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Contents
Preface xi
Council for Accreditation of Counseling
and Related Educational Programs 2016 Standards
and Corresponding Chapters xiii
Acknowledgments xv
About the Author xvii
Section I
Foundations of Assessment in Counseling
Chapter 1
Use of Assessment in Counseling 3
Introduction to Assessment 3
Key Assessment Terms 4
Purpose of Assessment in Counseling 6
History of Assessment 9
Assessment Usage in Counseling Settings 15
Key Questions for Selecting Assessments 21
Chapter Summary 23
Review Questions 25
Resources for Further Learning 25
Chapter 2
The Assessment Process 27
Types of Assessment Methods 27
An Overview of the Assessment Process 31
Monitoring Client Progress and Evaluating Counseling
Outcomes 39
Chapter Summary 45
Review Questions 45
Resources for Further Learning 45
Chapter 3
Ethical, Legal, and Professional Considerations
in Assessment 47
Standards and Guidelines for Evaluating Tests and
Test Usage 48
Key Ethical and Legal Considerations in Assessment
54
Professional Issues in Assessment 60
Chapter Summary 64
Review Questions 64
Resources for Further Learning 65
Chapter 4
Multicultural Considerations in Assessment 67
Multicultural Counseling Competency and
Assessment 68
Fairness and Cultural Bias in Assessment 69
Cultural Factors in Assessment 71
Assessment and Gender 78
Assessment and Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic
Variables 81
Culture-Fair Tests 84
Dynamic Testing 87
Disability and Assessment 89
Assessment of Older Adults 92
Chapter Summary 95
Review Questions 96
Resources for Further Learning 96
Section II
Basic Statistical and Measurement Considerations
Chapter 5
Measurement Concepts 99
Scales of Measurement 99
Reliability 101
Validity 108
Assessment Development 114
Chapter Summary 116
Review Questions 116
Resources for Further Learning 117
Chapter 6
Understanding and Transforming Raw Scores 119
Raw Scores 120
Measures of Central Tendency 122
Measures of Variability 123
Characteristics of Data Distributions 124
Norms and Ranks 126
Standard Scores 128
Standard Error of Measurement 131
Chapter Summary 133
Review Questions 133
Resources for Further Learning 133
Initial Psychological Assessment
Chapter 7
Initial Assessment in Counseling 137
Intake Interview 138
Mental Status Examination 139
Screening Inventories 139
Suicide Risk Assessment 147
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
154
Chapter Summary 157
Review Questions 158
Resources for Further Learning 158
Chapter 8
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Assessment 159
Prevalence of Mental Disorders 160
Assessment of Alcohol Abuse 161
Assessment of Depression 170
Assessment of Anxiety and Fear 172
Assessment of Anger 174
Assessment of Self-Injury 175
Assessment of Eating Disorders 178
Assessment of Attention-De cit/Hyperactivity Disorder
181
Chapter Summary 183
Review Questions 183
Resources for Further Learning 184
Section IV
Types of Assessment
Chapter 9
Assessment of Intelligence 187
Theories of Intelligence 187
Individual Intelligence Tests 190
Group Intelligence Tests 196
Giftedness and Creativity 199
Chapter Summary 200
Review Questions 200
Resources for Further Learning 200
Chapter 10
Ability Testing: Academic Aptitude and Achievement
203
Introduction to Aptitude and Achievement
Assessment 204
Aptitude Tests for Higher Education 205
Graduate and Professional School Admissions Tests
209
Academic Achievement Tests 211
High-Stakes Testing 215
Study Habits Inventories 217
Chapter Summary 218
Review Questions 219
Resources for Further Learning 219
Chapter 11
Career and Life-Planning Assessment 221
Introduction to Career and Life-Planning Assessment
222
Measures of Career Readiness 224
Introduction to Comprehensive Assessment Programs
233
Standardized Assessment Programs 234
Chapter Summary 241
Review Questions 241
Resources for Further Learning 242
Chapter 12
Measures of Interests and Values 245
Introduction to Interest Inventories 246
Popular Interest Inventories 248
Values Inventories 263
