James Rich

Solutions of
Fundamentals
of Cosmology
123
Solutions
Chapter 1
1.1 If
M
=
T
= 1, then
M
(a) =
T
(a) = 1 for all a(t ). Structure formation
never ceases as larger and larger regions of negative Newtonian energy detach from
the expansion.
The values of the s for the
M
=
T
= 0.3 and the
M
= 0.3,

= 0.7
models are shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 The solid lines show
M
(a) and

(a) for (
M
= 0.3,

= 0.7). The dashed line shows

M
(a) for (
M
=
T
= 0.3). The universe remains matter dominated for a longer period in the
rst case
1
2 Solutions
1.2 The time that has passed since the universe became vacuum dominated is
(including only the vacuum energy density)
t
0
t
m=v
H
1
0

_
da
a

=
1
3

ln(

/
M
) = 0.39 . (1)
Numerical integration including both matter and vacuum gives 0.32.
The duration of the matter-dominated epoch is (including only the matter density)
t
m=v
t
r=m
H
1
0
a
3/2
0
_
da
a
_

M
a
3
(2/3)
1

1/2

= 0.78 . (2)
Numerical integration including matter and vacuum gives 0.69.
The duration of the radiation-dominated epoch is (including only the radiation
density)
t
r=m
t
inf
H
1
0
a
2
0
_
da
a
_

R
a
4
(1/2)

3/2
R

2
M
= 5.4 10
6
(3)
for
R
= 1.68

8.5 10
5
(three massless neutrino species). Numerical
integration including both radiation and matter gives 4.2 10
6
. The time would
not change by much if you had taken a
inf
= 0.
The time when the rst nuclei formed:
t
nuc
t
inf
H
1
0
a
2
0
_
da
a
_

R
a
4

(3 10
9
)
2
2

4.9 10
16
, (4)
i.e. 3.4 min.
1.3 The universe is expanding today because it was expanding yesterday (see
(1.58)). It was expanding yesterday because.....
It will be difcult to get an ultimate explanation since it will require knowledge
of the physics that was in charge of things before the expansion began.
Chapter 2
2.1 The ux from a typical galaxy of redshift z _1 is

2 10
10
L

/(2eV/photon)
4(zd
H
)
2
100 m
2
s
1
/z
2
. (5)
Solutions 3
The ratio of the ux of nearby galaxies to that of nearby stars is
2 10
10
L

/(1 Mpc)
2
L

/(1 pc)
2
2 10
2
. (6)
2.2 The total number of stellar photons can be roughly estimated as follows:
n
starlight
J
0
H
1
0
/(2 eV/photon) 10
8
L

Mpc
3
H
1
0
/2
2 10
3
m
3
, (7)
which is much less than the number of CMB photons.
The number of hydrogen nuclei transformed in order to produce these photons is
n
p
4
He
2000 m
3
2 eV
6 MeV
0.6 10
3
m
3
(8)
or about 0.3 10
2
of the available hydrogen. Only a small amount of hydrogen
has been transformed since most of it is still in intergalactic space.
2.3 Compton scattering dominates with a mean free path of order
(n
e
(t
0
)
T
)
1
600d
H
, (9)
where we have assumed that all matter is ionized (as suggested by the Gunn
Peterson effect).
2.4 It is possible to count the number of galaxies with a redshift less than z. The
volume of the corresponding space is V = (4/3)z
3
d
3
H
h
3
70
so the measured
number density is h
3
70
.
Luminosities are determined by multiplying a measured ux by (zd
H
)
2
and are,
therefore, proportional to h
2
70
. The luminosity density n
gal
L
gal
is, therefore, pro-
portional to h
70
.
Galactic masses are determined from the rotation curve, M v
2
r/G. The radial
distance r is proportional to the measured angular size and the redshift-determined
distance so the mass is proportional to h
1
70
. Multiplying by n
gal
gives a mass density
associated with galaxies proportional to h
2
70
. Dividing by the critical density gives
an independent of h
70
.
2.5 For NGC1365 Cepheids (Fig. 2.28) we have
V(10 days) 27.5 , (10)
while for LMC Cepheids (Fig. 2.5) we have
V(10 days) 14.3 , (11)
4 Solutions
so the ratio of distances is
R(NGC1365)
R(LMC)
10
(27.514.3)/5
436 . (12)
For LMC distance of 50 kpc, this gives a distance of 21.8 Mpc to NGC1365. For a
recession velocity of 1441 km sec
1
this gives H
0
= 65 km sec
1
Mpc
1
.
2.6 The distance to A496 according to Hubbles law is
R H
1
0
9885 km sec
1
141h
1
70
Mpc . (13)
The full radius of A496 is about 3000 arcsec or about
r
c
2.0 h
1
70
Mpc . (14)
Galaxy clusters have velocity dispersions that are roughly independent of distance
from the cluster center implying a density prole of the form
(r)
M
4r
c
r
2
, (15)
where M and r
c
are the total mass and radius of the cluster. (Of course this form
cannot be accurate near r = 0.) The gravitational energy of the cluster is
E
grav
=
_
r
c
0
GM(r)
r
(r)4r
2
dr
GM
2
r
c
. (16)
By the virial theorem, this must be, in magnitude, twice the total kinetic energy
of the cluster. The square of the line-of-sight velocity dispersion,
v
, is just twice
the mean-squared velocity (obvious for circular orbits since sin
2
t ) = 1/2). We,
therefore, have
(1/2)M(2
2
v
) = (1/2)
GM
2
r
c
(17)
giving
M
2
2
v
r
c
G
4.8 h
1
70
10
14
M

(18)
for
v
= 715 km sec
1
. This determination of the total mass clearly supposes that
the velocity dispersion of the galaxies is the same as that of the dark matter.
For a luminosity of 2 h
2
70
10
12
L

, mass-to-light ratio using the virial mass is

M/L 230M

/L

. Assuming that this is representative of the universe as a whole

we can estimate the mass density from the luminosity density:

M
J
0
(M/L) (1.2 h
70
10
8
L

Mpc
3
) 230
2.8 h
2
70
10
10
M

Mpc
3
(19)
Solutions 5
giving

M
0.2 . (20)
If we suppose that the ratio of the baryonic mass to total mass of A496 is repre-
sentative of the universe as a whole, we nd

M
0.04 h
2
70
2.4h
1
50
10
14
M

3.45h
5/2
50
10
13
M

0.47h
1/2
70
. (21)
2.7 The mean recession velocity of NGC 5033 is 875 km sec
1
corresponding to
a distance of
R = 4300 h
1
70
Mpc
875
300 10
3
= 12.5 h
1
70
Mpc . (22)
At this distance, the visual radius of 3 arcmin corresponds to a radius of
r =
3
60

180
12.5 h
1
70
Mpc 11 h
1
70
kpc . (23)
The rotation velocity far from the galactic center is
v =
1070 690
2
1
sin(65

)
210 km sec
1
, (24)
where we have used the inclination angle given in the publication. This gives a mass
within 6 arcmin of the center of
M =
v
2
r
G
2.2 10
11
h
1
70
M

(25)
The absolute magnitude is
M
V
= 10.1 5 log
_
12.5h
1
70
10
6
pc
10 pc
_
= 20.4 5 log h
70
(26)
corresponding to a luminosity of
L
L

= 10
0.4(4.6420.45 log h
70
)
= 1.0 h
2
70
10
10
. (27)
The mass-to-light ratio within 6 arcsec is then
M
L
= 22h
70
M

(28)
6 Solutions
2.8 The rotation velocity of the two components is
v
475 135
2
170 km sec
1
(29)
which, for a period of 5.72 days corresponds to an inter-object distance of
2.7 10
10
m or 38R

. This gives a reduced mass of 5.8M

or about 10M

per object.
The eclipses last about 0.l5 of a period which gives a stellar diameter of
1.3 10
10
m or a stellar radius of 9R

