Chapter -2

Advanced Programming Development Methodology

1. What is a system?
2. Steps in SDLC
a) Preliminary study/survey b) Feasibility study
c) Investigation and fact recording d) System analysis
e) System design f) Coding
g) Testing h) Implementation and maintenance

Block Diagram for SDL

3. Tools used for system analysis

a) Data flow diagram DFD
b) Process chart
c) Data dictionary
d) Decision table
e) Decision tree

System : A system is a collection of interrelated different component which work together. For eg. A
computer system is a collection of H/W and S/W.
1. Prilimnary Study/Survey: This is a very first step for developing a system.During this phase the
main effort is given on the problem with the existing system.here the key question is “why do we
need to develop a new system”,”what is the problem with the existing system”.Here the system
analyst do the requirement analysis.

2. Feasibility Study: In this phase we find out whether the new system is worth Developing or not,
means the organization will be benefited by the new system or not. Does the organization has all
the facilities, all the tools for developing a new system. After the feasibility study a feasibility
report is prepared and if the report is positive new system is approved to be developed.
There are 3 types of feasibility study:
a) Economic F.S : In this F.S the analyst do the cost-benefit analysis that is how much cost
would be required for the system to be developed and whether the benefit will outweigh the
cost. If benefit is more than the expenditure or cost then it is approved.
b) Technical F.S : In this F.S technical requirements are looked for like whether the technical
software or hardware needed to develop a s/w are easily available.

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 c) Behavioural F .S : In this F.S it is checked whether the people or the users will be
comfortable with the new s/w as they need to be trained on the usage of the software.

After all three types of FS if all are positive the system analyst moves on to the next step.

3. Investigation and fact recording :

In this Phase information and facts or raw data is collected for the new system. For this analyst
applies the following procedures:
a)Interviewing : Interview is taken individually from the employees.
b)Questionaires: set of Questions are given to everyone and answers are collected
to know about the problem.
c)On site observation: By really going on to the site and watching the actual
working of the organization without letting the people to know that they have been watched.
d) Sampling : To collect or calculate some thing on large data , some samples are
collected randomly on weekly or monthly basis and then calculation is done.
e) Reviewing of the manuals: Last option is to view or by reading the documents
and manuals of the organization.

4. System Analysis: In this phase complete analysis of the current system is done in order to reach at
the specifications of proposed new system. following points are analyzed:-

a) Goals and objectives of the the proposed system.

b) Fundamental actions that must take place in the s/w
c) Outputs to be produced
c) Inputs to be used
d) Process es to be performed
e) Interfaces to be provided
f) Performance requirements to be met.
g) Organizational and other constraints to be met.

5) System design:This phase is concerned with the design of final system. Here the modules for the new
system are designed and the relation between the modules. Following diagram shows the steps Of
designing.

1 Processin
g design No
Design
Abandon
output accepted
project
design
Detailed Yes
system
documentation
Test
input programs
design
Design
submitted to
management 2
File
design

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6.Coding : In this phase a particular language is taken and programming is done or coding is done for that
new system.For ex c,c=+,java,.net etc

7. Testing: After coding testing is done .In testing it is checked whether the s/w is working according to
the need and requirements of the user. Whether the s/w is running successfully without any error and is
running for all types of data combinations.

Types of Testing:
a)Online Response: Online Response of the system is checked.
b)Stress Testing: In this Testing System is checked under heavy workloads.
c)Volume Testing: In this large no of data transaction is teseted to ensure the proper
functioning of hardware and software.
d)Recovery Testing: System is forced to have failure so that recovery can be tested.
e)Unit Testing: In this testing each or individual module is tested for errors and proper
functioning.
f) Integration Testing: In this integration of modules is done and proper interface of the
modules with each other is tested.

7.Implementation: After all this The new system is finally implemented means used by the Clients for
whom the s/w has been developed.It is used by the end users.In this phase training to the users is provided
on the newly made s/w.

8)Maintenance : The last step is maintenance. Maintaining and updations of the s/w from time to time is
very nessesary as the needs of the user changes periodically So the new requirements need to be
incorporates into the s/w.
Hardware maintenance is also necessary which aids in the proper functioning of s/w.

Maintenance is of 3 types
1)Corrective maintenance 2) Adaptive maintenance 3) Perfective maintenance

ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL

ER model is a high level, conceptual model that describes data as entities, attributes, and relationships.

ENTITY

A real world object is called entity. An entity can be a person, place, thing or any concept.
An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects.

EXAMPLE:

CAR PERSON ANIMAL

ENTITY TYPE: An entity type is a set of same type, which share common properties.
EXAMPLE: CAR
ENTITY INSTANCE: Entity instance is example of an entity.
EXAMPLE: INDICA, SANTRO, ZEN, MARUTI

ATTRIBUTE: Properties or characteristics of an entity.

EXAMPLE: STUDENT (RNO, NAME, CLASS, MARKS)

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NOTE: WHERE RNO, NAME, CLASS AND MARKS ARE ATTRIBUTES OF STUDENT ENTITY.