Chapter Summary 272
Review Questions 273
Resources for Further Learning 273
Chapter 13
Assessment of Personality 275
Introduction to Personality Assessment 276
Popular Structured Personality Assessments 277
Popular Unstructured Personality Assessments 294
Health and Lifestyle Inventories 298
Chapter Summary 299
Review Questions 299
Resources for Further Learning 300
Chapter 14
Assessment of Interpersonal Relationships 303
Inventories for Couples and Family Counseling 304
Assessment of Intimate Partner Violence 308
Assessment of Child Abuse 312
Genograms 313
Additional Interpersonal Assessment Inventories 317
Chapter Summary 318
Review Questions 319
Resources for Further Learning 319
Section V
The Assessment Report and Future Trends
Chapter 15
Communication of Assessment Results 323
Communication of Findings 323
The Assessment Interpretation Interview 325
The Case Conference 328
The Assessment Report 329
Chapter Summary 333
Review Questions 333
Resources for Further Learning 334
Chapter 16
Future Trends in Counseling Assessment 335
The Assessment Process: Looking Back to Look Ahead
336
Changing Client Demographics and Assessment
Practice 337
Globalization and Problematizing Counseling and
Assessment 338
Technological Advances 339
Increased Sophistication of the Assessment Process
340
The Continuation and Adaptability of Educational
Accountability 341
Assessment and Managed Care 343
Building Assessment Systems 343
Building Partnerships With Health Professions 344
Assessment as Relevant and Actionable 345
The Next Frontier in Counseling and Assessment
Research 345
Chapter Summary 347
Review Questions 348
Resources for Further Learning 348
Appendix A
Statistical Formulas 349
Appendix B
Sample Assessment Report 351
Appendix C
Test Your Knowledge Answer Key 357
References 359
Subject Index 403
Name Index 421

Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

What is assessment? What are the different ways
counselors use assessment in the work they do? How
did assessment become such an important part of
counseling? In this chapter, several key assessment
terms are defined, and the purpose and uses of
assessment are described. Then, a brief history of
assessment is provided followed by a discussion of
current attitudes toward assessment use. Finally, the
chapter concludes with key questions and guiding
principles of assessment in counseling.
Test Your Knowledge Respond to the following items
by selecting T for “True” or F for “False”: ❏ T ❏ F 1.
Assessment aids counseling by providing information
for the client alone.
❏ T ❏ F 2. Assessment and test are synonymous
terms.
❏ T ❏ F 3. Early group tests were used to assess
intelligence and ability among World War I recruits.
❏ T ❏ F 4. A problem-solving model is a useful
method for conceptualizing the purpose of
assessment.
❏ T ❏ F 5. Personality assessment is the most
significant area counselors are known for in
assessment development.
Introduction to Assessment Assessment is a part of
everyone’s daily lives. In any instance where someone
has to make a judgment or solve a problem based on
an outcome or information gained, assessment is
occurring. Individuals are recipients and participants
of assessment data. Think back to your early
memories of being assessed, tested, or evaluated in
some way. Did it relate to a spelling or history test in
school? Did it involve a report card you brought home?
Were you being assessed for a disability or placed in a
gifted program? Did you feel sad or anxious about
something? Now, think of maybe more recent
memories: taking a college or graduate entrance
exam, discussing with a physician or counselor some
symptom or issue you are experiencing, selecting a
career path, interviewing for a job, even trying out a
new recipe or working on a home improvement
project, to name a few. No matter the memories—
positive or negative—assessment occurs in various
settings: schools, colleges, and universities;
homes; health care settings; agencies;
neighborhoods; communities; and so on.