.
Using D/R 9.5 10
12
, we nd a distance to the system of about 43 kpc.
Using an LMC distance of 45.7 kpc, the apparent luminosity relation of
V = 2.765 log P 17.044 gives an absolute luminosity of M
V
= 2.765 log P
1.256. This is about 0.2 magnitudes fainter than the Hipparcos calibration. Using the
Hipparcos calibration (brighter Cepheids) would then give galactic distances about
10% greater or an H
0
10% smaller.
2.9 Consider a sphere of ionized hydrogen containing N
p
protons and N
p
electrons.
The equation for hydrostatic equilibrium for a gravitating sphere is
dP
dr
=
GM(r)(r)
r
2
, (30)
where P(r) is the pressure, M(r) is the mass contained within the radius r, and (r)
is the mass density. The mean pressure P times total volume V = (4/3)R
3
is
PV =
_
R
0
P(r)4r
2
dr =
_
R
0
(4/3)r
3
dP
dr
(r)dr , (31)
where in the second form we have integrated by parts and used the fact that
P(R) = 0. Using the hydrostatic equilibrium value for the pressure gradient we
nd
PV = 1/3
_
R
0
GM(r)
r
(r)4r
2
dr =
E
g
3
, (32)
where E
g
is the total gravitational potential energy of the sphere. Using the ideal gas
law, we get an expression for the mean temperature T:
2N
p
kT = E
g
/3 . (33)
Since the mean kinetic energy per particle is (3/2)kT, this is a form of the virial
theorem stating that the kinetic energy particle is 1/2 the magnitude of the potential
energy per particle:
2N
p
(3/2)kT = (1/2)[E
g
[ . (34)
Solutions 7
For a uniform density we can evaluate (32) to nd
kT = (/10)
Gm
2
p
N
P
R
= 1 . (35)
In a real star, the mass is concentrated near the center so the effective radius is
less than R. Hence, a real star would be characterized by > 1. For example, the
slightly more realistic distribution r
2
gives = 5/3.
The number density of photons in thermal equilibriumis 2.4T
3
/
2
so the number
of photons in the star is approximately
N

= (4/3) (2.4/
2
)(
3
/1000)N
3
p
_
m
p
m
pl
_
6
(36)
or
N

N
p
= (4/3) (2.4/
2
)(
3
/1000)N
2
p
_
m
p
m
pl
_
6
= 0.30 10
3

3
_
M
M

_
2
, (37)
where M = N
p
m
p
is the mass of the star. For the Sun, 2 so N

0.003N
p
.
Since the number of photons is proportional to the third power of the number of pro-
tons, stars with M 30M

will have comparable numbers of photons and protons.

It follows that for such stars the radiation pressure

/3 n

kT is comparable
to the electron and proton pressure 2n
p
kT. At higher masses, stars are unstable
because both the thermal energy E
th
= 3N
p
kT

V and the gravitational energy

E
g
= 3PV = 6N
p
kT

V are much greater in magnitude than the total

energy E
th
E
g
= 3N
p
kT. Under such circumstances, small uctuations in the
photon density can disrupt the hydrostatic equilibrium and the star will eject mass
until the temperature reaches an acceptable value.
The total thermal energy of the photons is

V (4/3)R
3
2

2
30
(kT)
4
(c)
3
. (38)
Photons randomly walk through the Sun until escaping at the surface. For a series
of N steps of size
i
, the mean square distance from the point of origin is
__
N

i =1

i
_

j =1

_
=
_
N

i =1
[
i
[
2
_
= N[[
2
) , (39)
where we have assumed that the scatters completely randomize the direction:

i

j
) = 0 for i ,= j . Setting this equal to the square of the solar radius we
can estimate the mean time for a photon to travel to the surface:
= N/c (R/c)
R

, (40)
8 Solutions
where = 1/(n) is the photon mean free path. Taking n = N
p
/V, the mean free
path is

(4/3)R
3
N
p

0.018 m
_
R
R

_
3
M

(41)
giving a mean escape time of
(9/4)
N
p

Rc
, (42)
where is the photon-scattering cross section. If the electrons are completely ion-
ized, =
T
but we write =
T
with > 1 to remind us of the atoms in the
outer layers of the Sun. We thus have
(9/4)
N
p

T
Rc
0.8 10
4
yr
M
M

R
, (43)
Dividing the total energy of the photons by the mean escape time we get an
estimate of the luminosity:
L =
32
4
27 30
10
4

1
N
3
p
_
m
p
m
pl
_
8
c
2

1.1 10
26
W
_
M
M

_
3

1
(44)
which compares favorably with L

= 3.8 10
26
W.
2.10 The mean free path of a photon in a large cluster of mass 10
14
h
1
M

and
diameter D 1h
1
Mpc is

1
n
e

T

10
14
h
1
M

m
p
(1h
1
Mpc)
3

T
, (45)

D

m
p
10
14
h
1
M

(1h
1
Mpc)
2

T
10
71
10
73
100 . (46)
Clusters are therefore rather transparent to their own photons. This is not surprising
since we clearly see the galaxies in the clusters.
The thermal averaged cross-section times velocity for bremsstrahlung is
_
v
d
dE

_
T
=

T
c
E

_
c
v
_
T

T
c
E

_
m
e
T
_
1/2
. (47)
Solutions 9
The luminosity is
L D
3
n
2
p
_
T
0
dE

_
v
d
dE

_
T
E

n
2
p
c
T
_
m
e
T D
3
. (48)
But D = R where is the angular size of the cluster at a distance R. Furthermore,
N
p
n
p
D
3
so
L
N
2
p
c
T

m
e
T
R
3

3
. (49)
The ux is then given by

x

N
2
p
c
T

m
e
T
R
5

3
(50)
which is the desired result.
To nd the total cluster mass in terms of the X-ray temperature, we modify (30)
so that the pressure gradient supports only the baryons:
dP
dr
=
GM(r)(r) f
r
2
, (51)
where f is the fraction of the total cluster mass in the form of baryons. Following
the same reasoning as in Exercise 2.10, we nd
6kT
m
p
=
[E
grav
[
M
tot

GM
tot
R
(52)
which determines the total cluster mass.
Chapter 3
3.1 The photon time-of-ight, t
f
, from r
a
to r
b
is given by the integral
t
f
=
_
r
b
r
a
dr
r
r = 1 2GM/r = c(1 2GM/rc
2
) .
The time measured by clock A between the emission of the two photons is

A
= t
1
_
1 2GM/r
a
. (53)
The time measured by clock B between its reception of the two photons is

B
= t
1
_
1 2GM/r
b
. (54)
10 Solutions
giving

A
=
_
1 2GM/r
b
1 2GM/r
a
for r
a
2GM . (55)
This is approximately

B
/
A
= 1 GM/r
a
GM/r
b
. (56)
For r
a
= 6.4 10
6
m (the radius of the Earth), r
b
= 2.02 10
7
m (the radius of
GPS satellite orbits), and M = M
Earth
= 6.0 10
24
kg, this gives

B
/
A
= 1 GM/r
earth
GM/r
gps
1 GM/r
earth
c
2
(57)
1 7 10
10
.
Note that the rst-order Doppler effect due to satellite motion is of order
_
GM/r
gps
c
2
which is much greater than the gravitational effect.
If clock C recedes slowly, v _ 1 (v _ c), then the second photon is received
by clock C at t t
f
t
1
(1 v), r r
b
vt
1
. The metric gives along the path of
clock C:
d = dt
_
(1 2GM/r)
v
2
1 2GM/r
_
1/2
dt
_
(1 2GM/r
b
)
_
1/2
.
Integrating from t = t
f
to t = t
f
t
1
(1 v) gives

