CHAPTER 13

T I ER 2: S MAL L -GR O U P A N D O T H E R
TARG ET E D I N T E R V E N T I O N S
JODEE KELLER and ‌‌GIESELA GRUMBACH

CASE SCENARIO
Mr. Johnson, a high school social worker, reflected on his experience during the corona-
virus pandemic (COVID-19), which affected schooling during the 2020–2021 academic
school years. As shelter-in-place ‌‌‌‌orders were issued, schools abruptly shifted their mode
of educational delivery (i.e., from face-to-face to remote forms of teaching and learning).
Mr. Johnson functioned as the first line of defense in supporting students and their fam-
ilies during this time of crisis. As students and their families engaged in remote learning,
they experienced much stress. Some students did not log in to their synchronous classes
and were not motivated to do so without supervision or monitoring. Other students and
families had no dedicated space or limited space for learning, weak internet services, and
inadequate or limited technology. Many schools responded quickly to assist families with
their technology needs. Mr. Johnson worked with the information technology department
at his school to prepare a one-page fact sheet for students and their families on technology
matters related to remote learning.
Mr. Johnson met weekly with teachers to discuss their concerns about students who had
no individualized education program (IEP) or 504 services in place before the pandemic
but whose performance was beginning to wane. They would discuss the progress of the in-
terventions implemented with students experiencing academic struggles. As necessary, the
school social worker would identify students requiring services at the Tier 2 level and assign
students to school social work interns for services.
Additionally, the school social work office began morning check-ins to determine and
address students’ social-emotional learning (SEL) needs. To this end, Mr. Johnson estab-
lished small groups to facilitate Tier 2 interventions and monitor students’ progress every
6 weeks. Mr. Johnson noted that students generally performed better and benefitted from
the group intervention. Another layer of staff support was the problem-solving team (com-
posed of the school social worker, school psychologist, special education teacher, and other
relevant support staff) who worked to identify students who required more help during this
time of remote learning.
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REFLECTION QUESTIONS
1. In what ways do you think the pandemic affected student learning?
2. What role should the school social worker play in addressing students’ technology
needs?
3. Identify specific strategies that reflect Tier 2 interventions in the scenario presented.
(Tier 2 targets students who are not responding to the universal interventions).
4. What other Tier 2 programs could Mr. Johnson have implemented to assist with
­student attendance?

EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND ACCREDITATION STANDARDS‌‌/

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Competency 8: Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups,
Organizations, and Communities
The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE, 2021) expects social workers to
understand the full context of intervention as a dynamic and interactive process. Social
workers intervene on multiple levels with diverse client systems (i.e., individuals, families,
groups, organizations, and communities). The CSWE expects social workers to be adept
at recognizing and employing evidence-based interventions while understanding and
critically evaluating and applying theories of behavior and the social environment to select
culturally responsive interventions. The CSWE also expects that social workers value the
importance of interprofessional collaboration.
By the end of the chapter, you will be able to (based on CSWE Educational Policy and
Accreditation Standards [EPAS], 2021):
■ Collaborate with students/families to implement culturally responsive,
evidence-based interventions to achieve goals and enhance the capabilities of
student-clients.
■ Implement culturally responsive strategies to meditate and advocate with and on
behalf of diverse student-clients and their families.
Additionally, by the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
■ Identify Tier 2 interventions.
■ Describe PBIS with parents.
■ Discuss the importance of transition planning and termination and facilitate
­effective transitions and endings that advance student-client goals.
■ Collaborate with professionals across disciplines as appropriate to achieve
­beneficial outcomes.
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 311

INTRODUCTION
The Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) allow school social workers to use a systematic
process when students do not benefit from Tier 1 interventions. When problem behavior
escalates, the school social worker may intensify services by employing Tier 2 interventions.
Providing Tier 2 interventions is proactive and avoids the waiting to fail dilemma. Tier 2
includes utilizing a small group modality or classroom interventions. After implementing
a Tier 2 intervention (within 4–6 weeks), the school social worker should assess progress.
Students typically access Tier 2 services by way of disciplinary referrals, staff requests,
and universal screening tools. The school social worker’s role is to focus on early preven-
tion, intervention, and follow-up or progress monitoring. The goal is on mitigating behav-
ioral and academic concerns related to attendance, truancy, grades or credits needed for
graduation, social skills, functional and behavioral skills, to name a few. School social work-
ers may address many of these issues in small groups and may focus on relationship skills,
schoolwide expectations, and SEL goals. Tier 2 interventions may also focus on providing
students with additional instruction time, providing additional classroom support, and in-
creasing student feedback and self-correction opportunities. Tier 2 interventions may also
include teaching explicit skills, providing practice opportunities, reinforcing expected be-
havior, fostering family engagement, and promoting relational connections.
In this chapter, the authors review Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
and family engagement, the intensity of services, Tier 2 practices, SEL, group work, tran-
sition planning and endings, stages of termination, trauma-informed care, and supporting
students experiencing parental incarceration.

TIER 2 CRITERIA AND POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL

INTERVENTIONS AND SUPPORTS
Tier 2 interventions should be accessible within 72 hours of referral, require little effort by
teachers, and be aligned with schoolwide expectations. All staff and faculty may implement
Tier 2 interventions. Tier 2 interventions should be flexible and based on students’ academic,
functional, and behavioral needs. In addition, schools must provide adequate resources,
and all staff/faculty are expected to monitor progress continuously.
In the MTSS, Tier 2 practices build on a strong Tier 1 foundation. In addition to Tier 1
practices, key Tier 2 practices (‌‌‌‌‌PBIS, n.d.) include one or more of the following:
1. Increased instruction and practice with self-regulation and social skills. An essential
outcome for Tier 2 support includes a focus on social, emotional, and behavioral
skill developments. Tier 2 interventions focus on student regulation of their be-
havior across different situations within the school context.
2. Increased adult supervision. Tier 2 incorporates active adult supervision positively
and proactively. For example, school social workers, teachers, and staff may be
asked to move, survey, and interact more frequently with specific students, based
on their needs. Adult supervision may also include tailoring the environment
(e.g., rearranging the classroom) so that the student can be supervised and receive
more immediate feedback.
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3. Increased opportunity for positive reinforcement. Tier 2 supports target expected