TYPES OF ATTRIBUTES
1. Key attribute
2. Simple single value attribute
3. Composite attribute
4. Single value attribute
5. Multivalued attribute
6. Derived attribute

1. KEY ATTRIBUTE: A key attribute uniquely identifies an entity instance.

EXAMPLE: STUDENT (RNO, NAME, CLASS)
Here RNO is key attribute because by RNO each student uniquely identified.

2. SINGLE VALUE ATTRIBUTE: An attribute that contains only one value for an entity instance.
EXAMPLE: STUDENT(RNO , NAME, CLASS)
One student can have only one RNO, NAME or CLASS.

3. MULTIVALUED ATTRIBUTE: An attribute that contains more than one value for an entity
instance.
EXAMPLE: STUDENT(RNO , NAME,HOBBY, CLASS)

RNO NAME HOBBY

1 RAM SINGING,PAINTING
2 GEETA READING
3 SHYAM SINGING
One student can have more than one hobbies. So, it is multivalued attribute.

4. SIMPLE ATTRIBUTE: An attribute that can not be broken into more than one attributes.
EXAMPLE: STUDENT(RNO , NAME, CLASS)

RNO, NAME and CLASS can not be broken into parts.

5. COMPOSITE ATTRIBUTE: An attribute that can be broken into more than one attributes.
EXAMPLE: STUDENT (RNO, NAME, CLASS, ADDRESS)

RNO NAME HS_NO COLONY CITY Address

1 RAM 11 LIG INDORE
2 GEETA 22 MORAR CANTT GWALIOR HS_NO
CITY
3 SHYAM 127 SAI COLONY RAJPUR
COLONY

Address is composite attribute i. e. broken into HS_NO., COLONY & CITY attributes.

6. DERIVED ATTRIBUTE: A derived attribute’s value is derived from another attribute.

EXAMPLE: STUDENT (RNO, NAME, CLASS, ADDRESS)
AGE = CURRENT_DATE – DATE_OF_BIRTH

Here AGE is derived attribute because its value depends on CURRENT_DATE and
DATE_OF_BIRTH.

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 RELATIONSHIP

Association among several entities. A relation is represented by a diamond symbol. Each relatin can have a
nameand properties also.

EXAMPLE: TEACHER TEACHES STUDENTS.

TYPES OF RELATIONSHIP: -

1. ONE-TO-ONE/ 1:1 / | |

2. ONE-TO-MANY OR MANY-TO-ONE/ 1:M /

3. MANY-TO-MANY/M: M

ONE-TO-ONE: For each instance of one entity there exist only one instance of another entity.
EXAMPLE: One person can married with only one person.

MARRIED
PERSON PERSON
TO

ONE-TO-MANY: For each instance of an entity there may be exist more than one instances of another
entity.
EXAMPLE: One country can have more that one states.

COUNTRY HAS STATE

MANY-TO-MANY: For each instance of an entity there may be exist more than one instances of
entity b and vice versa also possible.

EXAMPLE: One EMPLOYEE can be assigned to more than one project & One project can be
handled by more than one EMPLOYEES.

EMPLOYEE ASSIGNED PROJECT

DEGREE OF RELATIONSHIP

1. UNARY : Number of entity is 1 involved in a single relation.

2. BINARY : Number of entities 2 involve in a single relation.

3. TERNARY : Number of entities 3 involve in a single relation.

SUPERTYPE & SUBTYPE

An entity that can be classified into more than one entities (subtypes) is called supertype.
EXAMPLE : SUPERTYPE : PATIENT(PNAME,ADD)
SUBTYPE: INPATIENT (WARD_NO, BED_NO.)
OUTPATIENT (NEXT_APPPINTMENT)
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CARDINALITY
Participation or involvement of entity instances in a relation.

TYPES OF CARDINALITY
1. OPTIONAL (MINIMUM NO. OF INSTANCES CAN BE ZERO)
2. MENDATORY (MINIMUM NO. OF INSTANCES AT LEAST ONE)

ASSIGNED
MOVIE VIDEOTAPE

In a videoshop if videotape available than its is of some movie means for existence of
videotape, the existence of movie is compulsory but for existence of movie the existence of videotape
is not compulsory. Participation of movie is mandatory but participation of videotape is optional.

Example of ER-Diagram
Consider a university database for scheduling for classrooms for final exams. There are exams taking place
for various courses. Each course has a unique name, department and a course number. For each course
there may be many sections. Sections have a section_number and enrollment. There are multiple rooms
available in various buildings. Each room is identified room_number, seating capacity and
building_number and is reserved for one or more courses exam. For each exam date and time are stored.
Steps of developing an ER diagram:
1. List all entities, attributes and relationships.
2. Find types of relationship and cardinality between entities.
3. Draw ER diagram according to given standard notations.
R_NO CAPACITY
C_NO CNAME

EXAM
TAKES ROOM
COURSE PLACE IN

DEPT

SECTION
DATE TIME

S_N ENRO
O L

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