C
t
1
(1 v)(1 GM/r
B
)
which gives

B
/
C
= 1 v . (58)
This is the well-known rst-order Doppler effect.
3.2 The result follows from the chain rule:
d
2
=

d x

dx

dx

(59)
=

dx

dx

. (60)
Solutions 11
Equation (3.124) is equivalent to
1 =
_
x
0
x
0
_
2

i =1
_
x
i
x
0
_
2
, (61)
1 =
_
x
0
x
j
_
2

i =1
_
x
i
x
j
_
2
j = 1, 3 . (62)
These equations are clearly satised for boosts and rotations, e.g.
1 = (cos
2
sin
2
) (63)
and
1 =
2

2
. (64)
3.3 The geodesic equation is
d
d
_
g

dx

d
_
(1/2)
g

dx

d
dx

d
= 0 = 0, 3 . (65)
For g

all the derivatives of the metric vanish so the geodesic equation is

d
d
_
dx

d
_
= 0 (66)
which implies that the four-velocity dx

/d is constant.
3.4 For a slow rocket moving in the vertical (z) direction, the proper time is
d = dt
_
1 2gz z
2
_
1/2
= dt
_
1 gz (1/2) z
2
_
, (67)
where we neglect higher order terms in gz and z. The Newtonian solution is
z(t ) = g(t
2
1
t
2
)/2 z = gt (68)
giving
d = dt
_
1 g
2
(t
2
1
t
2
)/2 g
2
t
2
/2
_
. (69)
Integrating this over the rockets ight from t = t
1
to t = t
1
we nd =
2t
1
(1 g
2
t
2
1
/6) so the rocket-bound clock counts more time than the Earth-bound
clock, as expected.
12 Solutions
For the general trajectory, the acceleration replaces g in (68) but not in the
formula for proper time (67) so
d = dt
_
1 g (t
2
1
t
2
)/2
2
t
2
/2
_
. (70)
Integration gives (3.17).
For an airplane ying at altitude h we have
d = dt
_
1 gh v
2
/2
_
, (71)
so the comparison between an airplanes clock and an Earth-bound clock depends
on the values of h and v.
3.5 For a slow particle we have dx
0
/d 1 and dx
i
/d 0, so the geodesic
equation is
d
d
_
g

dx

d
_
= (1/2)
g
00
x

= 0, 1, 2, 3 . (72)
With g
00
= 1 2 and g
i i
= 1 2, the = i equation is (neglecting terms
proportional to the velocity)
d
2
x
i
d
2
=

x
i
i = 1, 2, 3 , (73)
which is the Newtonian result. The = 0 equation gives the relative rates of sta-
tionary and moving clocks:
d
d
_
(1 2)
dx
0
d
_
= 0 (1 2)
dx
0
d
= constant , (74)
which is the relativistic analog of energy conservation.
3.6 Since the lines of constant are perpendicular to lines of constant , the relation
dS
2
= a
2
(d
2
sin
2
d
2
) (75)
follows from the Pythagorean theorem.
For r = sin , we have dr =

1 r
2
d from which it follows that
dS
2
= a
2
_
dr
2
1 r
2
r
2
d
2
_
. (76)
Consider an object of size dS extending from (
1
, ) to (
1
, d) with dS =
ar
1
d. Photons emitted toward the pole = 0 from the ends of the object will
Solutions 13
follow paths of constant so the object will appear to have an angular size
d =
dS
ar
1
. (77)
If the sphere is expanding, the photons will still follow lines of constant because
the spherical symmetry (viewed from the center of the sphere) is maintained so the
photons have no preferred direction toward which they can be deviated. In this case,
the angular size is
d =
dS
a(t
1
)r
1
, (78)
where t
1
is time of emission. This is the same distanceangular size relation as
(3.70).
At t
0
, the photons are spread uniformly over a circle of radius a
0

1
and therefore
of circumference 2a
0
r
1
. The energy ux is then
F =
L
2a
0
r
1
(1 z)
2
, (79)
where the factors of 1 z take into account the redshift and time dilation due to
the expansion of the sphere. This relation can be compared with (3.63).
3.7 With the constraint x
2
y
2
z
2
w
2
= a
2
, the spatial metric is
dS
2
= dx
2
dy
2
dz
2

(xdx ydy zdz)

2
a
2
x
2
y
2
z
2
. (80)
Using the transformations x = ra sin cos , y = ra sin sin , and z =
ra cos , we nd the RobertsonWalker metric with k = 1.
3.8 All geodesics passing through a point pass through the points antipode and vice
versa.
3.9 To order z
2
, we nd d
1
= d
A
< d
0
< d
L
. The distances differ in the coefcient
of the z
2
term so they differ by 10% at z 0.1 or R 430h
1
70
Mpc.
3.10 Taking the original galaxy to be at = 0, the initial condition is
_
da(t )
dt
_
t
0
= a
0
(t
0
) = v . (81)
The derivative is with respect to t since this is the time measured by the co-moving
clock. Using the metric d = dt (1 a
2

2
)
1/2
, we then nd
d
d
(t
0
) =
v
a
0

1 v
2
, (82)
14 Solutions
dt
d
(t
0
) =
1

1 v
2
. (83)
Equation (3.87) implies
a
2

/
= constant = a
0
v(1 v
2
/c
2
)
1/2
. (84)
Using d = dt (1 a
2

2
)
1/2
we get
=
B
a

a
2
B
2
B =
a
0
v

1 v
2
. (85)
For B , we get = 1/a as expected for photons whereas for v _1 we have
=
a
0
v
a
2
. (86)
For a short voyage, (86) integrates to
t =
a
0
(t )
v
=
zd
H
v
, (87)
where z is the redshift (viewed from = 0) of the galaxy at (t ). For v = 10
1
c
and z = 10
2
this gives t = t
H
/10. The voyagers proper time is less than this by a
factor (1 v
2
/c
2
)
1/2
.
The most distant galaxy that can be visited has a coordinate
= a
0
v
_

t
0
dt
a
2
. (88)
For an empty universe (a t ), this gives
=
vt
0
a
0
a
0
= d
H
v/c (89)
corresponding to a redshift z = v/c (not too surprising). For a critical universe
(a t
2/3
), the most distant galaxy that can be reached has a redshift of z = 2v/c.
In a Newtonian treatment of this problem, the extra distance traveled in a critical
universe would be explained by the fact that distant galaxies experience more decel-
eration than the explorer because the explorer starts at = 0 where the deceleration
vanishes because M( = 0) = 0.
3.13 The photons follow lines of unit slope so we have
vt
2
= t
2
t
1
vt
3
= t
4
t
3
(90)
Solutions 15
which implies
t
2
=
t
1
1
t
3
=
t
4
1
. (91)
The time dilation postulate implies that the moving clock measures a time that is
smaller by a factor :
t
/
2
=
t
1
(1 )
t
/
3
=
t
4
(1 )
. (92)
The time t
/
is then given by
t
/
=
t
/
3
t
/
2
2
=
1
2
_
t
4
1

t
1
1
_
=
_
t
4
t
1
2

(t
4
t
1
)
2
_
= t x (93)
as expected for a Lorentz transformation. Likewise we have
x
/
=
t
/
3
t
/
2
2
=
1
2
_
t
4
1

t
1
1
_
=
_
t
4
t
1
2

(t
4
t
1
)
2
_
= x t . (94)
To demonstrate the Lorentz contraction formula, we suppose that B measures the
length of the rod by radar, emitting two photons at t = L/2 and receiving the
echos at t = L/2. B sees a Lorentz contraction because Bs clock measures t
/
=
0.5L
_
1
2
and therefore concludes that the bar has a length L
/
= L
_
1
2
.
3.14 For an isothermal sphere, the Einstein ring has an angular size

E
= 4

2
v
c
2
D
LS
D
OS
isothermal sphere . (95)
A galaxy with a rotation velocity of 200 kms
1
has (
v
/c)
2
= 2 10
7
and
E