behavior and provide frequent positive reinforcement. For example, students who
participate in Tier 2 interventions, such as Check-In, Check-Out (CICO), receive
feedback from their classroom teacher, school social worker, and other adults in
the school several times throughout the day. Positive attention from adults rein-
forces the expected behaviors that enhance school success.
4. Increased precorrections. The aim is to prevent problem behaviors by anticipat-
ing when a student is likely to act out. To help students succeed, teachers, school
social workers, and responsible school staff/faculty may find ways to redirect
unwanted behavior by reminding them of classroom rules and expectations in a
positive manner. Precorrections may be directed at an entire class, a small group
of students, or a particular student (individually).
5. Increased focus on the possible function of problem behavior. School social workers,
teachers, or staff should ask themselves why students engage in certain behaviors.
In other words, consider the function of the student’s behavior. Once the purpose
of the behavior is determined, this insight can align the student’s needs with the
Tier 2 intervention(s) more effectively.
6. Increased access to various types of academic support. School social workers should
be mindful that students receiving behavior support may require additional aca-
demic support. Students who display disruptive or avoidant classroom behaviors
may be masking unaddressed academic needs, especially if these behaviors occur
during critical times of instruction. Students may act in ways to thwart certain ac-
ademic tasks to get out of the lesson, perhaps believing their action(s) will deflect
from their academic vulnerabilities (PBIS, n.d.).
As with Tier 1 interventions, it is important to include families. Family engagement re-
inforces what is taught in the school. Parents and family members may benefit from under-
standing the PBIS framework and how they can support their children/students.

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports and Parents

Kettelman and colleagues (2019) describe PBIS as a preventive framework (primary,
secondary, and tertiary prevention) positively associated with improved student behavior
and academic outcomes. PBIS has been adopted in over 25,000 schools (Kettelman et al.,
2019; PBIS, 2018). Students whose behavioral needs require Tier 2 interventions may also be
experiencing problems at home and in the community. Therefore, engaging in collaborative
efforts with parents may prove beneficial to helping the student.
Ahmed (2019) conducted a small qualitative study (n = 8) to explore the experiences
of parents who have children with challenging behavior and the usage of PBIS. Specifically,
Ahmed’s inquiry consisted of five subsidiary questions:
1. How do parents of children with challenging behavior involved in the PBIS pro-
cess describe their lived experiences?
2. In what ways have parents made meaning out of their experiences of participation
in PBIS interventions of their children with challenging behavior at school?
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 313

3. What do parents consider to have been the risk and protective factors in their ex-
periences in collaborating with schools on the PBIS process?
4. How have the parents’ personal characteristics influenced their perceptions of the
support they get from school systems in their collaboration on PBIS?
5. How do parents evaluate the support they get from the school system during their
involvement?
Using a constructivist grounded theory approach, Ahmed (2019) analyzed the narrative
data and found several useful themes related to parental motivation, roles and support, and
school collaborations. Ahmed found that parents with knowledge of PBIS showed greater
support and motivation to be involved. His findings were consistent with the literature
on the PBIS tiered approach and families with children who have challenging behaviors.
­Moreover, the findings support collaboration between parents and the schools in mitigating
challenging behaviors in the educational and home settings.
Parents’ knowledge of PBIS refers to the parent’s current knowledge and understanding
of PBIS. All parents in the study reported they understood the concept of PBIS before their
involvement in PBIS efforts. According to Ahmed (2019) the findings from this study indi-
cated the following:
1. PBIS in general—parents understood the general terms of PBIS and its components.
2. Management systems—parents expressed that PBIS is a system that helps to manage
their child’s behavioral concerns. Parents reported that PBIS helped provide steps
to guide children as they focus on the target behaviors in the home. Parents also
reported that they understood the consequences of unacceptable behavior and for
disregarding school rules.
3. Positive reinforcement—parents understood that PBIS focuses on how to
­effectively deal with challenging behaviors in a positive manner.
4. Reward systems—parents understood PBIS is a system of rewards and incentives
used to encourage appropriate behaviors in children who exhibit challenging
behaviors.
5. Reduction of challenging behaviors—parents displayed a basic knowledge of PBIS.
They understood it as a system for educators and parents to encourage positive
behaviors that replace challenging ones.
6. Teaching of replacement behaviors—parents understood the ultimate goal of PBIS
as a means to replace negative behavior with more positive ones.
Parental views on the implementation of PBIS were defined by how parents engaged in
PBIS at home and in the school setting. Parents reported
1. positive experiences with the school system related to their engagement with PBIS.
2. that PBIS was a helpful approach to reducing challenging behaviors with their
child(ren).
3. that PBIS provided them direction for applying behavioral strategies in the home.
Ahmed (2019) sought to understand how school systems informed and communicated
with parents about PBIS. Accordingly, Ahmed found that parents’ knowledge about PBIS
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was limited. Many of them understood only the basics and that more effort was needed to
help parents understand processes like functional behavioral assessment (FBA). Ahmed
asserts that for parents to contribute in a meaningful way to the process, they must under-
stand behavioral support practices. In fact, parents may be more punitive in how they han-
dle their child’s challenging behaviors without the support they need to bolster their own
skills in addressing these challenging behaviors (Ahmed, 2019). Ahmed also highlights the
importance of empowering families to participate in PBIS practices in the home. School
social workers can implement workshops to train parents/caregivers on other behavioral
support practices and serve as an intermediary between the home and school.