It is not surprising, then, that assessment has always
played an important part in counseling. From its
inception, the eld of counseling typically involved
helping students with academic and career planning
on the basis of test results. In recent years, the role of
counseling (and the nature of assessment) has
broadened to address a variety of concerns, such as
self-esteem, shyness, personal growth, family and
couple relationships, sexual identity, sexual abuse,
cross- cultural communication, substance abuse,
eating disorders, depression, anxiety, and suicidal
ideation. Counselors also rely on assessment data for
program planning and evaluation. Clients use
assessment results to understand themselves better
and to make plans for the future. The assessment
process can be therapeutic in itself by helping clients
to clarify goals and gain a sense of perspective and
support.
Key Assessment Terms There are many terms
associated with assessment in counseling. In this
section, see key terms (i.e., assessment, tests,
measurement, variable, and psychometrics) are
presented.
Throughout the text, information on terms associated
with these are outlined. Before defining these terms, it
is important to dene what the term client means
throughout the text.
A client may be an individual or group of individuals
being evaluated in various settings, such as
counseling agencies, private practice settings,
schools, colleges and universities, and career
centers. A client can also refer to places or settings in
general, such as in cases of program evaluation (e.g.,
a character education program). Finally, a client may
be associated with objects or things such as dropout
rates, divorce rates, violence, trauma, or
neighborhoods. In essence, clients are people,
places, or things.
Assessment Assessment is an umbrella term for the
evaluation methods counselors use to improve
understand characteristics of people, places, and
things. Other terms used interchangeably in
counseling to describe assessment are appraisal and
evaluation. For most purposes, assessment can be
conceptualized in terms of problem solving (Greiff,
Holt, & Funke, 2013; Suhr, 2015). The Standards for
Educational and Psychological Testing (American
Educational Research Association [AERA], American
Psychological Association [APA], & National Council
on Measurement in Education [NCME], 2014) defines
assessment as “any systematic method of obtaining
information from tests and other sources, used to
draw inferences about characteristics of people,
objects, or programs” (p. 216). The first part of the
definition (“any systematic method of obtaining
information from tests and other sources”) indicates
that a broad range of evaluation methods—such as
standardized tests, rating scales and observations,
interviews, classi cation techniques, and records—
may be used as a means of obtaining data about
clients. The second part of the definition (“used to
draw inferences about characteristics of people,
objects, or programs”) emphasizes the use of
assessment data to help counselors understand their
clients and the situations in which clients and
themselves. Collectively, these two de nition parts
refer to a broad process of tool selection,
administration and interpretation of data to provide a
basis for forming and testing hypotheses regarding the
nature of a client’s issues, and possible treatment
approaches. The assessment process is discussed in
more depth in Chapters 2, 6, and 15. Some of the
common assessment categories discussed in this text
are intelligence (Chapter 9), ability (Chapter 10),
career (Chapters 11 and 12), and personality (Chapter
13).
These categories include both formal and informal
assessment methods (see Chapter 2).
Following are brief de nitions of each category: •
Intelligence assessment: evaluation of cognitive
abilities such as communication, reasoning, abstract
thought, learning, and problem solving. Intelligence
has been measured in many ways, although
intelligence assessment is primarily measured
through tests geared toward more traditional de
nitions.
• Ability assessment: assessment of acquired
information (achievement) or an ability to acquire
information (aptitude) about a particular subject
matter or domain. Ability assessments are typically
used for educational purposes, although some career
and intelligence assessments may also be
categorized as ability measures.
• Career assessment: measure of a client’s career
development process as well as the content domains
of that process. Process-oriented variables include
career readiness, concerns, planning, and maturity.
Content domains involve career values and interests
inventories. Career assessment can involve individual
tools or more comprehensive assessment programs.
• Personality assessment: examination of individual
attributes, types, and traits related to cognitions,
emotions, actions, and attitudes. Personality
assessment can be classi ed as structured (objective)
or unstructured (projective).
As you can see from these descriptions, assessment
categories are not xed and can over-lap one another.
Tests A test is a systematic and often standardized
process for sampling and describing a behavior of
interest for individuals or groups. Tests can measure
past, present, and/or future behavior or some reaction
or feeling toward a behavior of interest. Tests can be
interpreted in reference to a test taker’s previous
performance (self-referenced), some objective or
criterion, or that of a standardization sample.