3 10
6
(for D
LS
D
OS
). The volume behind the Einstein ring with redshifts
between z and z z is
V = a
3
0
r(z)
2
, (96)
where r(z) and (z) are the co-moving radial coordinates and
2
E
. Approx-
imating a
0
r(z) a
0
(z) (c/H
0
)z, this gives
V = (c/H
0
)
3
z
2
z 3 10
2
Mpc
3
(97)
for z = 0.45 and z = 0.1. Multiplying by the galaxy number density
( 0.015 Mpc
3
) gives 4 10
4
for the probability that a galaxy is within the
16 Solutions
Einstein ring. Integrating up to, say, z 1 suggests that about 0.1% of galaxies have
a strongly lensed background galaxy behind it.
Chapter 4
4.1 For a = 0 and for dr = 0 (for a co-moving clock), we have
dT = dt (1/2)( a/a)
2
(ar)
2
dt = dt (1/2)v
2
dt , (98)
where v = HR is the Hubble velocity of the co-moving clock. This gives
dt =
dT
1 v
2
/2
dT(1 v
2
/2) . (99)
This is as predicted by special relativity where we expect the time dt measured by
the moving clock to be smaller than the time dT measured by the stationary clock
by a factor

1 v
2
1 v
2
/2.
To second order, the trajectory of the photon in Fig. 4.1 between t
a
and t is gov-
erned by
a(t )
_
t
t
a
dt
/
_
1 H(t )(t
/
t )
_
= (t t
a
)
H(t )
2
(t t
a
)
2
. (100)
For the trajectory between t and t
b
we have
a(t ) (t
b
t )
H(t )
2
(t
b
t )
2
. (101)
Taking the sum we nd
a(t )
(t
b
t
1
)
2

H(t )
4
_
(t t
a
)
2
(t
b
t )
2
_
. (102)
Since, to rst order, both (t t
a
) and (t
b
t ) are equal to a(t ), the second term
vanishes to order
2
so we have
a(t )r
(t
b
t
1
)
2
O(r
3
) , (103)
where we use the fact that = r O(r
3
).
Taking the difference between the two trajectories we have
0 = t
b
t
a
2t
H(t )
2
_
(t
b
t )
2
(t t
a
)
2
_
. (104)
Solutions 17
Using (t t
a
) (t
b
t ) a(t )r, we nd
t
b
t
a
2
= t (1/2) a ar
2
O(r
3
) (105)
which is equivalent to (4.13).
4.2 The Ricci tensor at the origin of a freely falling coordinate system is given by
R

=

R

= 1/2
_

2
g

2
g

2
g

2
g

_
. (106)
The Ricci scalar is
R =

R

=

2
g

2
g

x

.
The derivatives are
R

= (1/2)
_

3
g

3
g

_
(107)
and

R
x

= 2
R

(108)
which proves the desired result.
4.3 For a nonrelativistic ideal gas, E m and p
2
/2m) = (3/2)T from which it
follows that p = nT _ nm = . For a relativistic ideal gas, p = E from which it
follows that p = /3.
The 4-divergence of T

for a collection of particles is

T

=
_
d
3
p p

_
F
t
v
R
F
_
. (109)
The quantity in brackets vanishes by Liouvilles theorem which proves that the 4-
divergence vanishes.
4.4 Consider a freely falling coordinate system x and another coordinate system x
dened by
x

=
x

, x

=
x

, (110)
18 Solutions
where the transformation coefcients x

/x

are constants satisfying

. (111)
The proper time is given by
d
2
= g

d x

d x

= g

dx

dx

(112)
which shows that the metric is a tensor
g

= g

. (113)
Since the x system is freely falling, we have
g

=
_

(1/2) g
,
x

.....
_
x

. (114)
Using (111), we see that the x system is also freely falling:
g

(1/2) g
,
x

.....
=

(1/2)
_
g
,
x

_
x

..... (115)
The quantity in brackets is g

so apparently this quantity is a tensor. Since R

is the sum of terms of this sort, it follows that it is also a tensor.
It is easy to show that the Ricci tensor is also a tensor:
R

R

=

=

R

. (116)
Similarly, one nds the

is a tensor, from which it follows that G

is a
tensor. The Einstein equation therefore equates two tensors (G and T) so if it hold
in one freely falling frame it must hold in all other frames related to it by a Lorentz
transformation.
4.5 The Einstein equation at the origin of a freely falling coordinate system is
R

(1/2)

R = 8GT

, (117)
Solutions 19
where the Ricci scalar is
R =

. (118)
Contracting the Einstein equation with

we nd
R = 8G

. (119)
Substituting this into the Einstein equation we nd
R

= 8GT

4G

, (120)
which is the required result.
4.6 Consider a particle with only gravitational interactions inside a spherical object
of density . The acceleration of the particle is
d
2
x
i
dt
2
=
4G
3
x
i
. (121)
Two particles initially at rest separated by x
i
will have a relative acceleration of
d
2
x
i
dt
2
=
4G
3
. (122)
The invariant separation
2
=

= (x
i
)
2
obeys the equation
d
2

2
dt
2
= 2
d
2

dt
2
= 2
4G
3
2R
1010

2
, (123)
where we have used d/dt 0 and dt d for particles at rest. We conclude that
R
i 0i 0
=
4G
3
. (124)
This implies
R
00
=

R
00
= 4G . (125)
This is consistent with the second form of the Einstein equation:
R
00
= 8G
_
T
00
(1/2)g
00
g

_
= 4G (126)
if the pressure is negligible.
For particles outside the sphere of mass M, the Newtonian acceleration is
d
2
x
i
dt
2
=
GM
r
3
x
i
. (127)
20 Solutions
For two particles separated by in the radial direction, the relative acceleration
is (r
2
) = 2/r
3
. For two particles separated in a nonradial direction, the
relative acceleration is (r
3
). This implies
R
00
= (2 1 1)GM/r
3
= 0 . (128)
4.7 For an empty universe we have
R = rt , T = t
_
1 r
2
t
0
, (129)
so for a particle at xed r we have
dR = rdt , dT = dt
_
1 r
2
, (130)
implying
dR
dt
=
r

1 r
2
< 1 (131)
4.8 Using equation (4.107) for the Einstein tensor for the orthogonal coordinate
system with metric (3.89) we nd
G
00
=

2
g
11
x
2
x
2


2
g
22
x
3
x
3


2
g
33
x
1
x
1
= 2
2
(132)
so the 00 component of the Einstein equation is

2
= 4 . (133)
The other components of G

vanish as expected for vanishing pressure.

Chapter 5
5.1 For
T
=
M
= 1, we nd
a(t ) t
2/3
, q
0
= 1/2 , t
0
= (2/3)H
1
0
, (134)
a
0

1
(z) = a
0
r
1
(z) = 2H
1
0
(1 1/

1 z) . (135)
For
T
=

= 1, we nd
a(t ) exp(H
0
t ) , q
0
= 1 , t
0
= (136)
a
0

1
(z) = a
0
r
1
(z) = z H
1
0
. (137)
Solutions 21
For
T
=
M
= 0, we nd
a(t ) t , q
0
= 0 , t
0
= H
1
0
(138)
a
0

1
(z) = H
1
0
ln(1 z) . (139)
Using a
0
= H
1
0
for an empty universe, we nd
r
1
(z) =
1 z (1 z)
1
2
. (140)
The age for the
T
=

= 1 universe would obviously be modied by including

radiation energy. The luminosity and angular distances are found by multiplying or
dividing a
0
r
1
by 1 z. For
T
=
M
= 1, the minimum angular size occurs for
z = 1.25.
5.2 The equation should be a good approximation as long as there are no other rela-
tivistic species, i.e., for T _m
e
. After the neutrinos start to become nonrelativistic,
the equation is still a good approximation because the
M
term dominates in any
case.
For t
rec
we can make the approximation that the universe is matter dominated in
which case the age is just (2/3) the Hubble time at that epoch:
t
rec
= (2/3)H
1
0