INCREASED INTENSITY OF SERVICES

The MTSS progressively intervenes when students have academic and behavioral concerns.
MTSS includes academic and behavioral instructions and strategies that can be intensified
based on student needs (Adamson et al., 2019). Decisions to intensify and move from one
Tier to the next are based on data. Likewise, decisions to decrease intensity are based on
student progress monitoring.

Tier 2
Tier 2 interventions comprise small group work focusing on social skills, self-monitoring
skills, and self-advocacy skills, to name a few (see Figure 13.1). Refer to the list below as a
starting point:
■ Aggression Replacement Training (ART)—is a comprehensive cognitive behavioral
intervention designed for aggressive students. The intervention is 10 weeks of
small-group training sessions and focuses on social skills, anger control or anger
management, and moral reasoning.
■ CICO—is a widely used evidence-based practice for allowing students to meet
behavioral goals that can lead them back to Tier 1. CICO provides daily structure,
creates a sense of accountability, provides feedback to teachers and parents, and
increases academic success. With CICO, students connect with the school social
worker at the start of the day (check-in) and the end of the day (check-out). The
purpose is to support students through positive attention, encouragement, and
preventive measures.
■ Conflict Mediation—is an intervention that focuses on teaching students how to
handle conflict more constructively. The school social worker implements many
strategies, including setting ground rules, exploring possible solutions to prob-
lems, and reaching mutual agreements (i.e., a skill of compromise).
■ Family Engagement/Home Visits—is an excellent way for school social workers to
access difficult-to-reach families, mitigate barriers to accessing support, and gain
an understanding of the environment with which the student is situated.
■ Community Resources and Referrals—is a systems approach that allows school
social workers to establish support between the school, family, and community,
thereby expanding the students’ support network. Making vital connections be-
tween the school, family, and community is critical to supporting students and
their families in a way that bolsters resiliency.
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 315

FIGURE 13.1 Group work.

SOURCE: Illustration by Jalance Foxworth.

Clifford and colleagues (2020) reviewed the extant literature related to Tier 2 interven-
tions and found positive outcomes for students with emotional and behavioral disorders
(EBDs). An EBD is typically characterized by a marked inability to build and maintain in-
terpersonal relationships with peers. Other relationships with family and teachers may also
be negatively impacted. Students with EBDs require routine and structure. Good classroom
management and avoiding unexpected changes are recommended for students who strug-
gle with EBDs. In addition, reviewing the student’s daily schedule helps them feel prepared
for the day’s activities and perhaps provides a greater sense of control. Table 13.1 represents
their findings based on broad categorizations of Tier 2 interventions (not intended to be
overly prescriptive).
Other strategies for implementing Tier 2 interventions may include teaching coping
skills and engaging students in a mindfulness-based classroom or small-group practices.

Coping Skills
Not unrelated to conflict resolution is having effective coping skills. Throughout life,
individuals encounter a range of stressors. Some of the more significant adjustments
are anticipated, such as starting school, transitioning to a new school; others will not be
expected. Some stressors may be more intense; some may be related to an immediate crisis
or tragedy; some might be related to health issues such as type 1 diabetes or illness of a
family member. Others are related to school or family, or peer issues. Any change in one’s
life requires some coping skills.
Nevertheless, even minor day-to-day hassles can be challenging depending on how one
defines the hassles and assesses the effectiveness of their coping strategies. People develop
coping skills by modeling behaviors they have seen. Coping strategies can be taught and
reinforced. Kraag and colleagues (2006) completed a meta-analysis of studies of programs
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TABLE 13.1 Tier 2 Interventions

TIER 2 INTERVENTION FOCUS
Group-based intervention to address symptoms of either
depression or trauma
Emphasis on interconnectedness among emotional distress,
Cognitive-behavioral
maladaptive cognitions, and behaviors
Structured intervention with a focus on psychoeducation,
goal-tracking, and skill rehearsal

Tier 2 Programs:
1. Teaching Kids to Cope
2. Positive Thoughts and Actions
3. Cognitive Behavioral Skill Development
Targeting depression
4. Penn Resiliency Program
Structured interventions focus on the reduction of anxiety,
conduct problems, and promote positive cognitive changes
like greater self-efficacy.

In recognition of adverse childhood experiences (ACE)

trauma-informed interventions are promulgated in the
Targeting trauma literature.
Cognitive behavioral interventions for trauma in schools (CBITS)
focus on reducing trauma-related symptoms.

Psychotherapy-oriented treatment for adolescent depression as

a Tier 2 intervention
Interpersonal psychother- Intervention may include
apy—adolescent skills 1. Psychoeducation
training (IPT-AST) 2. Personal-goal setting
3. Problem-solving
4. Skill rehearsal

Skills for Social and Academic Success (SASS) as a Tier 2

intervention focuses on the reduction of social anxiety. SASS
also uses a behavioral focus to work on social skills and skill
Social effectiveness therapy
rehearsal.
Pair students with prosocial peers to enhance social skills and
increase or develop social competence.

The aim of this intervention is to provide additional support to

students with behavior challenges within the classroom.
Focus is on behavior modification, direct reinforcement,
modeling, and skill building.
Other interventions may include
Mentoring models 1. Check-In, Check-Out (CICO)
2. Behavior Education Plan (BEP)
3. Check & Connect Program
4. Coping Power
The mentoring models have been found to reduce problem
behaviors and reduce disciplinary referrals (Clifford et al., 2020).

(continued)
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 317

TABLE 13.1 Tier 2 Interventions (continued)

TIER 2 INTERVENTION FOCUS
Social-cognitive skill-building groups help to reduce
externalizing behaviors like aggression, delinquency,
substance use, and academic behavior problems
Social-cognitive models
Interventions may include
1. CICO
2. Coping Power

Viewed as a flexible treatment model as opposed to problem-

specific therapies/interventions.
The goal is to focus on symptom reduction and underlying
Modular approach issues as opposed to a specific diagnosis.
Focus is on communication skills, cognitive restructuring, social
problem solving, self-regulation, social-emotional learning/
skills, and behavioral coping.