Standardization and test norms are discussed in more
depth in Chapter 6. Questionnaires and inventories,
such as personality and interest inventories, elicit
self-reports of opinions, preferences, and typical
reactions to everyday situations. In practice,
questionnaires and inventories are also often referred
to as tests if they meet certain standardization
criteria.
Tests are only one aspect of assessment. Assessment
is a more comprehensive activity than testing by itself
because it includes the integration and interpretation
of test results and other evaluation methods. In sum,
assessment involves judgments based on quantitative
and qualitative descriptions of client data from a
variety of sources.
Measurement Measurement is a description of the
degree to which a client possesses some
characteristic- istic. Traditionally, measurement deals
with quantitative units, such as those associated with
length (e.g., meter, inch), time (e.g., second, minute),
mass (e.g., kilogram, pound), and temperature (e.g.,
Kelvin, Fahrenheit). In the physical sciences,
measurement has been described as the actual or
estimated magnitude of quantity relative to another
(see International Bureau of Weights and Measures,
2012; Michell, 1997). The measurement concept has
long been applied to the social sciences, such as
when S. S. Stevens (1946) described measurement as
the assignment of numerals to objects or events
according to some rule. These “rules” refer to scales
of measurement (i.e., nominal, ordinal, interval, and
ratio; see Chapter 5). In addition, measurement in
social sciences relates to providing data that meets
some criteria, and thus tests are administered to
assess the degree to which criteria are met.
Variable Another key term is variable, which gets
assigned a label through measurement. A variable
refers to a construct or concept that can take on more
than one value. Values can be qualitative or
quantitative. For example, qualitative variables can
include groupings such as gender, ethnicity, sports
team, and hair color; they tend to involve categorical
variables.
Quantitative variables might include continuous
variables (i.e., variables measured on some
continuum), such as test scores, age, and rank. In
assessment, you will encounter several types of
variables: independent variables (preexisting variable
or variable able to be manipulated that is assumed to
in uence some outcome), dependent variables
(construct affected by the independent variable; also
known as an outcome or response variable), and
extraneous variables (a “noise” variable that impacts
a dependent variable yet is unrelated to the
assessment process—also known as a confounding
variable).
Psychometrics Psychometrics is the study of
measurement technique and theory. Although a
lengthy discussion is beyond the scope of this text,
psychometricians have proposed common theories
and techniques such as classical test theory, item
response theory, Rasch modeling, factor analysis, and
structural equation modeling. Classical test theory
and its common concepts of measurement error,
reliability, and validity are discussed in Chapter 5.
Purpose of Assessment in Counseling Now that you
have a basic understanding of the general
terminology, let's take a look at how and why
assessment is used in counseling. Assessment is
bene cial in counseling because it provides
information for both counselors and clients so they
can understand and respond to client concerns as
well as plan and evaluate programs. In addition, it can
be therapeutic and can help clients understand both
their past and present attitudes and actions as well as
their plans for the future. Thus, assessments serve a
diagnostic use, help to evaluate client progress, and
are useful to improve or promote client awareness,
knowledge, and skills. Gregory (2013) further cited
several test uses: classi cation (i.e., program
placement, screening, and certi cation), diagnosis and
treatment planning, client self-knowledge, program
evaluation, and research to guide counseling theory
and technique development. Whatever purpose(s)
counselors cite as the reason for assessment, it is
important to convey this purpose to the client
throughout the assessment process. That is,
assessment should be part of the learning process for
a client rather than something that is tackled on to
counseling sessions.
Because performing an assessment is similar to
engaging in problem solving, the five steps in a
problem-solving model can be used to describe a
psychological assessment model (Chang, D'Zurilla, &
Sanna, 2004; Nezu, Nezu, & D 'Zurilla, 2012).
Depending on a client's problem-solving style, he or
she will have varying levels of success in solving a
problem (Nezu et al., 2012). Following is a brief
description of the five steps involved (see Table 1.1 for
specific ways the model relates to the assessment
process):

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