1/2
M
a
3/2
rec

2.6 h
1
70
10
5
yr

M
. (141)
For t
eq
, we can neglect neither the radiation nor the matter (at t
eq
) so it is necessary
to do a nontrivial integral:
t
eq
= H
1
0
(1.68

)
3/2

2
M
_
1
0
xdx

1 x
5 10
4
yr
_
0.3

M
h
2
70
_
2
. (142)
Neglecting the matter would have given the correct order of magnitude and the
correct dependence on
M
h
2
70
.
5.3 For
T
=
M
= 1 we nd
t
0
= H
1
0
_
1
0
da
a
_
(1 )a
3
a
2
_
1/2
, (143)
= H
1
0
_
1
0
a
1/2
da
[1 (1 a)]
1/2
, (144)
H
1
0
_
1
0
daa
1/2
[1 (1 a)/2] (2/3)H
1
0
(1 /5) . (145)
22 Solutions
5.4 t
0
(2/3)H
1
0
[1

/3 ......]
5.5 The relation
a
0

1
(z) a
0
r
1
(z) = H
1
0
z [1 (1 q
0
)z/2 .....] (146)
implies
a
0
d
1
= H
1
0
dz [1 (1 q
0
)z .....] (147)
which implies
a
3
0
r
2
1
d
1
H
3
0
z
2
dz [1 2(1 q
0
)z] . (148)
5.6 The probability for Compton scattering the CMB photons in a galaxy cluster of
diameter D is
P
T
Dn
e
) =
T
d
A
(z)n
e
) (149)
where is the observed angular size of the cluster. The X-ray luminosity of the
cluster is
L
T
c
_
m
e
c
2
kT D
3
n
2
e
) (150)
giving an observed energy ux of

T
c
_
m
e
c
2
kT(d
A
)
3
n
2
e
)d
2
L
, (151)
where we ignore the numerical factors. Dividing P
2
by and rearranging, we nd
a
0

1
(z)
P
2
c
_
m
e
c
2
kT
(1 z)
3

T
n
2
e
)
n
e
)
2
. (152)
5.7 The luminosity of a blackbody of radius D is L = D
2
T
4
. The measured
energy ux is
=
L
4d
2
L
=
D
2
T
4
4(a
0

1
(1 z))
2
. (153)
The diameter of a supernova photosphere can be estimated from its photosphere
expansion velocity, v:
D =
2vt
1 z
, (154)
Solutions 23
where t is the observed time since the explosion and the factor (1 z) takes into
account the cosmological time dilation. Combining these two equations we nd
a
0

1
(z) =
vt
(1 z)
2
_
T
4

_
1/2
. (155)
5.8 The horizon for
M
=
T
> 1 is given by
a
0

hor
= H
1
0
_
1
0
da
a
2
_

T
a
3
(1
T
)a
2
_
1/2
, (156)
_
(
T
1)/
T
0
dx

x(1 x)
= /2 sin
1
[(2
T
)/
T
] . (157)
The fraction of universe within the horizon is
V
hor
V
tot
=
_

hor
0
sin
2
d
_

0
sin
2
d
= [
hor
(1/2) sin 2
hor
] / . (158)
For
T
1 this can be approximated by
V
hor
V
tot
=
16
3
(
T
1)
3/2
[1 O(
T
1)] . (159)
The horizon at a
max
can be found by integrating from a = 0 to a = a
max
or by
integrating from a = 0 to a = 1 and taking
T
.
The age at maximal expansion for
M
=
T
= 1 is
t
a
max
=
_
a
max
0
da
a
= H
1
0

1/2
T
_

T
/(
T
1)
0
a
1/2
da
_
1

T
1

T
a
_ , (160)
=

2
H
1
0

T
(
T
1)
3/2
. (161)
5.9 The horizon at time t is given by
a
0

hor
(t ) = H
1
0
_
a
0
da
a
2
_

M
a
3
(1
T
)a
2

_
1/2
. (162)
The integral clearly converges for a if and only if

> 0.
24 Solutions
5.10 For a universe with
T
=
M
< 1 we have
lim
z

1
(z) =
H
1
0
a
0
_
1
0
da
a
2
_

T
a
3
(1
T
)a
2
_
1/2
. (163)
Using a
0
= H
1
0
/(1
T
)
1/2
we nd
lim
z

1
(z) =
_
(2
T
)/
T
1
dx

x
2
1
= ln
_
2
T
2

1
T

T
_
(164)
which implies
lim
z
r
1
(z) = sinh =
2

1
T

T
(165)
implying
lim
z
d
A
(z) =
a
0
r
1 z
=
2H
1
0

T
z
. (166)
5.11 For
T
= 1 with

_
M
, the Friedmann equation is
a
a
= H
0
_

M
a
3

_
1/2
H
0
_

M
a
3/2
_
1

2
M
a
3
_
. (167)
This gives
lim
z
a
0
r
1
(z) =
2H
1
0

M
_
1

14
M
_
(168)
with d
A
(z) = a
0
r
1
/(1 z). Supposing that the universe is matter dominated at
recombination with H
2
= H
2
0

M
a
3
rec
, the Hubble angle is

H

1
2

1 z
_
1

14
M
_
. (169)
The factor (1/14) makes the answer relatively insensitive the relative values of
M
and

for
M
,= 0.
5.12 Absorption by interstellar matter would not resolve Olbers paradox because
the matter would heat up until it reached a temperature at which it would radiate
blackbody photons at the same rate as it absorbed starlight.
Solutions 25
The modern calculation gives a ux per unit solid angle of
d
d
= n
0
a
3
0
L
_
r
2
1
d
1
4d
2
L
=
n
0
L
4
_
t
0
0
dt
1
a(t
1
)
a
0
=
n
0
L
4
_
a
0
0
da
a
0
( a/a)
, (170)
where we have used d
L
= a
0
r
1
(1z) and d = dt /a. Using the Friedmann equation
to evaluate a/a we nd
d
d
= (3/5)
n
0
Lt
0
4
, t
0
= (2/3)H
1
0
,
M
=
T
= 1 . (171)
d
d
= (1/2)
n
0
Lt
0
4
, t
0
= H
1
0
,
M
=
T
= 0 . (172)
In both cases the correct calculation adds only a numerical factor to the naive answer
calculated assuming that the stars have been burning for a time t
0
. The fact that the
factors are less than unity is due to the redshift.
In the inationary model, we nd
(a
0
) =
V
_
a
inf
a
0
_
4
. (173)
We see that the energy density falls as a
4
as expected.
5.13 Equation (86) is equivalent to
d = a
0
v
da
a
2
a
, (174)
so the most distant galaxy that can be visited has a coordinate
a
0
= H
1
0
v
_

1
d a
a
3
_

M
a
3
(1
T
) a
2

_
1/2
. (175)
For
M
=
T
= 1, this gives a
0
= 2H
1
0
v, for
T
=
M
= 0, a
0
= H
1
0
v,
and for
T
=

= 1 it is a
0
= H
1
0
v/2.
5.14 The distance that a photon travels starting at t
0
is given by
a
0
= H
1
0
_
a
1
d a
a
2
_

M
a
3
(1
T
) a
2

_
1/2
. (176)
For the cases
M
=
T
= 1 and
M
=
T
= 1, the integral diverges for a ,
so the photon can reach the whole universe. For the case