SOURCE: Adapted from Clifford, M. E., Nguyen, A. J., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2020). Both/and: Tier 2 interventions with
transdiagnostic utility in addressing emotional and behavioral disorders in youth. Journal of Applied School Psychology,
36(2), 173–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2020.1714859

teaching coping strategies, utilizing relaxation, problem-solving skills, social-emotional

skills, or any combination of these listed programs. Based on their findings, they recom-
mend implementing programs to teach coping strategies to reduce adjustment difficulties
for children and adolescents (Kraag et al., 2006).

Mindfulness
Mindfulness can be conceptualized as being aware of oneself in the moment without
­attaching judgment (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Mindfulness is not a new concept but has been
­implemented in schools to address several issues, including attention, academic perfor-
mance, coping skills, self-regulation, and interpersonal behavior. It has been used with el-
ementary and secondary students as well as school personnel. Typical activities include
breath work, sensory-motor awareness activities, contemplation, and body scan meditation.
Typically, mindfulness interventions are group-based in school settings. School-based
mindfulness interventions can be implemented weekly. School social workers focus on the
mental well-being of students and their ability to self-regulate in the school environment.
The literature shows that mindfulness-based interventions, in general, benefit students and
enhance self-control, reduce problematic behaviors, and free them to perform better ac-
ademically and socially (Eva & Thayer, 2017; Rawlett & Scrandis, 2015; Sheinman et al.,
2018).

Trauma-Informed School Social Work Practice

Depending on how the MTSS team decides, trauma-informed care (TIC) may target Tier 1
(schoolwide) interventions or target small groups of students as a Tier 2 intervention or in CBT
as a Tier 3 intervention providing more intensive intervention services. This section focuses
on trauma-informed practice for school social workers as a Tier 2 intervention strategy.
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Trauma-informed (school) social workers consider how trauma has affected the lives of
students and how traumatic events affect their behavior (Levenson, 2017). It is important
to understand that childhood trauma impacts academic performance, classroom behavior,
and relationships (Berger, 2019). Traumatic events may include experiencing something
that poses a threat of physical or emotional harm to individuals. Experiences of physical
or sexual abuse, domestic or interpersonal violence (child witnesses of domestic violence),
community violence, wartime violence, and natural and human-made disasters (like car
accidents) are broad examples of traumatic events. In areas where community violence is
high, the school social worker may always consider the role of trauma in a student’s life.
Some school social workers have received referrals for counseling for young students who
have witnessed significant violence or even death (in families or communities). School so-
cial workers should take special care to avoid disempowering clients or engaging in op-
pressive practices that may replicate traumagenic childhood experiences (Skinner-Osei &
Levenson, 2018). Instead, TIC should focus on student safety, promote healing and attempt
to restore relationships, and enhance students’ coping and self-management skills (Sterrett
et al., 2020); research shows positive outcomes (Bartlett et al., 2018; Martin et al., 2017;
Sterrett et al., 2020).
Trauma-focused care (TFC) in schools is also needed (at times) to help students who
may be less symptomatic but continue to display trouble regulating their emotions, han-
dling conflicts with their peers, and developing positive relationships (Durlak et al., 2011;
Herrenkohl et al., 2019). According to Berger (2019), “programs oriented to the needs of
vulnerable children with trauma histories are usually considered Tier 2 and Tier 3 strategies
within the Response to Intervention (RTI) framework” (p. 375). Children who have expe-
rienced trauma do not benefit from harsh discipline that does not take into account their
trauma. School social workers can educate teachers, administrators, and school staff about
trauma and avoiding disciplinary practices that retraumatize children.
Another strategy for enhancing students through Tier 2 interventions includes critical
service-learning (CSL) to promote youth voice and advocacy skills. CSL promotes a deeper
level of questioning, reflecting, and analyzing systems of oppression in ways that activate
youths’ civic involvement. Following is a description of how elevating youth voice may em-
power students.

Elevating Youth Voice (Self-Advocacy and Empowerment)

Elevating youth voice is the cornerstone of CSL (Johnson et al., 2017). Promoting SEL goals,
using positive youth development (PYD), and implementing CSL are opportunities for
elevating youth voice. These authors define their framework based on SEL, CSL, and PYD.
SEL is defined as a process through which youth learn to apply the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that enable them to manage their emotions, set and achieve goals, demonstrate
empathy and concern for others, maintain positive relationships, and engage in responsible
decision-making. There are five SEL core competencies:
1. Self-awareness—is an essential skill for helping students learn to identify emo-
tions, cultivate self-perception and identity, recognize their strengths, gain
self-confidence and self-efficacy. These are all essential aspects of agency.
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 319

