and-a-half configuration
• Isolation of bus sections and circuit breakers for
maintenance without circuit disruption 43 44

45 46

47 48

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 49 50

Homework
S. Country Population Installed Annual energy Per capita Main generation Other remarks
No. (millions) capacity consumption electricity sources
(MW) (GWh) consumption
(kWh)
1 Egypt

2 Brazil

3 Britain
4 Russia

5 Germany

6 India
7 Argentina

8 China
9 Japan
10 South
Africa
11 Tanzania
12 Malaysia
13 Canada

14 Uganda
15 Singapore
16 Ethiopia

Schematic of a Microgrid 51 17 Australia 52

Homework
S. Country Populatio Installed Annual energy Per capita Main generation Other remarks
No. n capacity consumption electricity sources
(millions) (MW) (GWh) consumption
(kWh)

18 Mexico
19 USA

20 Kenya
21 France
22 DRC

23 Sweden
24 Switzerland

25 Zambia
26 Nigeria
27 Malawi

28 Spain
29 Denmark
30 Netherlands

31 Korea
32 Botswana
33 Taiwan
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