=
T
= 1, the integral
26 Solutions
converges so the photon can reach only galaxies within a nite co-moving volume.
This is because of the exponential expansion in a vacuum-dominated universe.
5.15 The coordinates , t
0
, t
0
t
0
, t
1
, and t
1
t
1
are related by
=
_
t
0
t
1
dt
a(t )
=
_
t
0
t
0
t
1
t
1
dt
a(t )
(177)

t
0
t
1
=
a(t
0
)
a(t
1
)
= 1 z (t
0
_ H
1
0
) .
This gives
a(t
0
t
0
) a(t
0
) a(t
0
)t
0
= a(t
0
)(1 H
0
t
0
)
and
a(t
1
t
1
) a(t
1
) a(t
1
)t
1
= a(t
1
)(1 H
0
_

(1 z)
3

M
t
1
)
= a(t
1
)(1 H
0
t
0
_

(1 z)
3

M
/(1 z)) .
The new redshift z
new
measured at t
0
t
0
(to rst order in H
0
t
0
_1) is
1 z
new
=
a(t
0
t
0
)
a(t
1
t
1
)
= (1 z)
1 H
0
t
0
1 H
0
t
0
_

(1 z)
3

M
/(1 z)
(1 z)[1 H
0
t
0
(1
_

(1 z)
3

M
/(1 z)]
giving
z
new
z = (1 z)H
0
t
0
[1
_

(1 z)
3

M
/(1 z] .
For t
0
= 14yr and z = 1 this gives
z
new
z = 1 10
9
(

= 1)
= 0.414 10
9
(
M
= 1)
= 0.15 10
9
(
M
= 0.27,

= 0.73) .
The sign depends on the values of
M
and

. For (
M
= 0.27,

= 0.73), the
redshift is rather stable.
Solutions 27
Chapter 6
6.1 It is important to factor out the physical parameters, e.g.,
(T, = 0) =
g
(2)
3
_
4p
3
dp
exp( p/T) 1
=
gT
4
2
2
_

0
x
3
dx
exp(x) 1
. (178)
The integrals give only the numerical factors in Table 6.1.
For a neutral relativistic gas of electrons and positrons, the ratio between the
potential energy per particle and the kinetic energy per particle is
(e
2
/4
0
)n
1/3
kT

e
2
kT/4
0
c
kT
. (179)
The gas should be ideal to good approximation. For a nonrelativistic nondegenerate
gas, the ratio is much smaller so the gas is even more ideal
The particleantiparticle asymmetry for a relativistic gas in thermal equilibrium
in the limit /T 0 is
n n =
g
(2)
3
_
4p
2
dp
_
1
e
p/T
(1 /T) 1

1
e
p/T
(1 /T) 1
_
gT
2

2
_

0
x
2
e
x
dx
(e
x
1)
2

gT
2

, (180)
where = 6 for fermions and = 3 for bosons. The relative asymmetry is then of
order
n n
n


T
. (181)
After the loss of chemical equilibrium between electrons and positrons, The elec-
tron to photon ratio is
n
e
n

=

2
1.2(2)
3/2
_
m
e
T
_
3/2
exp(( m
e
)/T) , (182)
so the electron chemical potential is given by
m
e

T
= ln(n

/n
e
) (3/2) ln(m
e
/T) constant . (183)
28 Solutions
6.2 The energy, entropy, and number of particles in a volume V are given by
E = V(T, ) dE = dV V

T
dT V

d , (184)
S = Vs(T, ) dS = sdV V
s
T
dT V
s

d , (185)
N = Vn(T, ) dN = ndV V
n
T
dT V
n

d . (186)
On the other hand, the change in entropy is given by
dS = dE/T pdV/T dN/T . (187)
Substituting in (184) and (186), we get
dS =
p n
T
dV ( ) dT ( ) d . (188)
Comparing with (185) we nd
s(T, ) =
p n
T
. (189)
6.3 Massive particles have momentum-dependent velocities so in Fig. 1.10 the
square on the left becomes a parallelogram. Since the parallelogram has the same
area as the square, the phase space density is still conserved.
For Fig. 1.11 we must consider the Lorentz-transformed trajectory of the particle
of trajectory x(t ) = v
p
t dx:
_


__
t
dx v
p
t
_
=
_
t (dx v
p
t )
t (dx v
p
t )
_
=
_
t
/
dx
/
_
. (190)
Setting t
/
= 0 we have the corresponding time in the unprimed frame:
t =
dx
1 v
p
, (191)
from which we can calculate dx
/
:
dx
/
=
dx
(1 v
p
)
. (192)
Transforming the momentum four-vector we nd
dp
/
= (1 v
p
)dp . (193)
It follows that dxdp = dx
/
dp
/
.
Solutions 29
6.4 The number of remaining interactions is
_

t
1
(t )dt =
_

a
1

da
a( a/a)
. (194)
To quickly get the answer, it is a good idea to evaluate a/a with a Friedmann equa-
tion normalized at a
1
, e.g.,
a
a
= H
1
_

R
(a
1
)
_
a
a
1
_
4

_
1/2
. (195)
Substituting this into the integral, we nd that the number of interactions is just
(t
1
)H
1
1
times a numerical factor of order unity. Since (t
1
)H
1
1
_1, this proves
the conjecture.
6.5 Numerically, the photon-scattering rate (always dominated by Compton scat-
tering) is equal to the expansion rate at T 0.236 eV. The recombination rate is
equal to the expansion rate at T 0.215 eV. A fraction 3 10
5
of the electrons
remains free.
More realistic calculations including all the states of the hydrogen atom give a
recombination time of T 0.26 eV.
6.6 The last annihilations take place at T 10 keV. A photon of E = 510 keV
needs about 10 collisions to reach a reasonably thermal energy of E 30 keV. The
time to do this, 10(n
e

T
c)
1
, is much less than the Hubble time at this epoch.
6.7 The annihilation rate for positrons remains greater than the expansion rate well
into the matter epoch:
n
e
v) = n
e
(t
0
) a
3

2
m
2
e
c
4
(c)
2
c 5 10
14
yr a
3
(196)
which is greater than the expansion rate for a < 10
2
. As long as the annihilation
rate is greater than the expansion rate we have for the solution to the Boltzmann
equation
n
e

n
e
(T)n
e
(T)
n
e

1
m
3
e
exp(2m
e
/T) . (197)
For a 10
2
this gives
n
e
n

10
10
7
. (198)
Since there are only 10
87
photons within our horizon, this means it is extremely
unlikely that there are any remaining positrons.
30 Solutions
6.8 The rate for e

takes its maximum value at T M

W
with

2
m
2

/m
W
. Requiring that this be greater than the expansion rate H(m
W
)
m
2
W
/m
pl
sets a lower limit in the mass of the neutrino m

> (m
W
/)
_
m
W
/m
pl

30 keV.
6.9 The baryon number generated per X decay is (2/3)r (1/3)r = r 1/3 while
that per

X decay is r 1/3. The baryon excess after the decays is
n
b
n
b
= n
X
(r r) . (199)
The relative asymmetry just after the decays is
_
n
b
n
b
n

_
t
1
=
n
X
n

(r r) . (200)
Assuming an adiabatic expansion after the decays, the present asymmetry is
_
n
b
n
b
n

_
t
0
=
_
n
b
n
b
n

_
t
1
g(t
0
)
g(t
1
)
. (201)
A reaction is said to violate C invariance if the anti-reaction, where all parti-
cles are replaced by their antiparticles does not, in reality, proceed at the same rate
as the original reaction. A reaction is said to violate P invariance if the reaction
viewed in a mirror does not, in reality, proceed at the same rate as the original
reaction. (Strictly speaking, the P operation reverses all coordinates, while mirror
reection reverses only the coordinate perpendicular to the mirror. However, mirror
reection followed by an appropriate spatial rotation can reverse all coordinates.
Mirror reection is, therefore, equivalent to P if rotation symmetry is respected.)
Finally a reaction violates CP if the process viewed in a mirror with particles
replaced by antiparticles does not, in reality, proceed at the same rate as the original
reaction.
Consider the reaction
X

de

branching ratio = 1 r . (202)