2. Social awareness—is about expanding one’s view to consider the perspectives of

others. Empathy, appreciation of diversity and difference, and respect for others
are important to developing social and emotional acumen.
3. Self-management—is a critical skill to master and, once developed, enhances stu-
dents’ ability to participate in learning with greater success. Impulse control, stress
management, self-discipline and motivation, perseverance, goal setting, and orga-
nizational skills are critical to managing oneself in the school setting and society.
4. Relationship skills—are critical to lifelong development. The ability to commu-
nicate well with others, participate socially (social engagement), work cooper-
atively (an essential skill in classroom behavior), resolve conflicts, and engage
in help-seeking behaviors are crucial to developing healthy and productive
relationships.
5. Responsible decision-making—is a goal for good citizenship in the classroom and
society in general. Responsible decision-making includes the ability to identify,
analyze, solve, and evaluate problem situations. Also, developing the skill of reflec-
tion and ethical values leads to greater responsibility.
Schoolwide SEL efforts infuse SEL in classrooms and may be conducted in small groups
as a Tier 2 intervention. These skills may also be promoted during out-of-school time and
in partnership with families and communities, which is the goal of CSL.
PYD is an asset-based approach for working with youth. PYD has a positive focus and
does not engage in deficit language about intergenerational relationships. PYD focuses on
“psychosocial competencies and assets to enable youth to contribute to society rather than
focusing on preventing or intervening on risk behaviors” (Kochanek & Erickson, 2020,
p. 226). It is through interacting with caring adults that young people can form new positive
connections.
CSL is a strengths-based approach as well. CSL engages youth in critically analyzing the
environment (school or community) through activities in promoting critical thinking and
encourages youth to interrogate systems and structures of inequality and the distribution
of power (Johnson et al., 2017). It builds social and civic involvement through the ser-
vice-learning aspects of community engagement. Moreover, Johnson and colleagues assert
that elevating youth voice is the cornerstone of CSL. It is also a framework that seeks to
activate youth capacity to act as change agents in their own lives and communities. In mar-
ginalized communities, this approach provides opportunities for positive engagement in
processes that engage them in community building instead of isolating youth.
CSL may involve small-group intervention and can be divided into five phases. A de-
scription of ach phase follows. It is important to consider how you may use this framework
to promote Tier 2 interventions for CSL, SEL, and PYD. Johnson and colleagues (2017)
outline key phases for implementing a CSL project in schools:
1. Preplanning and screening phase—involves preplanning, creating a logic model as
a graphic depiction of your CSL program. It serves as a tool for anticipating how
the project will be implemented, monitored, and evaluated over the course of the
school year. During the preplanning phase, the school social worker should also
consider the group’s composition (target audience) and structure. Determining
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the group’s structure means using CSL in a stand-alone group or integrating it

into an existing group. Last, the school social worker should also consider their
approach to facilitating the group (i.e., individually or cofacilitation). The school
social worker may decide to partner with teachers or other support staff, or com-
munity members.
2. Skill-building phase—requires several sessions to critically explore social action
concepts and allow group dynamics to build toward group cohesion.
3. Planning phase—is the time the group members choose a social problem they
want to address. The planning phase is the time for youth to consider the nuances
of the community by identifying: (a) what makes a community, (b) what makes
a perfect community, (c) what is an imperfect community, and (d) what can be
done to make the community better? The school social worker may teach the
group members how to engage in this process to facilitate a youth-led process. The
group then conducts a web mapping exercise (Lantieri, 1999) to examine what
makes a community (questions listed above).
4. Implementation and action phase—includes several sessions for youth to plan, im-
plement, and reflect on the service-learning project.
5. Evaluation and appreciation phase—includes evaluating the CSL project’s goals,
making them measurable, monitoring progress throughout the process, and then
evaluating these efforts in the end. The school social worker and group members
should also consider ways to celebrate their achievements with a culminating event.
Each phase within the CSL framework must include the practice of reflection. This is
important as the youth integrate this new knowledge and engage in experiential learning.
The school social worker should also consider how CSL addresses the group members’ in-
dividual and collective SEL goals.
During the process of engaging youth in CSL, the school social worker invests time in
teaching, providing materials, and building the youths’ skills to take the lead. This frame-
work highlights the importance of a youth-led process to examine power, privilege, and
community needs. Youth voice is activated and elevated in this process. CSL fosters mean-
ingful connections, develops leadership skills in youth, and engages them as potential
change agents. CSL youth participants become empowered and learn to advocate for social
justice while becoming civically engaged.
Another perspective on youth voice comes from Briesch and Chafouleas (2009), who
write, “If children are not involved in the design and implementation of interventions, it is
generally believed that the student will be less likely to commit to, or be compliant with, the
[intervention]” (p. 322). Students with disabilities and learning are also capable of partici-
pating in developing their CSL projects.
School social workers should also be concerned about elevating youth voices even among
the diverse body of students. Students with intellectual and cognitive disabilities can be em-
powered to decide the interventions they participate in and exercise choice (as appropriate
to the intervention and relevant to their goals). School social workers should consider the
cultural match they have with the students they serve. It is important to routinely examine
power differentials and differences to create a solid therapeutic alliance with students. It is
also important to acknowledge diversity by bringing up the issue of cultural differences.
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 321

Social workers and other helping professionals may find it difficult to broach the topic of
difference as they work with clients.
Furthermore, school social workers play a vital role in understanding the importance
of student self-monitoring of progress for Tier 2 interventions. Evidence demonstrates
that positive behavioral interventions help reduce behavior problems (Weist et al., 2018).
Self-monitoring has many benefits for students as it helps to promote self-regulatory
behaviors.

Self-Monitoring Interventions
Self-monitoring interventions are used to promote student self-awareness, responsibility, and
independence. This type of intervention is best for students with impulsive behaviors that are
distracting in class (i.e., tapping, making sounds, and persistent fidgeting), problems paying
attention, poor organizational skills, and students who are overly vocal in class (i.e., constant
chattering, overly talkative, socially engaged to the point of being distracted from learning).
Depending on their age, these students create a worksheet with a daily goal reporting feature
for self-monitoring, with reminders of their desired targeted behaviors. For example, a student
who has trouble sitting in their seat or adhering to classroom expectations may set goals such
as (a) I will raise my hand before talking, (b) I will work quietly, (c) I will not disturb others or
talk unless it is free time, and (d) I will remain in my seat. The daily goal report provides a way
for the student to keep track of their behavior at various times of the day. Students can reflect
on what they do and when they do it, giving them the ability to choose to behave differently
and establish which goals they need to focus on the most. The social worker and student work
together to decide on what reinforcement they may earn. Over time, as the student becomes
more successful, the reinforcers are gradually weaned away.
Self-monitoring also increases students’ coping ability and productivity while decreas-
ing impulsive and more negative behaviors. The school social worker partners with the
student before engaging in self-monitoring, explaining the process, and choosing mutual
goals and desired actions. Once the school social worker and student define the behavior
that needs to be targeted, they choose a system to track their behavior and progress. Stu-
dents may use charts, visual cues, pictures, and other such items to monitor their progress.
School social workers are often involved in providing services to students with IEPs, in-
cluding those with more challenging behaviors, such as EBDs. It is important to understand
EBDs to provide effective interventions at Tier 2 to minimize the likelihood of behavior
progressing to Tier 3.