The C-transformed reaction is

X de

branching ratio = 1 r . (203)

If this reaction proceeds at the same rate as (202), i.e., if C is not violated, then
clearly we must have r = r.
Reaction (202) viewed in a mirror with particles changed to antiparticles is
shown in Fig. 2. The transformed reaction has the relative orientations of spins
and momenta inverted. If the transformed reaction proceeds at the same rate as the
original reaction for all possible spin combinations of the original reaction, i.e., if
Solutions 31
X
e
d
X
e

d
Fig. 2 The decay X

de

and the antireaction

X de

viewed in a mirror. The antireaction

has the relative orientations of spins and momenta reversed. If, for all possible spin orientations,
the rst reaction proceeds at the same rate as the transformed reaction (CP invariance), then the
spin-averaged branching ratio for X

de

must be the same as that for

X de

CP is not violated, then r = r after averaging over all possible spins. For example,
in neutron decay, n pe

e
, the helicity ( p s) of the is opposite the helicity of
the produced in antineutron decay. Since CP is conserved to good approximation,
the rates are the same.
A reaction violates CPT if a lm of the process viewed in a mirror with parti-
cles replaced by antiparticles and run in reverse does not, in reality, proceed at the
same rate as the original reaction. Figure 3 shows the reaction

de

de

, (204)
and its CPT-transformed reaction
de

de

. (205)
The reactions will have a resonant peak at a center-of-mass energy equal to m
X
for
the rst and m
X
for the second. If CPT invariance is respected, the cross-section for
the rst reaction must be equal to that for the second. This would imply that the
masses and the total widths (lifetimes) of X and

X are equal.
32 Solutions
x
x
e
d
d
e
e
d e
+
+

d
Fig. 3 The reaction

de

de

and the antireaction viewed in a mirror with the lm run in

reverse. The antireaction appears as de

de

. The two reactions proceed by resonant formation

of X or

X. If the cross-sections for the two processes are equal (CPT invariance), the masses and
total widths (lifetimes) of X and

X must be equal
6.10 The rate per neutron of np
2
H is
n
p
v) n

7 10
26
m
3
sec
1
2 10
12
sec
1
_
T
1 MeV
_
3
, (206)
while the expansion rate at the relevant epoch is
H 0.6 sec
1
_
T
1 MeV
_
2
. (207)
At T = 60 keV we need > 4 10
12
in order to have > H.
The Saha equation follows from the expressions for the chemical potentials in
Table 6.1. Using n
p
n

we nd
n
2
n
n

_
T
m
p
_
3/2
exp(B/T) (208)
which remains small until T 60 keV.
6.11 The duration of the neutron decay period can be found by integrating the Fried-
mann equation. In the approximation of an adiabatic expansion, g
s
T
3
a
3
=constant,
Solutions 33
the Friedmann equation is just

1
g
1/3
s
T
dg
1/3
s
T
dt
=
_
8Gg
E
(T)
2
T
4
3 30
_
1/2
. (209)
This can be integrated numerically using the g(T) from Fig. 6.1.
In the approximation of g = constant, we have
_
60 keV
T=800 keV
dt 0.5H(60 keV)
1
3 min . (210)
The entropy generated by neutron decay is governed by the equation
dsa
3
=

i
T
d(n
i
a
3
) , (211)
where the sum is over all species. For nonrelativistic particles, the chemical poten-
tial is

i
T
=
m
i
T
ln
n
i
2(m
i
T/2)
3/2
=
m
i
T
ln n
i
/n

(3/2) ln T/m
i
constant . (212)
For neutron decays, we take into account the changes in the numbers of neutrons,
protons, and electrons (supposing the neutrino chemical potential vanishes) to nd
dsa
3
dn
n
a
3
=
m
n
m
p
m
e
T
ln
n

n
e
ln
n
n
n
p

3
2
ln
m
e
T
0.67 .
For neutron decay occurring near T 100 keV all the important terms on the right
are of order 10 so the total generated entropy is of order
s
s
10
n
n
s
. (213)
In the contraction phase of a closed universe, no neutrons are initially present
and the inverse decay pe

e
n is very unlikely. Neutrons only appear when
the temperature reaches 800 keV when they are produced by pe

n
e
and
p
e
e

n.
6.12 The freeze-out temperature is proportional to g
1/6
so the sensitivity of the
neutronproton ratio at freeze-out to the number of neutrino species is
(n/p)
n/p
(1/6)
2N

g
. (214)
34 Solutions
The addition of one neutrino species would add about 10% to n/p so at this preci-
sion it should be possible to set a limit on the number of extra neutrinos of about 2.
Chapter 7
7.1 The mass in a sphere of co-moving radius r and centered at r
/
is
M
r
(r
/
, t ) = a(t )
3
_
[rr
/
[<r
(r)d
3
r
= V
r
V
1/2

k
exp(i k r
/
)
_
[ R[<r
exp(i k R) d
3
R ,
where V
r
= 4(a(t )r)
3
/3 and where we changed integration variables to R = rr
/
.
The integral is elementary
I (k) =
_
[ R[<r
exp(i k R) d
3
R = 2
_
r
0
_
1
1
d cos exp(i k R cos )
= V
r
3
(kr)
2
_
sin kr
kr
cos kr
_
= V
r
3 j
1
(kr)
(k R)
2
V
r
kr _1 0 kr 1 .
We see that the function j
1
(kr) effectively truncates the sum so that waves with
_2r do not contribute.
To calculate the uctuations of M
r
, we need M
2
r
:
_
M
r
(r

)
_
2
=
2
V
2
r
[1 2V
1/2

k
(I (k)/V
r
) exp(i k r
/
)
V
1

k
/

k
/ (I (k)/V
r
) (I (k
/
)/V
r
) exp(i(k k
/
) r
/
) ] ,
where we use
k
=

k
. Taking the average over r
/
, the periodic boundary condi-
tions make each term in the rst sum integrate to 0 and leave only the k = k
/
terms
in the second:
M
2
r
) =
2
V
2
r
_
1 V
1

k
_
3 j
1
(kr)
(k R)
2
_
2
[
k
[
2
_
. (215)
Solutions 35
This gives the variance of M
r
:

2
r

M
2
r
) M
r
)
2
M
r
)
2
= V
1

k
_
3 j
1
(kr)
(k R)
2
_
2
[
k
[
2
. (216)
Changing the sum to an integral with the replacement
V
1

1
(2)
3
_
d
3
k
1
2
2
_

0
k
2
dk (217)
and replacing [
k
[
2
with its average P(k), we recover (7.32).
7.2 The difference between the temperature and the mean temperature is the sum
without the (n
x
, n
y
) = (0, 0) term:
T() T) =
1

n
x
,n
y
a
k
exp
_
2i

(n
x

x
n
y

y
)
_
(218)
with the k = 2n/ with n = (n
x
, n
y
), integer n
x
, n
y
. The square is given by a
sum over (n
x
, n
y
, n
/
x
, n
/
y
):
(T T))
2
=
1

a
k
a

k
/ exp
_
2i

((n
x
n
/
x
)
x
(n
y
n
/
y
)
y
)
_
.
The average of this is found by integrating over (
x
,
y
) and dividing by =
()
2
. The integral vanishes for n ,= n
/
and equals for n = n
/
:
_
(T T))
2
_
=
1

n
x
,n
y
a
k
a

k
The number of modes in dk
x
dk
y
is dn
x
dn
y
= dk
x
dk
y
/(2)
2
so
_
(T T))
2
_
=
1
(2)
2
_
dk
x
dk
y
[a
k
[
2
) =
1
2
_
k dk [a
k
[
2
) ,
where the average in the integrand is over modes within dk.
The calculation of the correlation function is only a bit more complicated:
[T(
/
) T)][T(
/
) T)]
=
1

k,k
/
a
k
a

k
/ exp
_
2i

n
/

_
exp
_
2i

(n n
/
)

_
,
36 Solutions
where the sum does not include the k = 0 and k
/
= 0 terms. Averaging over
/
leaves only the k = k
/
terms
1

k
[a
k
[
2
e
ik cos
=
1
(2)
2
_
k dk
_
2
0
d e
ik cos
[a
k
[
2
,
where is the angle on the sky between k and . Replacing [a
k
[
2
with its average
we get
() =
1
2
_
k dk[a
k
[
2
)
1
2
_
2
0
d e
ik cos
=
1
2
_
k dk[a
k
[
2
) J
0
(k) . (219)
J
0
(0.0025 l )
0.5
0
0.5
1
l
200 600 0
J
0
(0.005l )
J
0
(0.01 l )
J
0
(0.05 l )
(l+1)C
l
10
4
0.05 0
0
0.1

)
(

2
)
400
800 1000
Fig. 4 The top gure shows J
0
() for four values of (solid lines) and ( 1)C

for the standard

cosmological parameters. The bottom gure shows the corresponding () for a patch on the sky
of = 0.1 0.1 rad
2
Solutions 37
Figure 4 shows the C

plotted as a function of along with J

0
(k) plotted as a
function of = k for four values of . For
s
0.01 the Bessel function
oscillates with a period much shorter than the scale of variations of the C

. We can,
therefore, expect that the integral (219) will be small giving small correlations at
large angular scales, as seen in the bottom panel of Fig. 4.
7.3 The proof follows that for Exercise 7.2. The standard cosmology gives a strong
temperaturepolarization correlation at 2.5
s
because C
TE

is in phase with
J
0
() for this value of (Fig. 5). Reversing the sign of the C
TE

for < 200 would

eliminate most of this correlation.
J
0
l ) (0.025
(l+1)C
l
TE
0.5
0
0.5
1
1000
l
200 600 0 400
800
Fig. 5 The top gure shows J
0
() for = 0.025 2.5
s
(solid line) and ( 1)C
TE

for the
standard cosmological parameters
7.4 Inverting the Fourier series, one nds
a
k
=
1

_
d
x
d
y
T() e
ik
=
1

_
d T()
_
2
0
e
ik cos
,
where is the angle between and k. The integral over is just 2 J
0
(k):
a
k
=
2

_
d T()J
0
(k) .
For a single point-like initial perturbation on our last scattering surface, T() will
have a minimum at = 0 and a maximum at =
s
. The a
k
will be large for k
such that J
0
(k) is in phase with T(). The rst minimum of J
0
(x) is at x = 3.8,
suggesting that the a
k
will be large at k
s
3.8 giving k = = 3.8/
s
365.
This rather overestimates the position of the rst acoustic peak ( 220) which is
shifted to lower by the early time integrated SachsWolfe effect.
38 Solutions
7.5 Multiplying the expression for T(, ) by Y

/
m
/ (, ) and integrating over d
project out a
m
because of the orthogonality of the spherical harmonics. Using the
expansion for exp(ik r) in terms of the spherical harmonics then yields
a
m
(r
/
) =
4
3

k
e
ikr
/

k
j

(kr) Y
m
(
k
)i

. (220)
The square has a double sum on k and k
/
but when averaged over observer positions
r
/
only the k = k
/
terms remain:
C

= [a
m
[
2
) =
_
4
3
_
2

k
[
k
j

(kr) Y
m
(
k
)[
2
.
Changing the sum to an integral and replacing k
3
[
k
[
2
with its k-independent aver-
age 2
2

2
k
, we nd the relation (7.77).
7.6 From

2
R
(k) =
V
12
2
M
6
pl
_
V
V
/
_
2
, (221)
we get
a
exit

2
R
d
2
R
da
exit
= M
2
pl
_
3
_
V
/
V
_
2
2
_
V
//
V
_
_
by using the slow-roll condition and the Friedmann equation. From Fig. 7.9 it is sim-
ple to show that for modes entering during the radiation epoch that a
exit
a
2
1
/a
enter
where a
1
corresponds to the end of ination. Furthermore, a
enter
k
1
for such
modes. We thus nd
n
s
1
k

2
R
d
2
R
dk
= M
2
pl
_
3
_
V
/
V
_
2
2
_
V
//
V
_
_
.
7.7 The volume of (1/3) of the sky out to z = 0.3 is
V = a
3
0
_
d
_
(z=0.3)
0
d r()
2
(1/3) (4/3)(0.3c/H
0
)
3
(222)
10
9
(h
1
Mpc)
3
,
Solutions 39
where we approximate a
0
(c/H
0
)z. At k 0.01(hMpc
1
), the number of
modes in the k interval k/k = 0.5 is
N
k
=
Vk
3
4
2
k
k
13 (223)
which means that P(k) can be measured to a precision of 1/

13 25%. This is
roughly the relative size of the error part of the rst point in Fig. 7.6.
For the CMB, there are (21)/2 independent modes available for measuring C

.
(The factor 1/2 comes from the reality condition a
m
= a

m
.) For the quadrupole,
= 2, this gives a cosmic variance of 1/

(2.5) = 63% which suggests that the low

value measured by WMAP (Figure 7.11) is not so unreasonable.
7.8 The calculated positions of the rst and third peaks are shown in Table 1. They
agree reasonably well with Fig. 7.11.
Table 1
(
M
,

)
s

1

3
(0.27, 0.73) 293 223 809
(1, 0) 255 201 711
(0.27, 0) 570 433 1570
7.9 Following the same reasoning as for that in Exercise 7.1, one nds
_
(M
r
(1/8)M
2r
)
2
_
=
_
dk
k
[U(k R)[
2

2
(k) , (224)
where
U(kr) = V
r
3 j
1
(kr)
(k R)
2
V
2r
3 j
1
(2kr)
(2k R)
2
. (225)
The function U(k R) has a peak near k = 2.2/R.
7.10 The longest mode that was never outside the Hubble radius has
(a
0
)
a
1
a
0
< d
H
(a
1
) , (226)
where a
1
refers to the end of ination. Taking a
1
/a
0
10
15
GeV/10
4
eV and using
the Friedmann equation this gives
(a
0
) 10
26
H
1
0
1 m . (227)
40 Solutions
Modes with wavelengths shorter than this would not be expected to have a scale
invariant spectrum.
7.11 The present distance to our LastSS is 14Gpc for (
M
,

) = (0.27, 0.73).
At a
reion
0.1, the distance between any point and its LastSS can be calculated
assuming matter domination:
2H
1
(t
reion
) =
2c/H
0

M
a
3/2
reion
500 Mpc .
The (present) distance to our reioniztion surface is given by the difference between
14 Gpc and 500 Mpc scaled to t
0
: 14 Gpc 5 Gpc 900 Mpc. CMB photons
scattering on our reionization surface, therefore, come from angles of 5000/9000
corresponding to multipoles / 6.
7.12 A photon with a trajectory r(t ) = vt dr has a transformed trajectory given by

0 0
0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

t
dz v
z
t
dy v
y
t
dx v
x
t

t (1 v
z
) dz
t ( v
z
) dz
dy v
y
t
dx v
x
t

. (228)
Setting t
/
= 0 we have the corresponding time in the unprimed frame:
t =
dz
1 v
z
(229)
from which we can calculate dr
/
dz
/
=
dz
(1 v
z
)
, (230)
dy
/
= dy v
y
dz , (231)
dx
/
= dx v
x
dz , (232)
corresponding to the cube in Fig. 7.22 of volume dxdydz/[ (1 v
z
)]. Transform-
ing the momentum four-vector we nd
dp
/
z
= (1 v
z
)dp
z
(233)
and dp
/
y
= dp
y
and dp
/
x
= dp
x
. It follows that d
3
rd
3
p = d
3
r
/
d
3
p
/
.
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