Tier 2 Interventions for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Clifford and colleagues (2020) conducted a narrative review of Tier 2 interventions with
transdiagnostic utility in addressing EBDs in youth. Their conceptual and narrative review
of the extant literature gives recommendations for Tier 2 interventions across diagnostic
categories. According to Clifford and colleagues, Tier 2 interventions typically focus on
student behaviors at risk of escalating to more severe forms (EBD-related impairments).
“By adapting current Tier 2 interventions to meet the needs of students at risk of developing
EBDs, schools can potentially increase the impact of current interventions without
additional resource demands” (Clifford et al., 2020, p. 174).
322 V School-Based Interventions and Evaluating Practice

Their systematic review highlights shared developmental trajectories, underlying core

deficits, and core components under Tier 2 interventions related to their presenting prob-
lems. Clifford and colleagues (2020) begin by examining the literature related to etiology and
symptomatology, emotional dysregulation, negative behaviors, cognition, and social skills.
Etiology describes the shared experiences of students diagnosed with EBD. Their symptoms
are usually manifested as internalizing or externalizing behaviors. Internalizing symptoms in-
clude depression, anxiety, withdrawal, and other manifestations characterized by a sense of low
self-worth, hypersensitivity, and somatic complaints. Conversely, externalizing behaviors or
symptoms show up in more pronounced ways. Typically, externalizing behaviors include expres-
sions of antisocial or aggressive behaviors, inability to self-regulate (i.e., emotional dysregulation),
problems with attention, and non-compliance. As children age, their externalizing behaviors may
decline while their internalizing symptoms increase over time (Clifford et al., 2020).

Emotional Dysregulation
Managing one’s emotions is a valuable skill with lifelong benefits for social, personal, and
professional success. Clifford and colleagues (2020) report that “difficulty modulating the
intensity and duration of unpleasant emotions is consistent across many emotional and
behavioral disorders” (p. 178). They further assert that difficulty learning to regulate one’s
emotions can predict subsequent problems such as later diagnoses of one or more mental
health disorders. It is critical to assist children with learning to manage their reactions
to a variety of emotional experiences. Clifford and colleagues reviewed the literature on
negative emotionality. They found that “the inability to persist in goal-directed activity
while experiencing emotional distress has been identified as a mechanism underlying both
internalizing and externalizing symptoms” (p. 176). Understanding the effects of negative
emotions on children’s developmental trajectory calls for a continued focus on SEL to help
bolster children/youths’ emotional regulation.

Maladaptive Cognitions
Students’ early experiences may influence their internalizing and externalizing behaviors.
“Early maladaptive schemas regarding experiences of disconnection and rejection were
found to be significantly associated with both sets of EBDs” (Clifford et al., 2020, p. 177).
Tier 2 interventions have demonstrated positive outcomes with cognitive processing
(Clifford, et al., 2020; Lochman & Wells, 2002). Clifford and colleagues further assert that
interventions should focus on these maladaptive cognitions to reduce symptoms across
cognitive and behavioral domains. School social workers should also find ways to support
families to understand the importance of connecting with and demonstrating acceptance of
students as they express strong emotions.

Social Skills
Students who experience problems regulating their emotions also have problems with social
skills. As school social workers address emotional regulation issues, they can help students
in multiple areas (i.e., experiencing multiple emotional states, social skills development,
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 323

which has implications for relationship building or social capital, and developing more
adaptive cognitions). Students may also require assistance learning effective strategies for
communicating with others and opportunities for building social self-efficacy (Clifford
et al., 2020). As students develop competence and confidence in these abilities, it will
contribute to their overall social skills development.

A WORD ABOUT GROUP INTERVENTIONS

School social workers have many unique skills, one of which is their ability to intervene
at the small group level (e.g., counseling groups, task groups, psychoeducational groups)
with various constituents (e.g., students, parents, community members, teachers/faculty,
and staff). Small groups work well when students face similar situations and may benefit
from the group exchange. Elementary and middle school students (in early adolescence)
may be well suited to group interventions. In early adolescence, students develop a natural
affinity toward peer groups and peer feedback (Akos et al., 2006). It may help to enhance
students’ socialization and overall SEL. However, if any student is overwhelmed by the
group process, participation may be contraindicated. There should be a common goal or
purpose for group participation. Yalom and Leszcz (2005) delineate 11 therapeutic factors
essential to group work:
1. The instillation of hope (recognizing the need for hope to move positively toward
the future. The therapist must also believe in their ability and the group’s efficacy).
2. Universality (recognizing the commonalities within the human experience. Mem-
bers of the group may have had similar experiences and this understanding can be
a source of relief).
3. Imparting information (which may include a psychoeducational approach or di-
dactic instruction).
4. Altruism (at minimum, having the ability to function, think, and act in an unself-
ish manner. Members are supported through reciprocal give-and-take sequences
of interaction).
5. Corrective recapitulation of the primary family group (used more in psycho-
dynamic approaches). Corrective recapitulation recognizes that group therapy
resembles a family in some ways. There is in school social work, for instance, an
authority figure and peers may serve as symbolic representations of family. The
group resembles a family in that deep personal revelations may be expressed.
6. Developing socializing techniques (skills may be gained through the interactions
experienced in the group setting).
7. Interpersonal learning (members learn from others and correct interpersonal dis-
tortions as relationships are formed in the group context. In this way, the group
serves as a corrective emotional experience/milieu).
8. Cohesiveness (members experience a greater sense of support as group cohesion
develops).
9. Catharsis (members experience the open expression of affect which may develop
and be strengthened over time).
324 V School-Based Interventions and Evaluating Practice

10. Existential factors (members realize the vicissitudes of life and take responsibility).
11. Imitative behavior (members may imitate the positive behaviors of the therapist
initially until they adapt these behaviors for themselves).
Irving Yalom, a psychiatrist, is a guru of group work. Reviewing the factors of group
work is useful in understanding other perspectives and techniques for understanding how
groups work. All of these concepts are useful in the school setting so children learn more
prosocial behaviors. The focus of the aforementioned 11 factors are in direct alignment with
SEL goals.
It is also important for school social workers to understand the process of forming groups
and the stages they go through.

Group Formation
It is important to consider the overall purpose for conducting group interventions. The
selection of group members is key to running a successful group. During the group selection
process, the school social worker must also decide the frequency, focus for goal setting,
duration of the group, and address issues related to privacy and confidentiality.

Selection
Group members may be selected for several reasons. First, it should be based on the
individual student’s needs. Second, it should be based on potential group members facing
similar situations—that is, having shared experiences. Third, the school social worker
should determine that participation in the group benefits each member. Fourth, students
may benefit from the development of social skills and the use of group-based activities.
Fifth, the school social worker must consider the potential for environmental change.
The school social worker considers the goodness of fit of group participation for each
student.
Contraindications for group-based interventions happen when the individual student
is overwhelmed by the group or overwhelms the group process. Other contraindications
may be that the student behaves in a manner that compromises the development of group
cohesion. This can occur when students act in destructive ways, when they do not have a
common purpose, or when there are serious personality clashes or power imbalances. De-
termining if a group or individual intervention is needed is critical to effective practice in
schools and important to forming a workable group.

Goal Setting
Other considerations in school settings include age, developmental level, and the potential
to engage with others. It is critical to consider the individual's, as well as the group's, goals. It
is important to set goals that address the commonalities of need and have students express
their own individual goals. The personal goals of individual members may interfere with
the group’s overall efforts. Personal goals interfere when there is a hidden agenda and is
often signaled by the member monopolizing the group’s time, taking instead of giving
(i.e., noncontributing member), intermittent attendance, and engaging with the group in
disruptive ways, thereby undermining the group process.
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 325

Confidentiality
Group members must be able to and willing to hold the confidences of their fellow group
members. Before starting any group, it is critical to explain what confidentiality covers
and the exceptions to confidentiality based on the social worker’s position as a mandated
reporter. In addition, it is equally important to create a sense of safety in the group by
discussing each group members’ responsibility to adhere to privacy and confidentiality
within the group.
School social work interns should gain the approval of their field placement supervisor
before starting the group. Gaining approval allows the school social work intern to ascertain
the best days, times, and spaces to hold the group. In addition, the school social worker or
intern should also get buy-in from the students. The group members should understand the
group’s purpose, help set the agenda, and develop their rules for how the group will function.
Once the group is formed and the school social worker has buy-in from all stakeholders,
they may begin the group by establishing ground rules and engaging them in ice breaker
activities. The school social worker should develop a group-based curriculum and de-
velop a wide array of group-based activities that support SEL (e.g., social awareness and
self-management).

Review—The Stages of Group Development

Tuckman’s original model in 1965 encompassed the first four stages (i.e., forming, storming,
norming, and performing). In 1977, Tuckman and Jensen added adjourning as a final
stage in the group development process. Stage 1 the forming or engagement stage, involves
members getting to know one another and establishing boundaries around member
interactions with one another. During this time, students get to know one another outside
of the classroom setting. Students may seek the acceptance of their group members and
determine their place within the group. Students learn to test the limits of the group and
develop independence.
Stage 2, the storming stage, students begin to establish the group’s rules. During this stage,
student members exhibit differing levels of resistance to focusing on the tasks at hand. In
fact, student members may engage in a bit of jockeying for leadership status within the
group. In this stage, students learn to manage conflict and understand multiple viewpoints.
The school social worker should be attuned to the experiences of group members at this
critical stage. If tensions are too high, the group may never achieve cohesion.
Stage 3, the norming stage, group cohesion occurs. Further, the group experiences the
development of normative group behavior (both spoken and unspoken rules and expec-
tations). As students learn more about one another, they engage in cooperative work to
accomplish their tasks.
Stage 4, the performing stage, is marked by the group’s ability to work together to achieve
its goals. Students may display more flexibility in their behavior for the sake of getting the
group’s work done. This is a productive stage where members (students) operate with “func-
tional role relatedness” (Tuckman & Jensen, 2010, p. 43). This stage may be the longest stage
within the group.
Stage 5, the adjourning stage, students may experience anxiety about the finality of the
group. During the separation stage, students may exhibit a sense of sadness and reluctance.
326 V School-Based Interventions and Evaluating Practice

The school social worker should explore students’ feelings about their accomplishments
(i.e., individual and group accomplishments) and allow students to assess their own prog-
ress. Finally, group closure may be marked by reflection, celebration, and attention to
proper termination procedures. School social workers operate within the confines of the
school calendar, so the timing for implementing the group is critical. The school social
worker should act early to create Tier 2 intervention groups to allow enough time for the
performing stage, where the bulk of the work occurs.

SPECIAL TOPIC: CHILDREN OF INCARCERATED

PARENTS
The United States has the highest incarceration rate of all industrialized nations. While U.S.
crime rates have fallen, penal intensity continues to escalate (Beckett & Beach, 2021), which
has implications for children and families. According to the Annie E. Casey Foundation
(2016), more than 7% of American children (about 5 million) are affected by parental
incarceration. Scholars note that children’s first experience of parental incarceration occurs
during their school-age years—before the age of 10 (Murphey & Cooper, 2015; Turney
& Sugie, 2021). School social work practitioners are well suited to address the contextual
realities of students’ lived experiences.
Students experiencing parental incarceration are impacted in myriad ways. Warren
and colleagues (2019) assert that “the sudden disruption of a close relationship can cause
traumatic stress and inadequate care—factors that influence and, in some cases, delay a
child’s development” (p. 185). Davis and Shlafer (2017) note that children also experience
other stressful life events, such as custodial separation, unstable living arrangements, and
the stress of visiting their parents in jail or prison. Incarceration impacts the whole family
and disrupts their stability. Household income, familial relationships, family identity, and a
child’s sense of security are negatively impacted.
School social workers offer various services and are well equipped to provide Tier 2 in-
terventions for children of incarcerated parents (see Exhibit 13.1). More intensive services
may be offered at Tier 3 if students are not able to benefit from small-group interventions.
School social workers may complete a comprehensive assessment of students of incarcer-
ated parents to determine how they may benefit from Tier 2 interventions. School social
workers may use the Child Behavior Checklist, Teacher’s Report Form, and Youth Self-Re-
port. These measures help assess social problems, anxiety, depression, cognitive issues, and
aggressive behaviors (Warren et al., 2019). For more information on supporting children of
incarcerated parents, see the resource section’s tip sheets in Exhibit 13.2.
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 327

PRACTITIONER SPOTLIGHT

Ms. Jenny is a relatively new school social worker working in a middle school. One of her main assignments
is working with the behavior program created by the school’s MTSS team. The Empower House program
provides opportunities for students to learn about brain science, self-regulation skills, and mindfulness tech-
niques. A student stays at their chosen station for 5 minutes and then closes their time in the Empower
House room with a mindfulness activity that focuses on deep breathing.
The Empower House program is a dedicated space containing various stations designed to regulate and
calm the mind and body. For instance, students may choose from a variety of activities such as playing with
water beads, playing on a swing, using an automatic massage chair, stretching on an inversion table, smell-
ing essential oils, or painting an art piece. Each station includes instructions on how to use the activity and
information on brain science explaining why the activity is helpful. Thus, a student may learn that the swing-
ing motion of the swing station stimulates the cerebral cortex, the part of the brain that helps with focus.
A key component of Empower House is utilizing the Zones of Regulation (Kuypers, 2011) strategies,
which allow for students to identify and name their emotional zone (i.e., blue, red, green, or yellow) and then
choose an Empower House activity to help assist in getting to the green “ready to learn” zone. For instance,
if a student arrives at Empower House in the yellow zone (i.e., worried, silly, anxious, frustrated), they may
choose an activity to calm the brain and body, such as the massage chair, to move toward the green zone.
Ms. Jenny grew the program to include a specialized class designed to address SEL. In this class, called Em-
power Strong Kids, a small group of six students joined an elective class that included lessons on problem-solving,
empathetic listening, cognitive-behavioral techniques, mindfulness, communication, stress management, and
self-regulation skills. The class included a weekly rotation where students utilized Empower House stations and
then reflected on how this impacted their mood (i.e., making a note of any physical and emotional changes).

EXHIBIT 13.1
PARENT-CHILD LETTER TEMPLATE

SOURCE: Reprinted with permission from Dana L. Cunningham, PhD.

328 V School-Based Interventions and Evaluating Practice

EXHIBIT 13.2
TIP SHEET FOR PARENTS AND CAREGIVERS: SUPPORTING CHILDREN OF
INCARCERATED PARENTS
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 329

E X H I B I T 1 3 . 2 ( Continued )

(continued )
330 V School-Based Interventions and Evaluating Practice

E X H I B I T 1 3 . 2 ( Continued )
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 331

E X H I B I T 1 3 . 2 ( Continued )
332 V School-Based Interventions and Evaluating Practice

CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter focused on Tier 2 interventions for school social work. It began with an over-
view of the multitiered systems of support to contextualize Tier 2. Next, the chapter focused
on PBIS for parents and families. Engaging families in understanding their child’s needs for
managing behavior creates opportunities for joint efforts between the home and school.
This chapter also covered the need for intensifying services (moving from Tier 1 to
Tier 2 interventions), including strategies for intervention at Tier 2. It is important for
school social workers to employ a variety of techniques for supporting students. This chap-
ter focused on an array of intervention strategies including CSL for SEL development,
mindfulness, teaching self-monitoring, and the use of small group modalities. The authors
also provided a brief discussion of TIC in schools for Tier 2 interventions and provided a
review of the stages of group development.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What are the problems students are facing at the Tier 2 level?
2. Where do the problems originate?
3. What classroom techniques have been employed to help students manage their
behavior?
4. How might the data help you predict when and where Tier 2 interventions are needed?

RESOURCES
A Day I’ll Never Forget (2016) by Dana L. Cunningham, PhD (book about having an incarcerated
parent)
https://www.amazon.com/Day-Ill-Never-Forget/dp/1518847587
Bias Isn’t Just a Police Problem, It’s A Preschool Problem | Let’s Talk | NPR
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ucEAcIMkS0
Edutopia—Resources on Mindfulness for Schools
https://www.edutopia.org/stw-student-stress-meditation-resources-downloads
Empowering Education | Elementary School Mindfulness Resources
https://empoweringeducation.org/mindfulness-in-schools/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIrYusztPY7gIVU
PHACh3udAXZEAAYASAAEgIp5fD_BwE
Harvard Graduate School of Education—Making Time for Mindfulness
https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/uk/19/01/making-time-mindfulness
Learning to BREATHE—A research-based mindfulness program for adolescents
https://learning2breathe.org/
Mindful Schools
https://www.mindfulschools.org/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIrYusztPY7gIVUPHACh3ud
AXZEAAYAiAAEgIYGfD_BwE
PBIS Tier 2
https://www.pbis.org/pbis/Tier -2
 13  Tier 2: Small-Group and Other Targeted Interventions 333

Teachers Pay Teachers—Mindfulness Resources for Schools

https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Browse/Search:mindfulness%20curriculum
Transforming Education—Mindfulness Toolkit
https://transformingeducation.org/resources/mindfulness-toolkit/

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